coffee area and 70% of coffee production of India. The important coffee-growing districts are Chikmaglur, Coorg, Hasan, Mysore, ‘Shimoga and Dakshin Kanara Kerala accounts for over 22% of the cof- fee production in India and important coffee- growing districts are Idukki, Palghat, Kottayam, Quilon, Ernakulam, Trichur and Alleppey. Madurai, Tirunelveli and the Nilgiris are the important coffee-producting districts of Tamil Nadu. Coimbatore, Salem and Kanniyakumari also grow some coffee. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA Agriculture is a very important sector of Indian economy. Agriculture and allied sectors contribute nearly 22 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of India and 65-70 per cent of the population is dependent on agriculture for its livelihood. The importance of agricultural sector in India can be gauged from the fact that about 57 per cent of its land is devoted to crop cultivation, whereas, in the world, the corresponding share is only about 12 per cent. However, there is a tremendous pressure on agricultural land due to rapid increase in population. This is clear from the fact that the land-human ratio in the country is only 0.31 ha which is almost half of that of the world as whole (0.59 ha). Despite various constraints, Indian agriculture has marched a long way since Independence. Strategy of Development Before Independence, Indian agriculture was largely subsistence in nature in which the farmers could grow crops only for their use and there was hardly any surplus for sale in the market. This period, frequently witnessed severe droughts and famines and food shortage was a common phenomenon. About one third of the irrigated area went to Pakistan as a result of partition of the country. Immediately after Independence the Government took several steps to increase the production of foodgrains. Following three strategies were adopted to achieve this goal. (i) Switching over from cash erops to food crops. (ii) Intensification of cropping over already cultivated land. (ii) Increasing cultivated area by cultivable and fallow land under plough. Initially, this strategy helped in increasing foodgrains production. However, Indian agriculture could not progress much and experionced stagnation during late 1950s. Indian agriculture experienced the beginning of technological changes in 1960s with the introduction of modern inputs. High yielding variety ary) of seeds, fertilisers, mechan-isati roved irrigation and credit marketing fe i Were sume at es ote features of modern technological changes. The government of India introduced Intensive Area Development Programme (IADP) in 1960. Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) was also launched. It aims at diffusing technical know-how, credit and agricultural technology to step up agricultural production. ‘New high yielding varieties (HYV) of wheat and rice were brought to India. These HYV seeds were developed in Mexico and Philippines respectively. Chemical fertilisers and pesticides were introduced and irrigation facilities were expanded. All these inputs were the main components of what is known as Green Revolution. Achievements of Green Revolution The main achievements of the Green Revolution was the spectacular increase in the production of food-grains which increased from 72 million tonnes in 1965-66 to 213 million tonnes in 2003-04, thus recording 194 per cent increase during the said period. Cereals and millets recorded the highest growth from 62.4 million tonnes in 1965-66 to 198.5 million tonnes in 2003-04, thereby recording a growth rate of 218.6 per cent. However, pulses could not keep pace with the increasing trend. Thus, it is often said that from 1967 onwards the Green Revolution aimsat bringing about Grain Revolution. Even among cereals, wheat registered more than six fold increase (594%) in production, from 10.39 million tonnes in 1965-66 to 72.1 million tonnesin 2003-04 Rice, on the other hand, recorded about three- ‘old LAND KESOUKCES AND AGRICULTURE | 229increase (194%), from 30.6 million tonnes to 88 million tonnes. It is clear that wheat has been the main beneficiary of the Green Revolution. As a result of increased home production import of food-grains declined from 10.3 million tonnes in 1965-66 to 2.4 million tonnes in 1983-84. There was no import of food- grains during the last few years. On the contrary, India is in a position to export some ofthe food-grains in the event of a bumper crop. Cost of Green Revolution. Although the Green Revolution has helped us in increasing the farm production and solving the acute food problem in the country, we have achieved this goal at a heavy cost of intensive use of irrigation, fertilisers, HYV seeds etc. The use of these inputs has created a large number of problems such as soil salinisation, ground water pollution, nutrient imbalances, emergence of new pests and diseases, and environmental degradation. In the beginning of 1980s, the Planning Commission of India prepared plans to solve the problems of agriculture in rainfed areas. In 1988 agro-climatic planning was initiated to reduce regional imbalances. The Commission also emphasised the need for diversification of agriculture and harnessing of resources for development of dairy farming, poultry, horticulture, livestock rearing and aquaculture. Policy of liberalisation initiated in 1990s as well as free market economy are likely to influence the Indian agriculture to a great extent. Lack of development of rural infrastru- cture, withdrawal of subsidies and price support, and impediments in availing of the tural credits may lead to inter-regional and ‘inter-personal disparities in rural areas. Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology Indian agriculture has witnessed a tremendous ‘improvement in agricultural production and associated technology during the last fifty years as is clear from the following points: 1, Production and yield of several crops such as rice, wheat, sugarcane, oilseeds, cotton ‘ete. have increased considerably. India ranks first in the production of pulses, tea, jute, cattle 230 | INDIA: PEOPLE AND ECONOMY and milk. It is the second largest producer of rice, wheat, groundnut, sugarcane and vegetables. 2, Irrigation facilities have expanded to a great extent. This has helped in using modern agricultural technology like high yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and farm machinery. The net irrigated area in the country has increased from 20.85 to 55.13 million ha over the period 1950-51 to 2003-04. Over these years, area irrigated more than once in an agricultural year has inereased from 1.71 to 20.46 million hectares. 3. Modern agricultural technology has spread to different parts of the country at a rapid pace. Consumption of chemical fertilisers increased from a mere 292 thousand tonnes in 1960-61 to 18398 thousand tonnes in 2004-05. The average consumption of chemical fertilisers was 104.5 ke/hectare. It was much higher in irrigated areas of Punjab and Haryana. Along with fertilisers, consumption of pesticides has also increased since 1960s be- cause high yielding varieties are highly sus- ceptible to pests and diseases. PROBLEMS OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE In spite of the phenomenal progress particularly since the 1960s, Indian agriculture still suffers from several serious problems. Although most of the problems are region specific, yet some problems are common to all regions of the country and are briefly discussed below: 1. Dependence on Erratic Monsoon. Rainfall and temperature are the main environmental factors with reference to Indian agriculture. Rainfall by south-west monsoons is very erratic, both in time and space. Most parts of India have sufficiently high temperature throughout the year. Under such circumstances, crops can be grown all the year round if sufficient water is made available to crops on a regular basis. Unfortunately, most parts of India receive rainfall in 3-4 months of the rainy season and the rest of the year is practically dry. Moreover there are wide seasonal and regional variations in the amount of rainfall. Large parts of the country do notreceive sufficient amount of rainfall and have sub-humid, sub-arid and arid climate. These areas suffer from frequent droughts. Such areas can give high agricultural productivity if sufficient arrangements for irrigation and water harvesting are made. Only 33% of the cultivated area is covered by irrigation. Several areas are floaded in rainy season. Even drylands of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan have experienced flash floods in the recent past. Droughts and floods continue to bbe twin menace in Indian agriculture. 2. Low Productivity. Yields of almost all the crops in India is very low as compared to world yields. Yields per hectare of major crops like rice, wheat, cotton and oilseeds in Indiais, much lower than that of U.S.A, Russia and Japan, High pressure of population results in low labour productivity. Rainfed areas in drylands mainly grow coarse crops and give very low yields. 8. Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness. Modern agriculture has become highly capital intensive and small and marginal farmers find it difficult to manage financial resources to invest in agriculture. Many farmers take loan from various institutions and money lenders. Crop failures and low returns from agriculture have forced them tofall in the trap of indebtedness. Severe indebtedness and frequent crop failures have forced many farmers to commit suicide in several’ states like Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and even agriculturally advanced states like Punjab. A big package of rupees sixty thousand crore loan waiver for small and marginal farmers announced by the Central Government in 2008 may inprove the situation to some extent. 4. Lack of Land Reforms. Indian peas- antry had been exploited for a long time as there had-been unequal distribution of land. Among the three revenue systems operational during British peried ie. Mahalwari, Ryotwari ~ and Zamindari, the last one was most exploit- ative for the peasants. Various reforms have been initiated by the Government but the lack of political will has been a great hinderance in the proper implementation of reforms. 5. Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings. As the pressure of population on land increases, the land holdings are further subdivided and fragmented. Small land holdings become uneconomical which is a major obstacle in the way of modernisation of agriculture. In 1961-62, about 52% of the total holdings were marginal and small (below 2hain size). In 1990-91 the percentage reached to 78 of the total holdings. More than 60 per cent of the ownership holdings have a size smaller than one (ha). Furthermore, about 40 per cent of the farmers have operational holding size smaller than 0.5 hectare (ha). Much serious efforts have not been made to consolidate land holdings. There are some states where consolidation of holding has not been carried out even once. Even the states where it has been carried out once, second consolidation is required as land holdings have fragmented again in the process of division of land among the owners of next generations. 6. Lack of Commercialisation. A large partof Indian agriculture is still of subsistence type in which the farmers do not have enough land and are unable to produce more than their own requirement. Foodgrains produced by small and marginal farmers are just sufficient to meet the requirements of the family members of the farmers and there is no surplus for sale. However, agriculture is commer- cialised in irrigated areas. 7. Vast Under-employment. Agriculture is a seasonal process which provides employment only for a brief period and seasonal unemployment prevails for 4 to 8 months in a year. People get employment mainly at the time of sowing and harvesting. Under-employment is a more serious problem particularly in un-irrigated areas. 8. Degradation of Cultivable Land. Faulty agricultural practices and irrigation, particularly in canal irrigated areas, have given rise to a number of serious problems such as degradation of land and depletion of soil fertility. Over irrigation in canal irrigated areas has result in alkalisation and salinisation of soils and also waterlogging. Alkalinity and salinity have already affected about 8 million ha land. Another 7 million ha land in the country has lost its fertility due to waterlogging. LAND RESOURCES AND AGRICULTURE | 231Another serious problem is that of of crop rotation. These crops are being excessive use of insecticides and pesticides replaced, particularly in irrigated areas. This which are used to save the crops from insects 55 obliterated the process of natural and pests. When used beyond a particularlimit psa. : a these chemicals lead to higher concentration ‘fertilization euch es nitrogen fixation in the of tase domeate a tho sal on soil. Soil erosion by wind and water has Leguminous crops are very useful to occurred in rainfed areas primarily due to restore the fertility of soil when grown as part unwanted activities of man. FE I. VERY SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS CARRYING ONE MARK (Upto 20 words). 1. What is meant by current fallow? 2. Explain the meaning of cropping intensity. 8. What is the duration of Kharif cropping season? 4, Name two crops grown in the Rabi season. 5. In which state of India are three crops of rice known as aus, aman and boro grown in a year? 6. Name the largest wheat producing state in India, 7. Name two important fibre crops of India. 8. In which two countries of the world were HYVs of wheat and rice developed? 9. When were tea plantations started in India and where? 10. Which is the largest jute producing state in India? I. SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS CARRYING THREE MARKS (Upto 80 words) 1, Distinguish between culturable wasteland, current fallow and fallow other than current fallow. 2. Describe briefly three types of changes in the land-use in India. 3. Give three observations regarding increase in area under forest, area under non-agricultural ‘uses and current fallow. 4, Give three explanations for the decline of barren and wasteland, culturable wasteland, area under pastures and tree crops and net sown area. 5. Mention three points to prove that land resource is crucial to the livelihood of the people depending on agriculture. 6. Distinguish between reporting area and geographical area. 7. Distinguish between dry land farming and wetland farming in India by explaining three distinguishing features of each. (CBSE Sample Paper) 8, Name two most important careal crops of India, Give the names of any two states which are important producers of each of these crops. (CBSE Sample Paper) 9. Distinguish between protective irrigation and productive irrigation. 10, How would you distinguish between net sown area and gross cropped area? 11, Why is the strategy of increasing cropping intensity important in a opuntry like India? 12, How do you measure total cultivable land? 18. Mention briéfly the role of three elements of Green Revolution. Oints: (i) High yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds, (ii) Irrigation, (ii) Pesticides and insecticides.) 14, Study the figure given on the next page and answer the questions that follow: 2832 | INDIA: PEOPLE AND ECONOMY