MATERIALS SELECTION (MKMB 2463)

Group Assignment
MATERIAL AND PROCESS
SELECTION FOR HAMMERS

Members Name : 1) Ikhwan Hafiz B Hassan (MKM161038)

2) Mohd. Naif Hanis B Mohd Sokri (MKM161036)
3) Nur Suhaili Bt Ismail (MKM161035)
Lecturer : Dr. Norhayati Bt Ahmad
Submission Date : 29th May 2017
Abstract

In the module MKMB 2643 this year, students are assigned to investigate and discuss the right
material and process for any tool and its application, which in this particular report will be
focusing on hammers. Students are expected to have the knowledge in choosing the best
material and processing method by considering all important factors such as cost, performance,
efficiency and environmental impact based on appropriate level of analysis for robustness. The
analysis of factors affecting in choosing the material and process will be further discussed in
this report. Overall, this assignment did give students the understanding and help in making a
wise and sound decision specified the standard components in the chosen tool.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER TITLE Page

1 INTRODUCTION 4
4
1.1 Introduction
5
1.2 Background
6
1.3 Design and Variations

2 SELECTION METHOD: HAMMERS HEAD 8

2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Selection of Hammerhead 8
2.3 Design Plan 10
2.4 Weight Property Index of Materials 11
2.5 Raw Materials 11
2.5.1 Iron Making 11
2.5.2 Steel Making 12
2.5.3 Bessemer Converter 12
2.5.4 Basic Oxygen Process 13
2.5.5 Open Hearth Furnace 13
2.5.6 Electric Arc Furnace 13
2.5.7 Argon Process 14
2.5.8 Vacuum Degassing Process 14
2.5.9 Ingots, Blooms, and Billets 14
2.5.10 Continuous Casting Process 16
2.6 Hammerhead Forging 18

3 SELECTION METHOD: HAMMERS HANDLE 20

3.1 Selection of Hammers Handle 20

3.2 Selection of Material Using MPI 20
3.3 Wood Fabrication Process 26
3.3.1 Primary Stages 26

3
 3.3.1.1 Cutting and Pruning 26
3.3.1.2 Bark Removing 27
3.3.1.3 Sawing 27
3.3.1.4 Drying 27
3.3.1.5 Planing 28
3.3.2 Secondary Process 28
3.3.2.1 Wood Turning 28
3.3.2.2 Surface Finishing 30

4 PERFORMANCE AND COST 31

4.1 Performance and Functionability 31
33
4.2 Cost
34
4.3 Life Cycle Analysis of Hammers
34
4.4 Reuse and Recycle

5 CONCLUSION 35

4
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Generally, a hammer is a tool or device that delivers a blow (sudden impact) to an

object. Most hammers are hand tools used to drive nails, fit parts, forge metal, and break
apart objects. Hammers vary in shape, size and structure, depending on their purposes and
they are basic tools in many trades. There are several types of hand tool hammer available
in the market such as boiler scalling hammer, cross pein hammer (most common ones),
cow hammer, etc. and there are also mechanically-powered hammers work on the same
principle despite the different in look. In professional framing carpentry, the manual
hammer has almost been completely replaced by the nail gun meanwhile in upholstery,
staple gun is commonly used.

Figure 1: Cross pein hammer and mechanically-powered hammer

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1.2 Background

The use of simple hammers dates to about 2,600,000 BCE when various shaped
stones were used to strike wood, bone, or other stones to break them apart and shape them.
Stones attached to sticks with strips of leather or animal sinew were being used as hammers
with handles by about 30,000 BCE during the middle of the Palaeolithic.

While there are many types of hammer being used these days, the basic ones are
still favoured in most household. A hammer is an integral part to a basic tool collection. In
fact, a decent hammer is probably the first thing in consideration when looking to start a
home assortment of tools. Thus, fabricating it in high efficiency is crucial to make it work
best. Basically, a hammer can be parted into two; the handle and head where both play
important roles in delivering the driving force to nails, anvils, and others.

