DESIGN OF A BIOGAS PLANT THAT USES HUMAN WASTE AS FEEDSTOCK

GROUP WORK TERM PAPER

IN

BIOFUELS TECHNOLOGY (CHEN 820)

PRESENTED TO
Dr. KABIRU MUAZU
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA.
MARCH, 2015.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................... ii
LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................... v
NOMENCLATURE............................................................................................ vi
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION............................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW....................................................................3
CASE STUDY................................................................................................ 3
BRIEF HISTORY OF BIOGAS........................................................................... 3
BIOGAS IN NIGERIA...................................................................................... 4
BIOGAS PRODUCTION................................................................................... 4
Pre-treatment of feedstock...............................................................................4
Anaerobic digestion process............................................................................. 6
FACTORS THAT AFFECT BIOGAS PRODUCTION...............................................8
Waste composition/volatile solids......................................................................8
Alkalinity and pH.......................................................................................... 9
Volatile fatty acids concentration.......................................................................9
Temperature................................................................................................. 9
C/N ratio................................................................................................... 10
Retention Time (RT).................................................................................... 10
Organic Loading Rate (OLR)..........................................................................11
Mixing..................................................................................................... 11
DIGESTER TECHNOLOGY............................................................................ 11
Floating Drum Plant..................................................................................... 12
Fixed Dome Plant........................................................................................ 12
BIOGAS CLEANING..................................................................................... 13
Removal of H2S.......................................................................................... 13
Removal of CO2.......................................................................................... 13
Digestate................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS...........................................................15
LAYOUT FOR COLLECTION AND STORAGE OF THE HUMAN WASTE................15
PLANT LAYOUT.......................................................................................... 16

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 Site Consideration....................................................................................... 16
Proposed plant layout:.................................................................................. 17
SIZING OF DIGESTER................................................................................... 18
Amount of feedstock.................................................................................... 18
Volume of digester occupied by slurry..............................................................20
Biogas production....................................................................................... 20
Total volume of biodigester............................................................................21
Number of people expected to use the gas on daily basis........................................22
CHAPTER 4: PROCESS MANUAL FOR OPERATION OF PLANT..............................23
SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL...................................................23
FIRE PROTECTION SECTORS........................................................................24
HARMFUL EXHAUST GASES........................................................................25
GERMS....................................................................................................... 25
EMISSIONS OF SMELLS...............................................................................26
NOISE PROTECTION.................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 5: UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCT SLUDGE.........................................28
POST TREATMENT OF DIGESTATE................................................................28
CHAPTER 6: PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL................................29
THE NEED FOR CONTROL SYSTEM...............................................................29
TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEM.......................................................................30
DESIGN OF A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM....................................................30
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION.............................................................................. 32
REFERENCES................................................................................................. 33

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Classification of the anaerobic digestion system............................................8

Figure 3.1: Layout for human waste collection from the residential area...........................15
Figure 3.2: Map of Maitama District showing proposed sewage lines and proposed biogas plant
location (Map source: Google Maps)......................................................................16
Figure 3.3: Proposed plant layout...........................................................................18

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Keys of equipment shown in plant layout......................................................17

Table 2: Biogas yield for the different feedstock types (From Mukumba et. al., 2013, pg. 17). 21
Table 3: Composition of poisonous substance present in biogas......................................23

5
 NOMENCLATURE

AD Anaerobic Digestion

ECN Energy Commission of Nigeria

HS High Solids

OLR Organic Loading Rate

RT Retention Time

TS Total Solids

VFA Volatile Fatty Acid

6
 ABSTRACT

This term paper assignment was carried out as group work to design a biogas

production plant from human waste generated from the Maitama District of Abuja with

a population of 1 million people. The gas generated is to be used by the residents of the

same Maitama District.

The fixed dome plant was employed and the volume of the digester was estimated to be

123,703m3; this volume includes volume of slurry and volume of gas generated since it

is a fixed dome plant. The gas production was obtained to be 49,957 m 3 per day. With a

biogas requirement of 0.6 m3 per person, it was estimated that about 83,262 of the 1

million people will be able to use the gas produced.

7
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

It is an indisputable fact that energy plays a very important role in the socio-economic

development of any country. The amount of energy produced and consumed by a given

country is a direct indicator of the level of development of the country; the more energy

a country is able to produce and consume, the more developed the country tends to be.

It is reported that energy consumption in Africa is less than 5% of the global

consumption even though 13% of the worlds population lives there and 10% of the

worlds crude oil reserves are located there (Bugaje and Mohammed, 2008). This is a

rather pitiable position and as such there is the need for efficient harnessing of the

abundant resources that Africa is blessed with. One of such ways is the development of

biofuels of which biogas is one.

