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Abstract
Over the past few decades, nanoparticle (NP) formulation has been the subject of extensive research. The
10 choice of a suitable NP formulation technique is dependent on the physicochemical properties of the drug,
such as solubility and chemical stability. Different NP manufacturing methods enable modification of the
physicochemical characteristics such as size, structure, morphology and surface texture, but also affect the
drug loading, drug entrapment efficiency and release kinetics. This review covers an update on the state of
art of the manufacturing of polymeric NPs from preformed polymers. Both, conventional methods for NP
15 preparation, such as spontaneous formulation and emulsification-based methods, and new approaches in
NP technology are presented. A comparative analysis is given for polymer, drug and solvent nature, toxicity,
purification, drug stability and scalability of the method. The information obtained allows establishing
criteria for selecting a method for preparation of NPs according to its advantages and limitations.
Keywords: nanoparticles, polymer, formulation, preparation methods, drug delivery
20
Address for correspondence: Pegi Ahlin Grabnar, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Askerceva 7, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. Tel: 386 1 4769 621.
Fax: 386 1 4258 031. E-mail: ahlinp@ffa.uni-lj.si
Table 1. Properties of nanoparticles as an ideal drug delivery system. 1991; Allemann et al., 1993; Quintanar-Guerrero et al., 100
1998; Bala et al., 2004). Vauthier-Holtzscherer et al. sum-
General for drug delivery
Non-toxic, biodegradable and biocompatible
marize the different preparation methods of polymer NPs,
Amenable to small molecules, peptides, proteins or nucleic acid with an emphasis on scaling up NP production and on
(genes, antisense drugs) processing NPs after formulation, such as purification, ster-
Minimal NP excipient-induced drug alteration (protein denaturation,
chemical degradation/alteration)
ilization, lyophilization and concentration (Vauthier and
Bouchemal, 2009). The aim of this review is to highlight
105 2
Modulation of drug-release profile
Scalable and cost-effective manipulating process
the diversity of methods that can be applied to produce
polymer NPs from preformed polymers. As well as provid-
Addressing the drug delivery problems
ing updates of conventional methods for NP preparation,
Solving the issues related to solubility
Overcoming the poor bioavailability of the drugs such as spontaneous formation and emulsification-based 110
Overcoming the poor stability methods, we focus on new approaches in NP technology.
This includes supercritical technology, electrospraying,
Benefits for therapy
Able to control the bioavailability, biodistribution, tissue uptake and premix membrane emulsification and the aerosol flow
pharmacokinetics of entrapped drug reactor method. Finally, a comparative analysis is given
Enhance drug efficacy for prolonged intervals for polymer, drug and solvent nature, toxicity, need for 115
Smaller drug doses and decreased dosing variability purification, drug stability and scalability of the method.
Diminished toxicity
The information obtained allows establishing criteria for
Reduction of the side-effects of an existing therapeutics
Improved patient compliance selecting a method for preparation of NPs according to its
Extension of the patent lifetime for already marketed drugs advantages and limitations.
Turbidimetry Cross-
control linking
220 of NPs are the consequences of the formation of inter- and a) Heated oil (120C) or
intramolecular cross-links between chitosan amino groups b) Cross-linking agent
2 and the polyanion (Calvo et al., 1997; Janes et al., 2001b ;
Fernandez et al., 2006).
Ionic gelation is very mild process useful for
225 encapsulation of macromolecules like proteins, peptides
and oligonucleotides. It does not require any special equip-
ment and can be performed at room temperature. The Albumin nanospheres
main difficulty of the method is to identify cross-linking
Figure 4. W/O emulsification technique.
conditions that will yield the NPs.