Aforementioned, a traditional hand-held hammer consists of a separate head and a

handle, fastened together by means of a special wedge made for the purpose, or by glue, or
both. This two-piece design is often used, to combine a dense metallic striking head with a
non-metallic mechanical-shock-absorbing handle (to reduce user fatigue from repeated
strikes). If wood is used for the handle, it is often hickory or ash,[3] which are tough and
long-lasting materials that can dissipate shock waves from the hammer head.
Rigid fiberglass resin may be used for the handle; this material does not absorb water or
decay, but does not dissipate shock as well as wood.

Figure 2: An addition functionality of a hammer

6
 A loose hammer head is hazardous because it can literally "fly off the handle" when
in use, becoming a dangerous uncontrolled missile. Wooden handles can often be replaced
when worn or damaged; specialized kits are available covering a range of handle sizes and
designs, plus special wedges for attachment.

Some hammers are one-piece designs made primarily of a single material. A one-
piece metallic hammer may optionally have its handle coated or wrapped in a resilient
material such as rubber, for improved grip and reduced user fatigue. The hammer head may
be surfaced with a variety of materials, including brass, bronze, wood, plastic, rubber, or
leather. Some hammers have interchangeable striking surfaces, which can be selected as
needed or replaced when worn out.

1.3 Design and Variations

A large hammer-like tool is a maul (sometimes called a "beetle"), a wood- or rubber-

headed hammer is a mallet, and a hammer-like tool with a cutting blade is usually called
a hatchet. The essential part of a hammer is the head, a compact solid mass that is able to
deliver a blow to the intended target without itself deforming. The impacting surface of the
tool is usually flat or slightly rounded; the opposite end of the impacting mass may have a
ball shape, as in the ball-peen hammer. Some upholstery hammers have a magnetized face,
to pick up tacks. In the hatchet, the flat hammer head may be secondary to the cutting edge
of the tool.

7
 Figure 3: Design of a hammer

The impact between steel hammer heads and the objects being hit can create sparks,
which may ignite flammable or explosive gases. These are a hazard in some industries such
as underground coal mining (due to the presence of methane gas), or in other hazardous
environments such as petroleum refineries and chemical plants. In these environments, a
variety of non-sparking metal tools are used, primarily made of aluminium or beryllium
copper. In recent years, the handles have been made of durable plastic or rubber, though
wood is still widely used because of its shock-absorbing qualities and repairability.

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 CHAPTER 2

SELECTION METHOD: HAMMERS HEAD

2.1 Introduction

This chapter will discuss in detail on the selection process of the hammerhead, normally
made in variety design. The selection process is made using different methods.

2.2 Design Plan

The two major components of a hammer are the head and the handle. The design of these
two components depends on the specific application, but all hammers have many common
features.
The striking surface of the head is called the face. It may be flat, called plain faced, or slightly
convex, called bell faced. A bell-faced hammer is less likely to bend a nail if the nail is struck
at an angle.

Another face design is called a checkered face. It has crosshatched grooves cut into the
surface to prevent the hammer from glancing off the nail head. Because it leaves a checkered
impression on the wood, it is usually only found on framing hammers used for rough
construction. The surface of the head around the face is called the poll.

9
 The poll is connected to the main portion of the head by the slightly tapered neck. The
hole where the handle fits into the head is called the adze eye. The side of the head next to the
adze eye is called the cheek.

On the opposite end of the head, there may be a claw, a pick, a semi-spherical ball peen,
or a tapered cross peen depending on the type of hammer. There may also be a second face, as
in a double-faced hammer.

Hammers are classified by the weight of the head and the length of the handle. The
common curved claw hammer has a 0.2-0.6 kg head and a 30.5-33.0 cm handle. A framing
hammer, which normally drives much larger nails, has a 0.5-0.8 kg head and a 30.5-45.5 cm
handle.