Biogas is a methane-rich gas produced from the anaerobic digestion of organic

materials. It can be produced domestically using human and animal wastes and can

serve as a cheap source of energy. Apart from serving as a cheap source of energy, its

production also serves as a waste management technique because anaerobic treatment

eliminates the harmful micro-organisms. After biogas has been produced, the by-

product sludge (digested slurry) is a good fertilizer while the treated effluent from the

anaerobic digestion is a good animal feed when treated and mixed with molasses and

grains.

Biogas production from human wastes (faeces) has already been developed and is used

in some parts of the world like China and India. In Nigeria, the technology of biogas is

at an infant stage even though efforts are continually being made to promote and

develop it. This report presents a study about the design of a biogas plant using human

1
waste generated from the residents of the Maitama District in Abuja. The gas generated

is to be sent back to the residents to serve as fuel for heating and cooking.

2
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

CASE STUDY

The geographical area under study is the Maitama District in The Federal Capital

Territory Abuja. The population of the area is put at 1 million people. The biogas plant

is to produce biogas from the human faeces and urine generated from the entire

population of the area. The amount of waste generated per person is 1kg of urine and

150 g of faeces per day. This puts the total amount of urine generated at 1 million kg

and 150, 000 kg of faeces per day. The biogas to be generated is to be used by the

people of the district. It is assumed that each person requires 0.6m 3 of biogas for

lighting and cooking per day.

BRIEF HISTORY OF BIOGAS

The use of biogas as a fuel is believed to have started as long ago as the 10 th century

B.C. by the Assyrians who used it for heating bath water; there are also suggestions that

anaerobic digestion of solid waste may well have been applied in ancient China (Bond

and Templeton, 2011).

Well documented attempts to harness the anaerobic digestion of biomass by humans

date from the mid-nineteenth century, when digesters were constructed in New Zealand

and India, with a sewage sludge digester built in Exeter, UK to fuel street lamps in the

1890s. In Guangdong Province, China, commercial use of biogas has been attributed to

Guorui Luo. In 1921, he constructed an 8 m 3 biogas tank fed with household waste and

later that decade founded a company to popularise the technology. The first German

sewage treatment plant to feed biogas into the public gas supply began to do so in 1920,

while in the same country the first large agricultural biogas plant began operating in

3
1950. The spread of biogas technology gained momentum in the 1970s, when high oil

prices motivated research into alternative energy sources.

BIOGAS IN NIGERIA

Despite the numerous advantages of using biogas technology as a source of energy and

a source of nitrogen-rich fertilizer, it has made only little impact in Africa and Latin

America. There are however, some efforts by the Government of Nigeria to encourage

its use.

The two Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN) Renewable Energy Centres established

in Sokoto and Nsukka in 1982 by the Federal Government of Nigeria pioneered

research work in biogas in Nigeria. Today, many tertiary institutions are involved in

biogas research.

The success story of the use of biogas in Nigeria is illustrated by its use in Kwachiri

community where a community of forty (40) have been using it for their daily cooking

needs since 2003 (Energy Commission of Nigeria, no date, pg. 35)

BIOGAS PRODUCTION

The process of biogas production can be divided into four stages: pre-treatment,

digestion, gas upgrading and digestate treatment. The level of pre-treatment depends on

the type of feedstock; e.g. manure need to be mixed, whereas municipal solid wastes are

sorted and shredded.

Pre-treatment of feedstock

The pre-treatment of feedstock consists in separating the recyclable or non-digestible

wastes from the municipal solid wastes. Source separation has a significant effect upon

the quality of the digestate. Mechanical pre-treatment leads to a lower quality digestate.

4
The removal of all contaminants is not possible especially for the smaller fraction such

as heavy metals. The resultant fraction is thus more contaminated. There are a variety of

pre-treatment processes that are chosen based on the characteristics of the incoming

waste and the effects they have on digestion. Separation technologies for metals, glass

and plastic are usually necessary. The pre-treatment of feedstock for AD involves:

Providing a uniform small particle size feedstock for efficient digestion

Removing the non-biodegradable materials

Protecting the downstream plant from components that may cause physical damage

Removing materials which may decrease the quality of the digestate.

Most digestion systems require pre-treatment of waste to obtain homogeneous

feedstock. The pre-processing involves separation of non-digestible materials and

shredding. The waste received by AD digester is usually source separated or

mechanically sorted. The separation ensures removal of undesirable or recyclable

materials such as glass, metals, stones etc. In source separation, recyclables are removed

from the organic wastes at the source. Mechanical separation can be employed if source

separation is not available and the resultant fraction is then more contaminated leading

to lower compost quality. The waste is shredded before it is fed into the digester in order

to enhance the digestion rate. Chemical pre-treatment changes the composition of waste

by reducing particulate organic matter to soluble form i.e. proteins, fats, carbohydrates

or lower molecular weight compounds. Alkalis are added to increase the pH to 8-11

during this process. Thermal and chemical pre-treatments do improve hydrolysis and

promote solubilisation. Ultrasonic pre-treatment also has been researched to reduce

retention time.