230 Emulsification-based methods for NP preparation added dropwise to a large volume of preheated oil
(4120 C) under stirring. This leads to immediate vapour-
A considerable number of NP formulation methods are ization of the water contained in the droplets, with irrevers-
based on nano-emulsion templates (Anton et al., 2008). ible denaturation of the albumin which coagulates in the 265
Emulsification methods for NP preparation are derived form of solid NPs. The dispersion is then allowed to cool
from microparticle preparation techniques. They require and submitted to several washings with large amounts of
235 the formation of an emulsion as the first step of the proce- organic solvent (e.g. ether, ethanol, acetone) for complete
dure and this homogenization step is the determining removal of the oil. In this procedure, the crucial factors
factor in obtaining submicron particles. It can be achieved in nanosphere production include the emulsification 270
by the use of high pressure homogenizers, microfluidizers energy and the stabilization temperature (Alonso, 1996).
and sonicators. The hardening step by heat denaturation is likely to be
240 Emulsification-based methods differ depending on the harmful to heat-sensitive drugs. To avoid the heat denatur-
properties of the polymer and on the miscibility of the ation process, an alternative is to add a cross-linking agent
organic solvent with the aqueous phase. When hydropho- (2,3-butanedione or formaldehyde) for the chemical 275
bic polymers are used some methods involve volatile hardening of the macromolecule nanodroplets. The main
and water-immiscible solvents which can be extracted by problem of this method is the purification of the resulting
245 simple evaporation, leading to polymer precipitation NPs with organic solvent such as diethyl ether.
(emulsification-solvent evaporation method, double emul- It is very difficult to produce small nanospheres with
sion technique). In other methods, partially or fully water narrow-size distributions by the W/O emulsification tech- 280
miscible organic solvents are used and polymer precipita- nique, due to the intrinsic instability of the emulsion prior
tion occurs as a result of controlled diffusion processes to hardening by heat or cross-linking (Irache and Espuelas,
250 (salting-out and emulsification-diffusion methods). 2006). This method therefore leads preferentially to forma-
tion of microparticles. However, Nakagawa et al. (1987)
W/O emulsification have described a method to prepare bovine serum albumin 285
W/O emulsification technique, described in 1972 by nanospheres with a diameter of 170 nm that relies on steric
Scheffel et al., was the first procedure to produce stabilization of the albumin droplets during cross-linking.
microspheres and nanospheres from natural hydrophilic
255 macromolecules, such as albumin, for medical application Emulsification-solvent evaporation
(Scheffel et al., 1972). It is suitable for the incorporation of The emulsification-solvent evaporation technique is the
hydrophilic drugs. An aqueous solution of macromolecule oldest method used to form NPs from preformed polymers 290
is emulsified at room temperature in a vegetable oil and and was first reported by Gurny et al. (1981). Hydrophobic
homogenized, by either high pressure homogenization polymer and drug are dissolved in an organic solvent which
260 (Kramer, 1974) or ultrasonication (Figure 4; Morimoto is volatile and water immiscible (e.g. ethyl acetate, chloro-
et al., 1981). W/O emulsion is formed which is then form, methylene chloride; Figure 5). This solution is then
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AQUEOUS PHASE ORGANIC PHASE protein or a peptide drug is the rapid diffusion of the mol-
(water + stabilizer) (solvent + polymer + drug)
ecule into the outer aqueous phase during the emulsifica-
tion. This can result in poor entrapment efficiency, i.e. drug
Salt (only in loading. Therefore, it is critical to ensure immediate forma- 330
salting out tion of a polymer membrane during the first water-in-oil
method) emulsification (Zambaux et al., 1998).