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2.3 Weight Property Index of Materials for Hammerhead

Table 1: Material selection for hammers head

Properties 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 2/3 2/4 2/5 3/4 3/ 4/ Tota Alph
5 5 l a

Density 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8 2.3 0.23

Youngs 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8 2.3 0.23

Modulus
Yield 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8 2.3 0.23
Strength
Tensile 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8 2.3 0.23
Strength
Cost 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.08

Total 10

Table above being constructed by using weightage method whereby its point does not exceed
10 points. Each column represent comparison between attributes of relatives importance to
another relatives importance to achieve 10 points. Meanwhile respective row represents
attributes to calculate total attributes and divided by sum of each attributes by calculation as
mentioned below:

Sum of Density = 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.8

= 2.3

Alpha = 2.3 / 10
= 0.28

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 Table 2: Type of materials
Materials Density, Youngs Yield Tensile Cost,
g/cm3 Modulus Strength, Strength, USD per
Elasticity, MPA MPA kg
GPA
High Carbon 8.00 210 480 800 0.8
Steel, AISI 1080
Medium Carbon 7.80 200 600 430 0.5
Steel, AISI 1040
Martensitic Alloy 7.87 190 275 455 0.4
Steel, A 1010
Bronze, B 62 8.8 105 95 205 2.0

Brass, B 21 8.4 117 140 345 5.0

Min Max Max Max Min

To calculate for Beta it is depending on desired properties selection. For

instance we are selecting Fracture Toughness to become the desired properties then it
is considered as Maximum. Maximum and minimum scaling factor, Beta is then
calculated as follows respectively:

To achiev the best materials to be selected, it is determine from the Performance Index
described below:

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Table 3: Beta
Materials Density, Youngs Yield Tensile Cost, Total Beta
g/cm3 Modulus Strength, Strength, USD
Elasticity, MPA MPA per kg
GPA
High Carbon 0.975 1.000 0.800 1.000 0.625 4.400 0.253
Steel, AISI 1080
Medium Carbon 1.000 0.952 1.000 0.538 1.000 4.490 0.259
Steel, AISI 1040
Martensitic Alloy 0.991 0.905 0.458 0.569 1.250 4.173 0.240
Steel, A 1010
Bronze, B 62 0.886 0.500 0.158 0.256 0.250 2.051 0.118

Brass, B 21 0.929 0.557 0.233 0.431 0.100 2.250 0.130

Total 17.364

Min Max Max Max Min

Table 4: The selected material

Materials 11 22 33 44 55 Total Selection
High Carbon 22.425 23.000 18.400 23.000 5.000 91.825 2
Steel, AISI 1080
Medium Carbon 23.000 95.468 100.230 12.363 8.000 239.061 1
Steel, AISI 1040
Martensitic Alloy 22.795 20.810 10.542 13.081 10.000 77.228 4
Steel, A 1010
Bronze, B 62 20.386 50.230 3.642 5.894 2.000 82.152 3

Brass, B 21 21.357 12.814 5.367 9.919 0.800 50.257 5

To select the best materials, the highest value of performance index is the most desired.
For this case, Medium Carbon Steel is having the best performance value thus it is ranked as
number 1 based on Column Selection.

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 Table 5: Attributes of a hammer

Assumption Value
Mass, kg 0.8
Section thickness, mm 60

Roughness, m 12
Economic batch size, per 600
day

Tolerance, mm 5
Shape Sledge (solid round)

2.4 Selection of Hammerhead

According to Table 1 as mentioned below, the list may be further explain as

shown below:
1. Mass

- Hammer selected for this study is weighing less than 1 kg. This assumption in
accordance light duty works expected to be done in the household vicinity.
2. Section thickness

- The width of typical hammer for household usage typically within 60 mm thick.
3. Roughness

- Due to for heavy duty application in the household, surface roughness maybe
negligible. Thus 12 m is adequate to give friction resistance to be applied upon
the subject of interest.
4. Economic batch size

- Manufacturing capacity for small to medium enterprise may be able to produce

less than 1 000 of hammer per day.

5. Tolerance

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 - Since the hammerhead is not critical item to be used 5 mm tolerance is seem
adequate to serve it purpose.
6. Shape

- We are manufacturing type of Hammer. It has almost solid round circular shape.