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Anaerobic digestion process

The anaerobic digestion of organic matter is a complex process which can be

categorised into three steps.

Hydrolysis

An important step of the anaerobic biodegradation process is the hydrolysis of the

complex organic matter. During the anaerobic digestion of complex organic matter, the

hydrolysis is the first and often the rate-limiting step. In this process hydrolytic

organisms called acidogens hydrolyse complex organic matter such as proteins, poly

carbonates, lipids, etc. to simple organic compounds (formate, acetate, propionate,

butyrate and other fatty acids, etc.) An approximate chemical formula for the mixture of

organic waste is C6H10O4. A hydrolysis reaction where organic waste is broken down

into a simple sugar (glucose) can be represented by the Eq. 2.1.

C6H10O4 + 2H2O C6H12O6 + 2H2 .........................2.1

Acidification

In this stage, the hydrolysed compounds are fermented into volatile fatty acids (acetic,

propionic, butyric, valeric acids etc.), neutral compounds (ethanol, methanol), ammonia,

and the pH falls as the levels of these compounds increases. Carbon dioxide and

hydrogen are also evolved as a result of the catabolism of carbohydrates. The group of

microorganisms responsible for this biological conversion is obligate anaerobes and

facultative bacteria, called acidogens .Typical reactions in the acid-forming stages are

shown below in Eq. 2.2, glucose is converted to ethanol and Eq. 2.3 shows glucose is

transformed to propionate.

C6H12O6 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2 . 2.2

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C6H12O6 + 2H2 2CH3CH2COOH + 2 H2O 2.3

Methanogenesis

Methanogenesis is the last stage of anaerobic digestion which involves the production

of methane from the raw materials produced in the previous stage. Methanogens which

carry out the terminal reaction in the anaerobic process are the most important in

anaerobic digester systems. The methane is produced from a number of simple

substances: acetic acid, methanol or carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The reactions that

occur during this step are:

2 CH3CH3OH+ CO2 2CH3COOH + CH4 2.4

CH3COOH CH4 + CO2 2.5

CH3OH + H2 CH4 + H2O 2.6

CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + 2H2O .2.7

Types of anaerobic digesters

A wide variety of systems have been developed to anaerobically treat municipal solid

waste. They can be split into different categories as following:

Continuous versus batch process

Mesophilic versus thermopilic digestion
Single stage versus multi-stage digestion

Figure 1 depicts the classification of the anaerobic digestion system based on the

operating criteria.

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 Figure 2.1: Classification of the anaerobic digestion system

FACTORS THAT AFFECT BIOGAS PRODUCTION

The rate at which the microorganisms grow is of vital importance in the anaerobic

digestion process. The operating parameters of the digester must be controlled so as to

enhance the microbial activity and thus increase the anaerobic degradation efficiency of

the system. Some of these parameters are discussed in the following section.

Waste composition/volatile solids

The wastes treated by anaerobic digestion may comprise a biodegradable organic

fraction, a combustible and an inert fraction. The biodegradable organic fraction

includes kitchen scraps, food residue, and grass and tree cuttings. The combustible

fraction includes slowly degrading lignocellulosic organic matter containing coarser

wood, paper, and cardboard. As these lignocellulosic organic materials do not readily

degrade under anaerobic conditions, they are better suited for waste-to energy plants.

Finally, the inert fraction contains stones, glass, sand, metal, etc. This fraction ideally

8
should be removed, recycled or used as landfill. The removal of inert fraction prior to

digestion is important as otherwise it increases digester volume and wear of equipment.

Alkalinity and pH

Sufficient alkalinity is essential for pH control. Alkalinity serves as a buffer that

prevents rapid change in pH. The alkalinity is the result of the release of amino groups

and production of ammonia as the proteinaeceous wastes are degraded. Anaerobic

bacteria, specially the methanogens, are sensitive to the acid concentration within the

digester and their growth can be inhibited by acidic conditions. It has been determined

that an optimum pH value for anaerobic digestion lies between 5.5 and 8.5. During

digestion, the two processes of acidification and methanogenesis require different pH

levels for optimal process control. The retention time of digestate affects the pH value.

Volatile fatty acids concentration

Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) are important intermediate compounds in the metabolic

pathway of methane fermentation and cause microbial stress if present in high

concentrations. The intermediates produced during the anaerobic bio-degradation of an

organic compound are mainly acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, and valeric acid.

Amongst these, acetic and propionic acids are the major VFAs present during anaerobic

bio-degradation and their concentrations provide a useful measure of digester

performance. Acetate yield is increased slightly with increasing pH, whereas butyrate

yield is increased with decreasing pH.