Emulsification
Emulsification-solvent diffusion
O/W emulsion The emulsification-solvent diffusion method (Leroux et al.,
1995) involves the use of an organic solvent that is partially 335
Water water-soluble, for example benzyl alcohol, propylene car-
addition bonate, ethyl acetate and others. Polymer and drug are
dissolved in this organic solvent, which is then emulsified
3
in an aqueous phase containing stabilizer to form an O/W
SOLVENT SOLVENT SALTING emulsion (Figure 5). A large amount of water is then added 340
EVAPORATION DIFFUSION OUT
to the system in order to overcome the miscibility ratio of
organic solvent. This causes the solvent to diffuse into the
external phase. The polymer precipitates as a result of
the diffusion of organic solvent into the water, leading to
the formation of NPs. The solvent can be eliminated by 345
cross-flow filtration. The method is suitable for hydropho-
bic drugs, such as estrogen (Kwon et al., 2001), enalaprilat
Nanoparticles
(Ahlin et al., 2002) and ibuprofen (Galindo-Rodriguez et al.,
Figure 5. Emulsification-solvent evaporation (1), emulsification-solvent 2005). The advantages of the method are the use of low
diffusion (2) and salting-out method (3). toxicity solvents (benzyl alcohol) and high batch-to-batch 350
reproducibility. High entrapment efficiency (generally
470%) has been reported. The disadvantage of the
295 emulsified in an aqueous stabilizer solution (PVA, poloxa- method is the large volume of water that has to be elimi-
mer). Emulsification is carried out by sonication or under nated from the suspension.
high-energy homogenization to reduce the size of the The double emulsion solvent diffusion method combines 355
emulsion droplets and an O/W emulsion is formed. The the advantages of two well-established techniques, double
organic solvent is then removed by evaporation at room emulsion solvent evaporation and emulsification solvent
300 temperature under stirring or under reduced pressure, diffusion, and it is suitable for incorporation of hydrophilic
which leads to polymer precipitation and NP formation. drugs (Kocbek et al., 2007; Cohen-Sela et al., 2009). The
Two factors contribute to rapid solvent loss high volatility double emulsion system minimizes escape of the hydro- 360
of the solvent and the increased tendency of the polymer to philic drug to the aqueous medium, and ethyl acetate is
precipitate as it becomes more and more exposed to water. more acceptable pharmaceutically and considered to be
305 As the precipitation process takes control over diffusion, less toxic than dichlormethane. The preparation technique
the solvent is expelled from the particles. The physico- results in improved formulation characteristics over those
chemical properties of a drug are decisive in influencing of the classical method, including smaller size, lower size 365
its loading and distribution between particles and aqueous distribution, higher drug entrapment efficiency and more
medium (Ahlin et al., 2000a, 2000b, 2003). The method biocompatible ingredients (Tween and Pluronic rather
310 provides NPs with high drug entrapment efficacy, although than PVA). The authors explained these findings by the
it is limited to lipophilic drugs that are soluble in the same different mechanisms of NP formation. The dichloro-
solvent as the polymer. Hydrophilic drugs are distributed methane used in the double emulsion method is relatively 370
into the external water phase and not retained in the poly- poorly soluble in water and the solvent does not diffuse
mer phase. Limitations are imposed by the scale up of the extensively through the aqueous phase. NPs are formed
315 high energy requirements in homogenization and the use during evaporation once the critical concentration for poly-
of toxic chlorinated solvents. mer precipitation is reached, with a single particle formed
The double emulsion solvent evaporation technique is a from each emulsion droplet. On the other hand, ethyl ace- 375
modification of the emulsification-solvent evaporation tate, used in the double emulsion solvent diffusion method,
method and can be employed to entrap small hydrophilic is partially water-miscible, and the solvent diffuses freely
320 drugs and proteins. An aqueous drug solution is emulsified via the aqueous phase, creating regions of local supersat-
in an organic polymer solution, usually by sonication. This uration near the interface (Cohen-Sela et al., 2009).
pre-emulsion is then added to an aqueous phase contain- A double emulsification-solvent diffusion technique has 380
ing a stabilizer. This results in W/O/W emulsion formation been demonstrated to maintain protein function (Cegnar
which is followed by evaporation of the organic solvent. et al., 2004). Maintenance of protein activity during the
325 The polymer precipitate and NPs are formed. The main fabrication process involves a delicate balance between
problem with encapsulating a hydrophilic molecule like a energy input (mechanical stirring, homogenization and
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385 sonication) and particle size. A synergistic effect between electrohydrodynamic atomization and aerosol flow reactor 440
mechanical stirring and ultrasound was shown to produce is that the production of dried NP powders is possible with-
NPs of 300 nm in diameter, while maintaining 85% of the out any extra drying step.
starting activity of cystatin protein (Kristl et al., 2003;
Cegnar et al., 2004).