Figure 4: Different types of hammers head

2.5 Raw Materials

Hammer heads are made of high carbon, heat-treated steel for strength and durability.
The heat treatment helps prevent chipping or cracking caused by repeated blows against other
metal objects. Certain specialty hammers may have heads made of copper, brass, babbet metal,
and other materials. Dead-blow hammers have a hollow head filled with small steel shot to
give maximum impact with little or no rebound.

2.5.1 Iron Making

The making of steel for hammer begins with the smelting of iron ore found in
deposits in the crust of the earth throughout the world in forms such as hematite and
magnetite. In preparation for the smelting process, the iron ore may be treated by any
of several methods to convert it into a suitable form for introduction into the blast
furnaces.

15
 One method is sintering, which converts ores into a porous mass called clinkers.
Another is smelting, which is performed in a blast furnace. The process involves the
chemical reaction of iron ore with limestone, coke, and air under heat, reducing the iron
ore to iron. The pig iron obtained from the blast furnace is used as the basic
component in the steel making process.

Figure 4: Steel making process

2.5.2 Steel Making

Steel for hammer can be produced in several ways as shown on Figure 1,

depending on the facilities available and the desired characteristic of the steel.
Generally, steel requires the removal of carbon from the pig iron to a degree required
by the carbon steel properties desired. Alloy steel also requires the addition of alloying
elements such as chromium, nickel, manganese, and molybdenum to provide the special
properties associated with the alloying element.

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2.5.3 Bessemer Converter

The Bessemer method of making steel (due to Sir Henry Bessemer in 1856)
consisted of blowing a current of cold air through the molten pig iron, thereby using the
oxygen in the air to burn carbon and other impurities from the melt. After burning out
the carbon in the pig iron, the exact amount of carbon required for the steel is
reintroduced into the heat.

2.5.4 Basic Oxygen Process

The basic oxygen process (BOP) is essentially the same as the Bessemer process
except that it uses pure oxygen (instead of air) together with burned lime converted
from limestone. This process burns out the impurities more quickly and completely and
provides for more precise control of the steel chemistry.

2.5.5 Open Hearth Furnace

The open-hearth furnace is used to produce much of the steel in the United
States; however, it is being superseded by the basic oxygen process. Its significant
advantage is the ability to use scrap steel as well as pig iron as ferrous stock in
producing steel. The open-hearth furnace is a large rectangular brick floor, or hearth,
completely covered with a brick structure through which the charge of ferrous stock
and limestone is introduced.

It is fueled with coke gas, oil, or tar introduced through a burner playing a flame
across the hearth while the products of combustion escape through the furnace wall
away from the burner. An advantage of the open-hearth process is that testing for carbon
content during the heating is possible, allowing adjustments to be made to the feed stock
at that time to control the chemistry of the product.

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2.5.6 Electric Arc Furnace

The electric arc furnace is a large kettle-shaped chamber lined with fire brick,
into which a charge of steel scrap with coke is melted by means of heat produced by an
electric arc. Since no burning of fuel is required, the oxygen of the steel can be
controlled and kept to a minimum. Alloying elements can be added without the fear of
oxidation. Because of the control of heat time, temperature, and chemistry, the electric
arc furnace is used in the production of high-quality alloy steels.

2.5.7 Argon Oxygen Process

The argon oxygen process (AOP) is used in the production of specialty steels
with low carbon and sulfur and high chromium content. A charge of steel of almost the
desired properties is introduced into a basic oxygen furnace like vessel, and controlled
amounts of oxygen and argon are introduced into the melt. This reducing process
conserves valuable chromium.

2.5.8 Vacuum Degassing Process

When exceptionally high quality steel is required, steel can be degassed in a

vacuum environment. This vacuum degassing process provides strong reduction in
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, inclusions, and contaminants such as lead, copper, tin, and
arsenic.

2.5.9 Ingots, Blooms, and Billets

Ingots, blooms, and billets are the shapes into which the molten metal is
solidified before using it in a particular hammer making (or other) process. An ingot is
poured from the molten steel and after solidification goes to the blooming mill to be
rolled into square blooms, which are further formed onto bar rounds.