Temperature

Due to the strong dependence of temperature on digestion rate, temperature is the most

critical parameter to maintain in a desired range. There are two temperature ranges that

provide optimum digestion conditions for the production of methane i.e. the mesophilic

9
and thermophilic ranges. The optimum temperature for mesophilic digestion is 35C

and a digester must be maintained between 30C and 35C for most favourable

functioning. The thermophilic temperature range is between 40C-65C. A thermophilic

temperature reduces the required retention time. The microbial growth, digestion

capacity and biogas production could be enhanced by thermophilic digestion, since the

specific growth rate of thermophilic bacteria is higher than that of mesophilic bacteria.

C/N ratio

The relationship between the amount of carbon and nitrogen present in organic

materials is represented by the C/N ratio. Microorganisms need nitrogen for the

production of new cell mass. A nutrient ratio of the elements C: N: P: S at 600:15:5:3 is

sufficient for methanisation. Optimum C/N ratios in anaerobic digesters should be

between 2030 in order to ensure sufficient nitrogen supply for cell production and the

degradation of the carbon present in the wastes. As the reduced nitrogen compounds are

not eliminated in the process, the C/N ratio in the feed material plays a crucial role.

Retention Time (RT)

The required retention time for completion of the anaerobic digestion reactions varies

with differing technologies, process temperature, and waste composition. The retention

time for wastes treated in mesophilic digester range from 10 to 40 days. Lower retention

times are required in digesters operated in the thermophilic range. The RT is the ratio of

the digester volume to the influent substrate flow rate. The Eq. 2.8 gives the time of

substrate to be inside the digester.

V
RT=
Q .2.8

Where V = digester volume (m3)

10
Q = flow rate (m3/d)

RT = retention time (d)

Organic Loading Rate (OLR)

Low solids anaerobic digestion systems contain less than 10 % Total Solids (TS) and

High Solids (HS) processes range about 20% or higher TS. An increase in TS in the

reactor results in a corresponding decrease in reactor volume. The OLR is a measure of

the biological conversion capacity of the anaerobic digestion system. Feeding the

system above its sustainable OLR results in low biogas yield due to accumulation of

inhibiting substances such as fatty acids in the digester slurry. In such a case, the

feeding rate to the system must be reduced. OLR is a particularly important control

parameter in continuous systems.

Mixing

The purpose of mixing inside the digester is to homogenize the material. Furthermore,

mixing prevents scum formation and avoids temperature gradients within the digester.

However excessive mixing can disrupt the microbes so slow mixing is preferred. The

kind of mixing equipment and amount of mixing varies with the type of reactor and the

solids content in the digester.

DIGESTER TECHNOLOGY

The floating drum and fixed drum are the two basic types of tested biogas plants that

have gained widespread acceptance. The floating drum plant has a metal gasholder that

floats on the digester while in the fixed drum plant, gas storage is by the displacement

principle. Biogas is produced from digesters, which consist of two basic parts: a tank,

which holds the slurry (and a gas cap drum seal on the tank, which captures the gas

released from the slurry.

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Floating Drum Plant

The floating drum plant consists of a digester and a moving gasholder that floats either

directly on the fermentation slurry or in a water jacket of its own. The drum rises when

gas is collected in it and falls when gas is drawn off from it. The gas drum is prevented

from tilting by a guide frame called the drum holder. This type of pant is simple to

operate and construct, and provides a constant pressure. The disadvantage is its high

construction cost and corrosion of the floating drum resulting in its short life of less than

5 years in tropical coastal regions and the regular maintenance cost due to painting of

the drum.

The floating drum can be replaced by balloon above the digester. This reduces

construction costs, although this type is still under test for practical conditions.

Floating drums can be made from glass-fibre reinforced plastic and high-density

polyethylene with the attendant increase in construction cost. Floating-drums can also

be made from wire-mesh-reinforced concrete, although this is liable to hairline

cracking.

Fixed Dome Plant

This type of plant is made up of a digester with a fixed, non-movable gas space at upper

part of the digester. When gas is produced it displaces slurry in the compensating tank.

The gas pressure increases with the volume of gas stored. When gas production is low,

there will be little gas in the holder and the gas pressure will be low. Constantly, the gas

pressure becomes too high if the gas production is high. This type of plant is not

suitable for such applications as in engines where the gas is required to be delivered at a

constant pressure. For such application, a gas pressure regulator or a floating gasholder

is required. The advantage for this type of plant is its low construction cost ad it has no

12
moving part hence longer life (20 years or more). A disadvantage, however, is that its

not often gaslight because of the occurrence of cracks. Also, high fluctuation in gas

pressure occurs with low digester temperature. Furthermore, this type of digester is

recommended only where construction can be supervised by experienced biogas

technicians.

BIOGAS CLEANING

Removal of H2S

Hydrogen sulphide in the fermentation gas impairs the lifetime of pipework and all

installations for the utilization of biogas. It is toxic and strongly corrosive to many kinds

of steel. The most common methods for hydrogen sulphide removal are:

- air/oxygen dosing to digester biogas

- iron chloride dosing to digester slurry
- iron oxide
- activated carbon
- water scrubbing
- NaOH scrubbing

Biological desulphurisation of biogas can be performed by micro-organism.