SCF technology
390 Salting-out
The emulsification-solvent diffusion method can be A SCF can be defined as a solvent at a temperature above
improved by salting-out effects. In the salting-out tech- its critical temperature, at which the fluid remains a single 445
nique a water-miscible solvent, like acetone, ethanol or phase, regardless of pressure. Supercritical carbon dioxide
N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, is used instead of chlorinated sol- (SC CO2) is the most widely used SCF because of its mild
395 vents. It was first proposed by Bindschaedler et al. (Ibrahim critical conditions (low critical temperature Tc 31.1 C
et al., 1992; Kristl et al., 1996; Bindschaedler et al., 1988). and moderate critical pressure pc 73.8 bars), low toxicity,
The mixing of organic and aqueous phases is prevented by non-flammability and low price. The main advantages of 450
saturating the aqueous phase with electrolytes such as such techniques include mild processing conditions, the
magnesium acetate, magnesium chloride or calcium chlo- possible sterilizing properties of SC CO2, the ability to pro-
400 ride. An organic solution of polymer and drug is emulsified duce NPs in the form of dry powders and feasibility of
into an aqueous phase, which contains salt and colloidal scale-up. The SCF technology comprises several processes
stabilizer, to form an O/W emulsion (Figure 5). The emul- for micro/nanoparticle production which are selected 455
sion is then diluted with sufficient water to enhance the according to the solubility of the drug in the SCF. The
diffusion of acetone into the aqueous phase, thus inducing latter can be solvents or antisolvents for the drug and the
405 polymer precipitation. Both the solvent and the salting-out polymer. The most common processing techniques involv-
agent are then eliminated by cross-flow filtration. The ing SCFs are rapid expansion of the supercritical solution
method does not require an increase of temperature and (RESS) and the gas/supercritical anti-solvent technique 460
avoids the use of organic chlorinated solvents and large (GAS/SAS; Figure 6).
amounts of stabilizer during formulation. High drug load- In RESS, the polymer and drug are dissolved in an SCF
410 ings can be achieved, depending on the solubility of the and the solution then rapidly expanded through a small
drug in acetone and on the nature of the salting-out agent. nozzle into a region with lower pressure. The solvent
The disadvantages are exclusive application to lipophilic power of the SCF dramatically decreases and the solute 465
drugs and the extensive NP washing steps. The use of ace- eventually precipitates. Because solubility in SCF can be
tone and large amounts of salts may raise some concern up to a million times higher than that under ideal gas con-
415 about recycling of the salts and about compatibility with ditions, the rapid expansion from supercritical pressure to
active compounds. ambient pressure results in extremely high supersaturation
The application of emulsification techniques is greatly and, consequently, in homogeneous nucleation of the 470
limited by disadvantages such as working with toxic sol- solute, which leads to narrow size distributions in the
vents (dichloromethane, chloroform) and the requirement products (Byrappa et al., 2008).