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 Figure 5: Continuous casting process

2.5.10 Continuous Casting Process

Although the development of the continuous casting process as shown at Figure

2, began in the nineteenth century, it was after World War II that its use became of great
commercial interest. In the continuous casting process, molten steel is poured from the
melting furnace to a ladle feeding a reservoir called a tundish. The tundish feeds a
lubricated mold that has a cooled copper surface, and the solidifying steel is
continuously drawn from the mold.

There are many types of continuous casting processes, ranging from vertical to
horizontal, with variations of bent sections in between. This process is now used in
more than half the worlds steel production. In Japan, 85 percent of the total steel
produced is by the continuous casting process.

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 According to score as calculated as below, forging process is having the highest cumulative
points compared to the other processes. Thus, to produce hammerhead for type of hammer
require forging process to be utilized to satisfy all required parameter.

Table 6: Process selection for the head

Section Economic
Mass Roughness Tolerance Shape Score
Process thickness batch size

Sand casting 0 1 1 0 1 1 4

Die casting 1 0 0 0 0 1 2

Investment casting 1 0 0 0 0 1 2

Low pressure casting 1 1 0 1 0 1 4

Forging 1 1 1 1 1 1 6

Extrusion 0 1 1 0 1 0 3

Sheet forming 1 0 0 0 1 0 2

Powder methods 1 0 0 0 0 1 2

Electro machining 1 0 0 0 0 1 2

Conventional machining 1 1 0 0 1 1 4

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2.6 Hammerhead Forging

Figure 6: Hammerhead forging

1. The head is made by a process called hot forging. A length of steel bar is heated to about
1,200-1,300 C. This may be done with open flame torches or by passing the bar through
a high-power electrical induction coil.

2. The hot bar may then be cut into shorter lengths, called blanks, or it may be fed
continuously into a hot forge. The bar or blanks are positioned between two formed
cavities, called dies, within the forge. One die is held in a fixed position, and the other is
attached to a movable ram. The ram forces the two dies together under great pressure,
squeezing the hot steel into the shape of the two cavities. This process is repeated several
times using different shaped dies to gradually form the hammer head. The forging process
aligns the internal grain structure of the steel and provides much stronger and more durable
piece.

3. During this process, some of the hot steel squeezes out around the edges of the die cavities
to form flash, which must be removed. As a final step the head is placed between two
trimming dies, which are forced together to cut off any protruding flash. The head is then
cooled, and any rough spots are ground smooth.

21
4. In order to prevent chipping and cracking of the hammer head in service, the face, poll,
and claws are heat treated to harden them. This is done by heating those areas, either with
a flame or an induction coil, and then quickly cooling them. This causes the steel near the
surface to form a different grain structure that is much harder than the rest of the head.

5. The heads are cleaned with a stream of air containing small steel particles. this process is
called shot blasting. The head may then be painted.

6. The face, poll, claws, and cheeks are polished smooth. This removes the paint in those
areas. As part of this operation, the v-shaped slot in the claws is smoothed using an abrasive
disc.

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 CHAPTER 3

SELECTION METHOD: HAMMERS HANDLE

3.1 Selection of Hammers Handle

For the handle of the hammer, the concern is focused on the failure of the handle beam
due to bending load acting on it when there are impact load acted. For this case we will use
Material Performances Index method introduced by Ashby to select best material for handle
that can sustain high impact load without failure with lightest material so that it will not wearing
out users energy when using it. After the selection of the material we will proceed on the
process selection for handle fabrication.

3.2 Selection of Material Using Material Performance Index (MPI)

In order to choose a material using this method, we should know criteria that must be
fulfilled by the component itself. It can divide into material function, constraint, objective, and
free variables. All these criteria are crucial to determine performance index of materials. Table
3.1 below will show the function, objective, constraint, and free variables for the handle
properties.