Removal of CO2

Removal of carbon dioxide enhances the energy of the gas either to reach vehicle fuel

standard or natural quality gas. At the present time, four different methods are used

commercially to achieve it:

- Water scrubbing
- Polyethylene glycol scrubbing
- Carbon molecular sieves
- Membrane separation

On a small scale, CO2 can be removed by bubbling the gas through lime.

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Digestate

Anaerobic digestion can be seen as a method to treat the organic waste but, in order to

extract the maximum recovery value from these wastes, the digestate should have a

useful purpose and benefit should be derived from its production. Its main advantage is

that it has a high nutrient content. Its quality should be acceptable for purpose such as

soil amendment or landscaping. The chemical aspects of quality management of

digestate are related to the presence of:

- Heavy metals and other inorganic contaminants

- Persistent organic contaminants
- Nutrients (NPK)
Anaerobic digestion draws carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from the feedstock. Essential

plant nutrients (N, P, and K) remain largely in the digestate. Therefore the digestate can

be use as fertilizer or for soil amendment in agriculture, landscaping. Such use permit

the creation of a nutrient cycle and maintains or improve soil structure due to the

application of organic manure.

14
 CHAPTER 3: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

LAYOUT FOR COLLECTION AND STORAGE OF THE HUMAN

WASTE

The sewage from each house will be channelled through underground lateral connection

pipes that run from the house to an underground sanitary sewer line. Sanitary sewer

lines from different streets will be joined together and all the waste will be channelled to

the waste storage of the biogas production plant. Figure 3.1 shows the proposed layout.

Lines L1 to L6 shown are the different lateral lines that collect human waste from each

house; they run to meet line S which is the sanitary sewer that collects the human

wastes from each street and channels the waste to the biogas production plant.
HOUSE HOUSE HOUSE
1 2 3

L1 L2 L3

L4 L5 L6

HOUSE HOUSE HOUSE

4 5 6

Figure 3.2: Layout for human waste collection from the residential area.

Material of construction for the sewage lines is concrete as is usually the case with

sewage lines.

15
Figure 3.3: Map of Maitama District showing proposed sewage lines and proposed biogas plant location (Map
source: Google Maps)

PLANT LAYOUT

Site Consideration

The biogas plant is generally environmentally friendly and technically safe to operate

within the metropolis since the by-products are not toxic and its product can be used

16
directly for domestic purposes and for electricity generation. Plant site location

considerations include:

The plant should be located close to its source of raw material to minimise distance

of transportation
The plant should be located close to the point of consumption of its product

(residential area that will use the gas)

The plant should be located close to farmlands to dispose the digestate for use.
The plant should be located close to a water treatment plant for the treatment of the

wastewater generated
The digester pit should not be dug within 13 metres of a drinking water well or

spring.
If the water table is reached during digging, it will be necessary to cement the inside

of the digester pit although this increases cost.

It must be ensured that there is enough space to build the digester
Provision for slurry storage needs to be made
A site open and exposed to the sun is necessary

Proposed plant layout:

Table 1: Keys of equipment shown in plant layout

Keys Equipment
E1 Biomass storage tank
E2 Magnetic separator
E3 Crusher
E4 Pulper
E5 Screen
E6 Water storage tank
E7 Mixer
E8 Digester
E9 Carbon dioxide scrubber
E10 Hydrogen sulphide scrubber
E11 Biogas storage tank
E12 De-watering tank
E13 Digestate storage tank

17
 Figure 3.4: Proposed plant layout

SIZING OF DIGESTER

Amount of feedstock

The available feedstock is from 1 million people. Each person produces 1 kg of urine

and 150g of faeces everyday. Consortium on rural technology (1986, pg. 11) gives an

estimate that:

Human faeces is made up of about 66 80% water and the rest solids and

18
 Urine is made up of 93 96% water and the rest solids.

For this study, the values of water content that will be employed are: 75% water content

in faeces and 95% water content in urine.

Thus the amount and total solids concentration of the feedstock is calculated:

150 kg
Total amount of faeces per day= (
1000 person )
1,000,000 ( persons ) =150,000 kg

25
Total solidsfaeces= 150,000 kg=37,500 kg
100

kg
Total amount of urine per day =1 ( person ) 1,000,000 ( persons ) =1,000,000 kg
5
Total solidsurine= 1,000,000 kg=50,000 kg
100

Thus , total amount of solid feedstock=37,500 kg +50,000 kg=87,500 kg

Total weight of solids 87,500 87,500

Total weight percent solids feed= 100 = = =7.
Total weight of feed 150,000+1,000,000 1,150,000

The problem stated that the feed slurry should have a total solid concentration of 20%.