420 of high energy apparatus (ultrasound probe or homoge- There are several variations of the RESS process, and the
nizer). In contrast, methods for spontaneous formation of most interesting is the rapid expansion of a supercritical
NPs do not require a source of external energy or organic solution into a liquid solvent (RESOLV). It consists of spray- 475
solvents, except in nanoprecipitation where less toxic ing the supercritical solution into a liquid an aqueous
organic solvents such as acetone (Class 3 according to solution containing a stabilizer. The stabilizers utilized
425 the ICH specifications) are used (Table 2). are mainly surfactants like polysorbates, poloxamers and
lecithins which minimize particle aggregation. Operating in
this manner makes it possible to stunt the particles growth 480
New approaches for NP preparation in the precipitator, thus improving RESS process perfor-
mance (Sun et al., 2005; Meziani et al., 2006). PLA NPs
More recently, very attractive new techniques have been loaded with retinyl palmitate were successfully prepared
established as useful alternatives to conventional methods by RESOLV. Using 0.1% Pluronic F127 as an aqueous
for NP preparation. These techniques have the same basic stabilizer solution, NPs with an average size range of 485
430 approach as conventional preparation methods: the 40110 nm were obtained (Sane and Limtrakul, 2009).
formation of droplets and precipitation of polymer and The GAS/SAS process has been developed in order to
drug after the solvent is evaporated. The most important achieve nanosizing of the hydrophobic materials that
advantage of these methods is that they are more cannot be processed by the RESS technique owing to
technically sophisticated and are therefore useful for their poor solubility in SCF. The method employs a liquid 490
435 industrial production. They include supercritical fluid solvent (methanol) that is completely miscible with the SC
(SCF) technology, electrohydrodynamic atomization, CO2, to dissolve the polymer. Polymer and drug are dis-
premix membrane emulsification and technologies using solved in a liquid solvent and the extract of the liquid sol-
membrane reactor, aerosol flow reactor or vibrating nozzle vent by SCF leads to instantaneous precipitation of the
device. Another advantage of the SCF technology, polymer (because the polymer is insoluble in the SCF), 495
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Method Polymer nature Drug nature Solvent nature Toxicity Purificationa Drug stablityb Scalability
Spontaneous formation
Nanoprecipitation Hydrophobic Lipophilic Class 3 Residual solvents Low High Yes
Coacervation Hydrophilic Hydrophilic No organic solvent Hardening agents (glutaraldehyde) Moderate Moderate NR
Ionic gelation Hydrophilic Hydrophilic No organic solvent Low toxicity Low High NR
Emulsification-based methods
[PREPRINTER stage]
[113]
W/O emulsification technique Hydrophilic Hydrophilic Class 3/Class 2 Organic solvent for purification (ethylether) High Moderate NR
Hardening agents
Emulsification-solvent evaporation technique Hydrophobic Hydrophobic Class 3/Class 2 Residual solvents Low Moderate Yes
Double emulsification-solvent evaporation technique Hydrophobic Hydrophilic Class 3/Class 2 Residual solvents Low Moderate* Yes
Emulsification-solvent diffusion method Hydrophobic Hydrophobic Class 3 Residual solvents Moderate High Yes
Double emulsification-solvent diffusion method Hydrophobic Hydrophilic Class 3 Residual solvents Moderate Moderate* Yes
Salting-out technique Hydrophobic Hydrophobic Class 3 Residual solvents and salts High High Yes
RESS GAS/SASS
Figure 6. SCF technologies: RESS and gas/supercritical anti-solvent technique (GAS/SAS) (adapted from Ginty et al. (2005) with permission from
Elsevier).
4
Heater
Electrospraying or electrohydrodynamic atomization
Discharge electrode
Electrospraying is a method of liquid atomization by means
Figure 7. Electrospraying or electrohydrodynamic atomization (adapted
505 of electrical forces (Jaworek, 2007). A typical electrohydro-
from Ciach (2006) with permission from Elsevier).
dynamic atomizer (electroatomizer; Figure 7) consists of
a capillary nozzle, usually made from a fine hypodermic
needle and a ring extractor electrode. The capillary nozzle
is connected to a high-voltage supply, while the ring elec- adjusting the flow rate and voltage applied to the nozzle
510 trode is grounded. A strong electric filed thus builds up at (Jaworek, 2008). Droplet size can be decreased by decreas- 535
the capillary outlet. The liquid, which flows out from the ing the size of the capillary and by decreasing the liquid
capillary nozzle, forms a meniscus, which becomes elon- flow rate and increasing liquid conductivity or surface ten-
gated in this electric field and disintegrates into droplets sion. The size distribution of the droplets can be nearly
due to electrical forces. The solvent from the electro- monodisperse.