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Table 6: Criteria for material selection of the handle using Material Performance Index method

To fasten nail into wood or

Function
concrete
Length L is specified
Constraint Beam must support bending
load F without yield or fracture
Objective Minimize mass of handle

Cross-section area, A
Free Variables
Material

Figure 7: Impact load acting on hammer

Figure 7 shows impact load acting on hammer where the end of the handle assumed to
be fulcrum for the hammer body. For initial calculation of material selection, we will construct
free body diagram first on the body of the handle as shown in Figure 8.

d
F

Figure 8: Free body diagram of force acting on handle

24
The objective is to minimize the mass, giving the objective function

= (eq 3.1)

Then, failure function of the handle beam where the cross sectional of the beam is cylinder.
From table A.4 (Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Micheal Ashby)

= (eq 3.2)

From table A.2

3
=
32

3
=
32

32 1
=( )3 (eq 3.3)

Deriving objective function to eliminate area variable

2
=
4

2
= (eq 3.4)
4

Substitute eq 3.3 into eq 3.4. The objective function gives the mass of the beam that will just
support the load :

32 2
= ( )3
4

25
 2
32 3
= ( ) ( 2 )
4
3

= 1 (). 2 (). 3 ()

The mass is minimized by selecting materials with the largest values of the index:

2
3
=( )

3.1.1 Primary constraint:

> 10

The handle will expose to extreme condition and it main application is be use for
destruction work, for breaking through drywall or masonry walls. So the strength required will
be high and the moment produced will be fairly critical.

< 10
3

The density of the material cannot be too high or it will give trouble for users to use the
hammer as it will increase its weight and will lower the ergonomics value. The head of the
hammer will be high so adding weight to handle will be impractical.

3.1.2 Secondary Constraint:

2
3
= ( ) = 20

Same condition of the Primary constraints, the strength needed by the handle must be
high as the impact force is very high based on its application but the weight should be low as
to not giving added weight to the whole component.

26
 2
3
= ( ) = 20

Figure 9: Selecting material from material selection chart

Based on the material selection chart on Figure 9, we can shortlist some material that can be
use such as:

1. Rigid polymer foam

High porosity and not rigid. Rough and will not give good contact with users.
2. Wood
Lightest material compared to other shortlisted material. Easy to process and
natural resources that is renewable. No corrosion will take place. The strength
of material is lower than most of others.
3. Mg Alloy
High corrosion resistance. Expensive fabrication method.
4. GFRP
Lightweight material and have good strength but fairly ductile material and risk
of deflection.
5. Al Alloy
Lightweight material. High thermal conductivity, thus will increase temperature
of the handle easily when use in hot environment.

27
 Based on the shortlisted material, we will use material 1 (wood) as it is the lightest material
compared to another as the density is the lowest. The density also should be low as it for the
ergonomics value of the products. The cost of wood is also relatively cheaper compared to
others, easy to process, and have unlimited resources.

3.3 Wood Fabrication Process

In this part, we will focus on the selection of process for cylinder wood production prior to
the first assumption that the handle will be cylinder and have free diameter. We will skip on
the general process selection as the variability process of wood production is extremely limited.
Mostly, wood fabrication will undergo conventional machining to produce shaped wood as
wood cannot be melt or turn into powder for shaping.

3.3.1 Primary Stages

Cutting
Bark
and Transport Sawing Drying Planing
removing
Pruning

3.3.1.1 Cutting and Pruning

Trees will be cut normally by a chainsaw to get the wood in the first place.

28
3.3.1.2 Bark Removing

Bark of the trees will be removed by slicing thin outer bark layer from the log using
cutting machine. Bark of trees wouldnt be used in making up rigid wood structure such as
furniture and tools.

3.3.1.3 Sawing

Trees log will be saw into smaller pieces that called timber. It will be cut into few types
of shapes such as wood planks, boards, and beams. In this case we will focused on wood planks
that will be turn into cylindrical handle.

3.3.1.4 Drying

Woods will be dried under the sunlight to reduce the moisture content of wood before
its use. The drying process can be done in a kiln but air drying under sunlight is the more
traditional method. Woods will be dried mainly is for woodworking and wood burning.