Since the human waste does not give the required amount, animal waste (such as cow

dung, bird droppings, etc.) can be added to make up the remaining 12.39% of the

weight. The assumed animal waste to be used is cow dung.

Assuming that the supplementary cow dung added is completely dry, the amount in

weight that will be required is calculated thus:

12.39
Total amount of dry cow dung required=12.39 of total weight of slurry = 1,150,000 kg=142,48
100

19
This puts the new total weight of the slurry at:

Total weight of slurry after addition of cow dung=1,150,000+142,485=1,292,485 kg

The rule of thumb that will be used is: 1000kg = 1m3. Thus,

1,292,485 3
Volume of slurry = 1=1,292.5 m per day
1000

Volume of digester occupied by slurry

The volume of the digester occupied by slurry Vd is calculated from:

V d =V s Rt

Where Vs = Volume of substrate = 1,292.5m3

Rt = Retention time = 30 days

Thus, volume of digester occupied by slurry,

3
V d =1,292.5 30=38,775 m

Biogas production

Rate of production of biogas per day G, is calculated from:

G=W s G y

Where Ws = Weight of feedstock produced per day

Gy = Gas yield of substrate

The gas yield for the different feedstock are given in table 2.

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Table 2: Biogas yield for the different feedstock types (From Mukumba et. al., 2013, pg. 17)

Gas yield (m3/kg of

Feedstock type
wet biomass)
Cattle dung 0.036
Human waste 0.07

Gas production due humanwaste =150,000 0 .07=10,500 m3

Since we assumed dry weight of cow dung was added and the data in table 2 is given

for wet cattle dung, we need to calculate the equivalent wet weight of the cattle dung

added in order to know its gas yield. Spuhler (no date, slide 21) gives the average total

solids concentration of cattle dung to be 13%. Thus,

142,485
Equivalent wet weight of cattle dung used= =1,096,038 kg
0.13

Gas production due cow dung=1,096,038 0 .036=39,457 m3

Total gas production=10,500+39,457=49,957 m3 per day

Total volume of biodigester

The type of digester that will be used is the fixed dome type. The volume of the

biodigester will hold both the feedstock and the gas produced.

The amount of space reserved for the gas is obtained based on a rule of thumb given by

Energy Commission of Nigeria (no date, pg. 42) to be 60-70% of the total daily gas

production. Thus, using 70% of total gas production,

3
Amount of space hold the gas produced=1.7 49,957=84,928 m

21
 Total volume of digester =( Volume of by slurry ) + ( Volume occupied by gas )=38,775m 3 +84,928 m 3=123

Number of people expected to use the gas on daily basis

The estimated production rate of biogas is 49,957 m3. Assuming each person requires

0.6m3 of gas for lighting and cooking per day, we can estimate the number of people

that are expected to use the gas produced daily using:

Total volume of gas produced 49,957

Number of people that will use the gas= = 83,262 people
Total amount of gas used per person 0.6

22
 CHAPTER 4: PROCESS MANUAL FOR OPERATION OF PLANT

SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

The regulations and laws guiding the design, construction and operation of biogas plant

are aimed at the elimination or minimization of all safety hazards affecting both people

and the environment. Danger to life and health in a biogas plant can be caused by

suffocation and toxification in tanks, silos, and pits filled with gases like H 2S, CH4, and

CO2. Some of these gases are heavier than air and tend to remain in the vessels. The

following gases are example of dangerous gas even in low concentration associated to

biogas.

Table 3: Composition of poisonous substance present in biogas

Gases Composition (ppm)

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 10ppm

Carbon monoxide (CO) 50ppm
Chlorine (Cl2) 0.5ppm
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 5000ppm

Also, below are some hazards associated to a biogas to the plant and environment

Emission of pollutants into air, groundwater and surface water, especially when

disposing residues.

Danger of explosions caused by flammable gas/air mixtures. All flammable gases,

vapours, and dust are able to form explosive mixtures.

Injuries caused by machinery and plant parts, e.g., rotating machinery, electromagnetic

forces, electrostatic charging, or burning by hot surface.

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 Freezing of gas or substrate pipes, e.g., by condensation of water in the pipes leading

to blocking and finally to bursting of the pipe

Corrosion caused by aggressive substances like ammonium nitrate, H2S, and many

others Plugging of tubes by solid components

Noise, especially in the areas of the CHP.

In biogas plants, the formation of explosive gas mixtures can occur. Therefore, a system

for plant security must exist relating to installation and operation of electrical devices in

areas with danger of explosions. These areas are enclosed spaces which serve as

gasholders or where gases are produced, or other enclosed spaces which are connected,

e.g., by pipes, to these spaces Channels and storage tanks Spaces inside machinery,

tanks, and pipes, which contain biogas Spaces around machinery where gas is

discharged, e.g., overpressure security valves at the bioreactor or the gasholder.