515 sprayed droplets evaporates, and the remaining solid mate- Xie et al. successfully produced biodegradable poly- 540
rial forms NPs (Jaworek and Sobczyk, 2008). meric NPs by the electrohydrodynamic atomization
Many modes of spraying are distinguished in the litera- method. Under fixed nozzle and ring voltage difference, a
ture, depending on the form of the meniscus, the pattern of flow rate of 0.1 mL/h produced particles as small as 200 nm.
motion of the jet and a way it disintegrates into droplets. Higher flow rates could still produce nanometre sized par-
520 For NP preparation, the most important mode of spraying ticles if a higher salt concentration was used to increase 545
is the cone-jet mode. In this mode, the liquid meniscus solution conductivity (Xie et al., 2006).
assumes the form of a regular, axisymmetric cone with a
thin jet (5100 mm in diameter) at its apex stretching along
the capillary axis. Membrane reactor
525 Electrospraying is a single-step, low-energy, low-cost
material processing technology which can operate under The membrane reactor (contactor) controls the addition of
atmospheric conditions. Due to its properties, it is consid- one reactant (the organic phase) to another reactant (the
ered as an effective route to nanotechnology (Ding et al., aqueous phase; Figure 8). This process can be compared to 550
2005). The advantage of electrospraying over mechanical the membrane emulsification process, where the oil (or the
530 atomizers is that droplets can be extremely small, from water phase) permeates through the membrane pores to
hundreds of micrometers down to several tens of nano- form droplets in water (or oil phase) for the preparation of
metres, and the charge and size of the droplets can be O/W or W/O emulsions (Charcosset and Fessi, 2005b). The
controlled to some extent by electrical means, i.e. by organic phase is pressed through the membrane pores, 555
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Tangential flow
of the aqueous Nanoparticles
phase
Organic phase
Coarse Porous glass
(solvent + polymer + drug) emulsion Nanoemulsion
membrane
Figure 8. Membrane reactor method (adapted from Charcosset and Fessi
Figure 9. Premix membrane emulsification.
(2006) with permission from Elsevier).
NANOPARTICLES
DILLUTION
VIBRATION
SYSTEM
PULSATION CHAMBER
Heating zone
NOZZLE
PARTICLE
FORMATION
ELECTRODE
Carrier gas
mixed with
droplets
STROBOSCOPE
DROPLET
GENERATION
solvent + drug
+ polymer
AQUEOUS PHASE
Figure 10. Aerosol flow reactor method (adapted from Eerikainen
et al. (2003, 2004) with permission from Elsevier).
can be chosen. On the contrary, if the hydrophilic drug has experiment and pilot scales. Although the preparation of
710 to be incorporated, methods such as double emulsifica- NPs by different methods is almost completely mastered at
tion-solvent evaporation, double emulsification-solvent a lab scale level, the transformation from the lab produc- 770
diffusion, coacervation, ionic gelation or W/O emulsifica- tion to an industrial scale lack of information in the
tion can be considered. All procedures, where organic literature. Scale up of methods for the production of NPs
solvents are required, use solvents with low toxic potential, were described for four types of methods: the emulsifica-
715 except single and double emulsification-solvent evapora- tion-solvent diffusion, salting-out, emulsification-solvent
tion technique where Class 3 solvents (methylene chloride) evaporation and the nanoprecipitation method. Pilot- 775
are more frequently applied. scale production of ibuprofen-loaded NP, prepared by
In relation to drug stability, the deleterious effects of the emulsification-solvent diffusion, salting-out and
emulsification methods on protein stability have been nanoprecipitation methods, was relatively well achieved.