29
3.3.1.5 Planing

Act as polishing and shaping wood using muscle power to force the cutting blade over the
surface of a material to the wood to flatten, reduce the thickness of, and impart a smooth surface
to a rough piece of lumber or timber.

3.3.2 Secondary Process

In this part, wood will be shaped onto a cylinder and will be fasten onto hammer head
for end use. Basically, it can be break onto two stages which are wood turning and surface
finishing.

3.3.2.1 Wood Turning

This process will be done using lathe machine where the wood will be turned into
cylinder shape. The wood will be turn in high velocity along the center of its cross section (z-
axis) where the wood will be held on cross section center end-to-end. Turning velocity is crucial
in order to get high quality surface based on wood texture and properties. Then a cutter will be
moved slowly onto its surface where it will cut the surface of the wood and produced cylindrical
shape such as shown in Figure 3.4. Mechanism of turning can be seen in Figure 10. The shape
of the cut can be varied too according to application as we can see on Figure 11.

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Figure 11: Wood being turn in lathe machine to produce cylindrical shape

Figure 12: Schematic diagram of wood lathe

Figure 13: Variability of shape for wood lathe

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3.3.2.2 Surface finishing

Hardwood products are finished to enhance or alter the natural beauty of the wood, and
to protect the wood from damage by moisture and handling. A quality finish must offer
acceptable performance and meet the project's aesthetic requirements.

Wood surface will undergo sanding process to ensure that it will have smooth surface
and it done by decreasing the grid level of the sanding process. After that it will be cleaned to
remove dust and fiber created during sanding process.

Then wood surface will be stain to give better appearance of the surface and provide
strength by cover up porosity of the wood, protect from moisture and environment, and also
provide extra strength for the wood. A wood stain consists of a colorant suspended or dissolved
in an agent or solvent. The suspension agent can be water, alcohol, petroleum distillate, or the
actual finishing agent (shellac, lacquer, varnish, polyurethane, etc.). Surface finishing machine
comprises all the process discussed in line as can be seen in Figure 14.

Figure 14: Surface finishing machine including sanding, cleaning, and staining process

32
 CHAPTER 4

PERFORMANCE AND COST

4.1 Performance and Functionability

The hammer includes a single metal unit having a shaft and a hammer head. A soft
handle is fitted to an end of the shaft for gripping. The hammer head includes a body portion
connected to an end of the shaft, a head at a front end of the body portion and a V-shaped
claw at a rear end of the body portion.

The head is a column-like member for hammering. The claw is a taper member with
a tip end for crack something, which has a gap at the tip end to draw the nail. The body
portion is provided with two slots at opposite thereof, which are parallel to the shaft, and
two bores with opposite ends on bottoms of the slots respectively.

Figure 15: A broken hammer due to rust and decomposition

33
 The frame has two parallel arms and a fulcrum portion with opposite ends connected
to ends of the arms. Each of the arms has three bores, and an interval between the
neighbouring bores is identical to that between the bores. The arms are received in the slots
of the hammer to be moved between a first position and a second position.

When the frame is moved to the first position, the bore proximal to the fulcrum
portion and the middle bore are aligned with the bores respectively, and when the frame is
moved to the second position, the middle bore and the bore distal to the fulcrum portion
are aligned with the bores respectively.

Figure 16: Failed when removing nails due to wrong usage

A fastener has a base and pins on the base. An interval between the pins is identical
to that between the bores and. Each of the pins has an elastic portion at a distal end thereof,
which has a diameter greater than that of the bores and may be compressed to narrow the
diameter thereof.

The pins of the fastener may be inserted into the bores and of the frame and the
hammer the frame on the hammer when the frame is moved to the first position or the
second position. When the pins of the fastener are inserted into the bores and the elastic
portions are extruded out of the bores of the frame to prevent the fastener from escaping.