Buildings which are used for gas consumption (heaters or engines) and are not

connected to bioreactors or gasholders are excluded from the above mentioned

prescriptions. In these buildings, the installation of gas pipes and electrical wires should

be easy to keep under surveillance. Ideally, the gas pipes and the electrical wires should

be installed on different walls.

FIRE PROTECTION SECTORS

In order to reduce the fire risk, the plant is to be divided into fire protection sectors, e.g.,

the bioreactor and gasholder, the gas consumption equipment, and the gas compressor.

Certain distances must be maintained between the fire protection sectors. Depending

upon how much space is available in between, the material of the external walls of

buildings containing equipment or of protecting walls has to be chosen.

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 All gas holders should be fire protected with non-flammable material and all

safety doors within the process plant should be open in case of fire outbreak. In the

plant, adequate space should be provided for brigade vehicles for easy access in case of

fire outbreak. Finally, at least 12 portable unit of suitable extinguishing agent should be

available per plant or per plant or fire protection sector.

HARMFUL EXHAUST GASES

From biogas plants, climate - relevant gases and gases harmful to humans can escape,

such as ammonia, methane, nitrous oxide, and others. The amount of leakage depends

on the applied technology and the substrates. To avoid the emission of these gases to the

environment, it is necessary to design the gas holder in such a way that there will not be

leakage.

GERMS

The microorganisms taking part in the fermentation process are mainly known to be

harmful to human health. Therefore special protection devices are necessary, substrates

and also residues often contain organisms which do not participate in the process, like

viruses and parasites, which can have severe effects on the health of humans as well as

on the environment Therefore certain measures for protection are necessary. For all who

work in biogas plants, the danger of an increased ingestion of endotoxins exists.

Endotoxins are metabolic products of microorganisms. They are taken up from humans

via skin cracks. At low concentrations endotoxins can induce fever, and at high

concentrations a stimulation of the mucous membrane; respiratory diseases up to

chronic inflammations of the respiratory system can be evoked. Increased endotoxins

concentrations could be found with increased aerosol formation, e.g., at the exhaust of a

capsulated surface blower of an activated sludge tank, when cleaning a chamber filter

press, when cleaning pump pits, etc. People living in the neighbourhood are not
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endangered in general, since the germ concentration in the air is low and independent on

the weather conditions.

EMISSIONS OF SMELLS

Smell - intensive materials in biogas plants include particularly ammonia, organic acids,

phenol, and hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Smells are often causes of annoyance and/or

complaints about biogas plants. The door emissions depend particularly on the

composition of the materials used (liquid manure, co - ferments). The composition of

the liquid manure varies depending upon animal species, stable technology, feeding, and

water requirement for the cleaning of the stable (dilution).

Hydrogen sulphide: Hydrogen sulphide, a mostly inevitable component of biogas,

not only smells, but can have a toxic effect in higher concentrations.
Ammonia: Ammonia (NH3) has a strong smell, induces eutrophy, and is indirectly

relevant to the climatic situation, since ammonia is partly converted to nitrous oxide

(N2O) in the soil. The degradation of organic substances results in nitrogen in the

form of ammonium in the substrate. Since during the degradation the pH value

increases about one unit due to the decomposition of acids and the temperature in

the residue storage tank is high due to the high processing temperature in the

bioreactor, a lot of volatile ammonia is liberated.

To solve the problems associated with the emission of this smell due to emission of

these gases, proper design should be done on the gas cleaning to remove the gases.

NOISE PROTECTION

Noise is defined to be disturbing sound. Any location where sound does not cause

disturbance, even it is very loud, does not incur restrictions. The area in a biogas plant

where noise is most intense is near the gas engine. Near CHP plants, the limiting value

26
for workplaces is far exceeded. The noise radiates through the exhaust pipe and the

ventilation openings of the plant area. Transportation of the co - ferments, pumps,

compressors, and emergency cooling systems also causes noise.

To prevent this sound absorbers have to be installed in exhaust gas pipes and/or in

openings for ventilating.

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 CHAPTER 5: UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCT SLUDGE

The by-product sludge that is produced from the anaerobic digestion process will be

used as a fertilizer. This is because it is a better fertilizer and soil conditioner than either

compost or fresh manure. This is because:

The liquid effluent contains may elements essential to plant life. It contains

nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and small amounts of metallic salts that are

indispensable for plant growth.

When the sludge is applied on the soil as fertilizer, its nitrogen is converted to

ammonium ions (NH4+), which fix themselves to the negative charged clay

particles of the soil, thereby making nitrogen available to the plants.

But before using the sludge as fertilizer, it is treated

POST TREATMENT OF DIGESTATE

The digestate is dewatered through gravity extraction and pressing. Part of the extracted

liquid is used to dilute incoming waste and the rest is discharged in sewage. The solid

cake, with a Total Solid content of about 40%, is treated aerobically for about two

weeks to completely stabilize it. Inert material is separated from the compost through a

rotary screen.