720 addressed by several authors (Crotts and Gwan Park, In general, NP characteristics drug loading, residual
1997; Morlock et al., 1997; Crotts and Park, 1998; Gasper PVAL and morphology were reproduced at lab- and 780
et al., 1998; Johansen et al., 1998; van de Weert et al., 2000). pilot-scales. However, the scale-up process induced a
The formation of NPs is a complex process, and the protein slight reduction in the size and drug loading of NP.
is subjected to potentially destabilizing conditions, from Compared to the emulsion-based methods, less time is
725 intense mechanical stress of emulsification to exposure to required for preparing a pilot-batch by nanoprecipitation
hydrophobic interfaces in the emulsion and the solvent (Galindo-Rodriguez et al., 2005). Control of emulsion drop- 785
removal process (Johnson, 2000; Cegnar et al., 2004). let size is very important factor in the preparation of NPs by
Emulsion droplets are formed by the input of energy, emulsification-solvent evaporation method. The high-pres-
which may be mechanical (homogenizer) or ultrasonic sure emulsification-solvent evaporation (HPESE) process
730 (ultrasonic probe). Application of the energy source is produces small, monodisperse NPs combined with a high
accompanied by one or more processes including high encapsulation efficiency, easy control and reproducibility. 790
shear, cavitation and high temperature. Losing protein The process can be automated and scaled up for producing
activity depends on a range of parameters involved directly large amount of NPs (Jaiswal et al., 2004).
in the manufacturing processes, therefore appropriate In spite of the methods advantages and limitations
735 preparation parameters should be applied to avoid dam- mentioned above, it is possible to identify trends in
aging of the protein. The nanoprecipitation method does research into NP preparation method selection. 795
not rely on shear stress to produce NPs, but takes advan- Therefore, taking into account a general review of the avail-
tage of differences in the interfacial tension, a phenomenon able information in electronic databases on NP prepara-
also designated as the Marangoni effect. However, the use tion, the nanoprecipitation is the most used method for
740 of this technique may still expose the protein to organic incorporation of hydrophobic molecules. On the contrary,
solvent during NP preparation (Cai et al., 2008). In the if the objective of research is hydrosoluble molecule 800
coacervation technique, protein molecules undergo stress entrapment, the method preferred is double
as a result of pH changes and also of the cross-linking step emulsification.
with glutaraldehyde. Glutaraldehyde is indiscriminate and While nanotechnology is expected to produce new col-
745 cross-links the NP matrix as well as the encapsulated pro- loidal carriers, it is also expected to revolutionize the way
tein or peptide drug. This lack of selectivity accounts for the current drug delivery systems are produced. Current 805
possible loss in bioactivity of protein drugs encapsulated in approaches have been used successfully in producing a
NPs that utilize chemical cross-linking (Johnson, 2000). variety of NPs containing pharmaceutically active ingredi-
Once NP dispersions are obtained, purification is ents, but the processing methods require significant
750 needed to remove impurities and excess of reagents improvement. For example, some current methods need
involved during manufacture. Depending on the method improvement in drug loading and production scale-up. 810
of preparation, impurities include organic solvents, oil, Despite the numerous methods available to produce NPs
salts, excess of surfactants or stabilizing agents and large on a small scale, there are still problems in establishing
polymer aggregates. Evaporation at room temperature or large scale production methods. This is considered to be
755 under reduced pressure is the most common approach to one of the reasons preventing their successful introduction
remove large quantities of volatile organic solvents and to the clinic and the market. 815
a part of water from NP dispersions prepared by
emulsification-solvent evaporation, nanoprecipitation
and salting-out method (Allemann et al., 1992; Govender Declaration of interest
760 et al., 1999; Jaiswal et al., 2004). If a solvent with high
boiling point is used in emulsification diffusion method, The authors report no conflicts of interest.
then cross-flow microfiltration (tangential filtration) is
method of choice for purification (Dalwadi et al., 2005).
This method can be also scaled up for industrial References
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