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4.2 Cost

Normally, a hammer is designed to function for almost 25 years where some guarantee
a lifetime functionability. Every household typically own one hammer and it will last long. For
a cost to qualify as a production cost it must be directly tied to the generation of revenue for
the company. Manufacturers experience product costs relating to both the materials required to
create an item as well as the labour need to create it.

In production, there are direct costs and indirect costs. For example, direct costs for
manufacturing an automobile are materials such as the plastic and metal materials used as well
as the labor required to produce the finished product. Indirect costs include overhead such as
rent, administrative salaries or utility expenses.

To figure out the cost of production per unit, the cost of production is divided by the
number of units produced. Once the cost per unit is determined, the information can be used to
help develop an appropriate sales price for the completed item. In order to break even, the sales
price must cover the cost per unit. Amounts above the cost per unit are often seen as profit
while amounts below the cost per unit result in losses.

Table 8: Raw material prices as in 2017

Material Price per tonne (RM)
Wood (Mixed Heavy Hardwood) 830
Low Carbon Steel 2223

One hammer can cost around RM15 and higher considering all aspects and this also
depends on the quality and hammers head design. Higher quality usually gives better
performance also better ergonomic aspect. The handles material also plays important role
where wood and metals handles cost more than plastic ones.

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4.3 Environmental Impacts

A hammer consists of the head and handle which made of low carbon steel and
wood respectively. The carbon footprint released must be calculated from the plantation
of trees and extraction of iron until fabrication process. As a hammer generally serves
for a long time, no VOC released throughout the time.

Figure 17: Trees and steels are essentials in making of hammer

4.3.1 Impact of wood logging

In general, the volume of wood used for a hammer is not high relatively
compared to other products that it directly contributes to deforestation.
However, in mass productions this eventually affect environmental problem
where according to Maryland University researchers, Malaysia is considered
among the highest deforestation rate countries in the world.

The logging business have long had a presence in many regions

expansive jungles, but the rate of deforestation has increased in the past decade
as developers clear cuts the forests. It can be seen from a vantage point high up
in the mountains, the scale of the destruction is striking. As producing hammers
handle requires tonnes of wood, this too, becomes the issue.

36
Figure 18: Logging activities is required to produce raw materials for
hammers

37
 4.3.2 Impact of Carbon Steel

Carbon steels contain trace amount of alloying elements and account for
90% of total steel production.

Among the impacts of producing carbon steels are fossil fuel depletion.
This is because during manufacturing process, coal, oil and gas are not being
directly used. Instead, electricity used for production purpose is the main factor.
Climate change is also the main issue when producing carbon steels. To produce
a tonne of crude steel is equivalent to 1.8 tonnes of CO2 according to the World
Steel Association.

In term of recyclability, most steels manufactures allow for 100% re-

used materials to be added where 42% of crude steel produced is recycle
materials. This helps reducing climate change. Other than that, coke production
is one of the major pollution sources from steel production. Air emissions such
as coke even gas, ammonium compounds, crude light oil, and sulphur are
released from coke ovens.

There are a lot of waste when producing steels. Slag, the limestone and
irom ore impurities collected at the top of the molten iron, make up the largest
portion of iron-making by-products. Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide are
volatized and captured in air emissions control equipment and the residual slag
is sold to the construction industry.

4.4 Reuse and Recycle

As hammers have a high lifetime, reuse is a normal case where recycle is
possible as well. Carbon steels from the head can be recycled into other products where
globally, around 85% are recycled. The handles which are made from wood will be
decomposing over time depending to environment condition and working habit. This is
different to hammers made of polymer, where it has different recycle methods.

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 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

The primary objective of the present report is to provide the material and process
selection of a hammer tool which merely made from steel and wood using WPI and MPI
methods respectively. For the head, it was found that the best material is Low Carbon Steel
using Forging for its strength. Meanwhile wood is the selected material for the handle due
to its lightweight and good properties. In general, a hammer is sold around RM15 and can
go higher depending on the raw material market price. This report also has successfully
discussed the variations of hammer designs, also the impact of wood and steel productions
to the environment. Overall, it gives students the understanding on material and process
selections for any applications.

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References

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