Structure and bonding

What determines the physical properties of solids?

The arrangement of atoms and ions in a crystal helps to determine the physical properties of thermal and
electrical conductivity, melting and boiling points, physical state at room temperature and solubility in
solvents.

Solids can be divided into the following groups: ionic crystals, molecular (simple and giant) and metallic
crystals. The differences in the properties can be explained by the type of bonds they possess. Ionic
compounds are crystalline solids, able to conduct electricity when molten, due to the movement of ions
which can carry an electric current. These compounds also have high melting and boiling temperatures,
due to the strength of the attractive forces between the ions.

Simple molecular crystals have low melting and boiling temperatures, due to weak forces of attraction
between molecules. Giant structures of atoms and molecules have very high melting and boiling points,
due to strong covalent bonds throughout their three-dimensional network.

Metals are able to conduct electricity and heat, due to the presence of mobile electrons.

What is metallic bonding?

In metallic crystals, the outer electrons of each atom are mobile or delocalised (that is, they do not belong
to any particular cation) and come together to form a band or sea of electrons. These will bind to the
cations formed from the electron loss, forming a strong bond. In this way, metals are able to conduct heat
and electricity since the mobile electrons can move throughout the metal. The strong bonds between the
cations and electrons mean that they are hard to break, thus, metals have high melting and boiling points.
Metals are also solids (except mercury) and are malleable and ductile. The bonding in metals can be
represented below:

+ e + e + e + e

The mobile electrons form a cloud or band surrounding the cations. The difference in charges holds them
together into a strong bond.

How are ionic bonds formed?

In an ionic crystal, the attraction between cations and anions holds the crystal together into a regular
three-dimensional framework. Each cation is surrounded by anions and vice versa. These crystals are
solids at room temperature and are unable to conduct electricity in this state.

However, imagine what happens when these ionic crystals are heated. The ions gain more energy to
move but, because they are oppositely charged, it requires vast amounts of energy to break this force of
attraction, and so, these crystals have high melting and boiling points. Please note that ionic solids can
only conduct electricity when molten, as only then are the ions free enough to move. Examples of ionic
solids are sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and potassium iodide.

What is the difference between giant and simple molecular crystals?

In giant molecular crystals, such as graphite, diamond and silicon dioxide, strong covalent bonds exist
between the atoms, which make them difficult to melt or boil. On the other hand, simple molecular crystals
have covalent bonds within molecules but weak bonds between molecules. Hence, the molecules
separate easily at fairly low temperatures.

Structure and bonding (Part 3)

Francine Taylor-Campbell, Contributor

What is allotrophy?

Allotrophy is the ability of an element to exist in the same physical state but in different structural forms.
This causes them to have different physical properties but the same chemical properties

How are the atoms in graphite, diamond and sodium chloride arranged?

Diamond and graphite are giant molecular or macromolecular crystals. A diamond consists of carbon
atoms tetrahedrally arranged and bonded by strong covalent bonds. A graphite consists of carbon atoms
arranged in hexagonal rings and in layers, while sodium chloride is an ionic solid having a giant structure.

What are the main differences in bonding between diamond and graphite?

In diamond, four carbon atoms are joined in a tetrahedral arrangement. This is repeated throughout to
give a three-dimensional structure with strong, covalent bonds.

In a graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other atoms, arranged hexagonally in layers. These
layers are held together by weak bonds which enable them to slide over one another. There are strong,
covalent bonds, however, between the carbon atoms in each layer. Note that, for graphite, since the
carbon atom is bonded to only three others, it means that each carbon atom has a fourth electron not
involved in bonding. That is a free mobile electron. This will influence the properties of graphite.

What are diamond and graphite allotropes?

Graphite and diamond are composed of carbon atoms but their structures are different, hence, these
solids are allotropes. They show the same chemical properties, since they have the same element -
carbon, but the difference in their structure causes them to have different chemical properties.

How do the properties of sodium chloride, graphite and diamond differ?

Property Sodium Chloride Diamond Graphite
Apperance Crystalline solid Sparkling solid Dark solid
Soft and flaky - due th
Very hard - due to strong eweak bonds between
Hardness Brittle - easily split convalent bonds in the the layers. Layers can slip
structure over each other hence it
is a good lubricant.
Very high due to strong
High due to strong ionic Very high due to strong
covalent bonds that
Melting point bonds that need a lot of covalent bonds that are
need vast amounts of
energy to break difficult ot break
energy to break.
Cannot conduct
Conducts electricity when electricity because all
Conducts electricity when
Electrical dissolved in solution or electrons are involved in
solid as mobile electrons
Conductivity when molten as the ions bonding hence there are
are present
are free to move. no free electrons to carry
a current.