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 CHAPTER 6: PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

In the design of a biogas plant and industrial plants generally, the methods of controlling

the systems are important factors in choosing the type of process and setting the labour

requirements. Processes are controlled precisely to give more uniform and higher

quality products by the application of automated systems, often leading to higher

profits. Therefore any process with an input and output which may be flow, temperature,

pressure, concentration or any other inventory, environmental or quality variable that is

to be held at a desired value must have some measures of control.

Changes in process output may occur as a result of the following:

Changes in weather conditions or raw material quality and quantity

Deviations from operating temperatures or ambient temperature
Deviations from operating pressure
Deviations from operating flow
Manually, when operators change production rate
And cyclically as a result of oscillations in other control loops

Variations in any of the factors stated above will drive the output (controlled variable)

further away from the set point (desired value) thus requiring a corresponding change in

another variable called manipulated variable.

THE NEED FOR CONTROL SYSTEM

The rational arrangement of equipment and human interventions are not enough reasons

to introduce a control system, the following bring about need for a control system.

1. To ensure the stability of an inherently dynamic chemical process

2. To optimize the performance of a chemical process

29
3. To suppress the interference of external disturbance or influences.

TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEM

A. Feedback Control System

B. Feedforward Control System

C. Cascade Control System

D. Feedforward+Feedback Control System

Of all the control systems listed above a feedback control systems is the best for the

plant under consideration in this study as they can improve control system performance

over feed forward control.

DESIGN OF A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

The various (flow rates, temperatures, pressures, concentrations etc.) associated with a

chemical process plant are divided into two groups;

a. Input variables: which denote the effect of the surroundings on the chemical process

b. Output variables: which denote the effect of the process on the surroundings.

The input variables can be further classified into the following categories

1. Manipulated variable: if their values can be adjusted freely by the human operator or

a control mechanism.

2. Disturbances: if their values are not the result of adjustment by an operator or a

control system

The output variables are also classified into the following categories.

1. Measure output variables: if their values are known by directly measuring them
30
2. Unmeasured output: if they are not o cannot be measured

The aims of control system are as follows:

1. To monitor process output variable by measurements.

2. To make rational decision regarding what corrective action is needed on the basis of

information about the current and desired state of the process

3. To effectively implement this decisions on the process.

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 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION

From this study, it was determined that an average population of 1 million people can be

able to generate enough waste that could be used to produce enough biogas that can

serve as many as more than 80,000 people. Apart from serving as a source of energy,

biogas production serves as a technique of controlling and treating wastes. The by-

product produced can be used as a high nutrient fertilizer.

Even though the design problem addressed in this study describes a relatively large

plant, it was understood during the course of the study that the technology can be

applied to much smaller scales of production. One that is as small as could digest the

waste from a single household and produce gas for the household.

It is thus sensible to conclude that biogas production from human and animal wastes is

surely a win-win venture. If properly harnessed, it holds the potential to provide a

continuous supply of energy that is cheap, easy to produce and can be produced

domestically. This also implies that a decentralised energy supply can be obtained while

facilitating self sufficiency in a sustainable way.

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 REFERENCES

Bond, Tom and Templeton, Michael R. (2011). "History and future of domestic biogas
plants in the developing world" in Energy for Sustainable Development Volume
15, Issue 4 Available at: www.sciencedirect.com

Bugaje, I. M. and Mohammed I. A. (2008). Biofuels Production Technology. Zaria:

Science and Technology Forum

Consortium On Rural Technology (1986). Biogas from Human waste., Delhi:

Consortium On Rural Technology

David, Abutu (2010). DESIGN OF A PILOT PLANT FOR THE PRODUCTION OF

5000m3 OF BIOGAS PER ANNUM FROM BIOMASS (MUNICIPAL SOLID
WASTE) (Unpublished final year project). Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Energy Commission of Nigeria (no date) Biofuels Training Manual

Mahe, Haliru Jimoh (2010). DESIGN OF A PROCESS PLANT FOR THE

PRODUCTION OF 5000m3 PER ANNUM OF BIOGAS FROM BIOMASS.
(Unpublished final year project). Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Mukumba, Patrick, Makaka, Golden, Mamphweli, Sampson and Misi, Sherpherd (2013)
"A possible design and justification for a biogas plant at Nyazura Adventist High
School, Rusape, Zimbabwe" in Journal of Energy in Southern Africa Vol 24 No
4.

Oladipo, Adewale (2010). DESIGN OF A PILOT PLANT FOR THE PRODUCTION

OF 5000m3 OF BIOGAS PER ANNUM FROM BIOMASS (MUNICIPAL SOLID
WASTE) (Unpublished final year project). Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Spuhler, Dorothee (no date) Anaerobic Digestion (Small-scale) [PowerPoint slides].

Available at: www.sswm.info

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