Geoenvironmental Problems

GE Engineering Refreshing
1. Remediation of contaminated sites
2 Design of waste containment
2.
Ch 7 Subsurface
Chap S b f systems
3. Reuse of waste
Contamination 4 Recycled materials for engineering
4.
applications

Remaining Chapters in the Book to Cover

zAn overview of various sources of

zChapter 10 - Methods to characterize subsurface contamination
contaminated sites
zTypical contaminants encountered at
zChapter 11 - Assessment of risk posed by contaminated sites
the sites contamination
zRelevant
R l t regulations
l ti concerning
i
zChapter 12 to 14 various methods to subsurface remediation, and
remediate contaminated sites
zGeneral remedial approach to
zChapter 15 sources and characteristics contaminated sites
of wastes
 SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION
zRefer Figure 9 9.1,
1 pg 216
zFrom geoenvironmental , various sources
of contamination be divided into 3 groups
groups.
1.Sources originating on the ground surface
2.Sources originating above the water table
(vadose zone)
3.Sources originating below the water table
((saturated zone))
1) Sources originating on the ground
surface
When stored/spread
p on the g
ground surface,, various water-
soluble products cause subsurface contamination
z Infiltration of contaminated surface water
z Land disposal of solid and liquid wastes
z Accidental spill
z Fertilizers & pesticides
z Disposal of sewage & water treatment plant sludge
z Salt storage and spreading on roads (cold region only)
z Animals feedlots
z Particulate matter from airborne sources

a) Infiltration of b) Land disposal of

contaminated
t i t d surface f water
t solid
lid and
d liliquid
id wastes
t
zDuring pumping
pumping, wells are recharged by zExamples: manual sludges
sludges, garbage
garbage,
infiltration from surrounding surface water industrial wastes, and mine tailings that
bodies.
bodies spread directly onto ground surface over
zIf surface water is contaminated, such large areas or formed as individual
infiltration causes contamination of aquifer mounds
and drinking water. zInfiltration of soluble substances from
these wastes cause subsurface
contamination
 c)) Accidental spill
p d) Fertilizers & Pesticides
zLarge vol of toxic materials are transported
over the country by trucks, rails, and zUsed in agriculture and many are highly
aircraft transferred at handling facilities
aircraft, facilities, toxic
and stored in tanks zMay infiltrate or carried by surface runoff
zSpills were common and either infiltrate or
flow into a stream

e) Disposal of sewage & water f) Salt storage and spreading on

treatment plant sludges roads (cold
( region only))
zSludge is the residue of treatment of zUnprotected deicing salt piles dissovle
municipal & industrial wastes readily thus infiltration or in runoof
zContain decomposed organic matter matter, zSalts spread on the roads also dissolve
inorganic salts, heavy metals etc. and infiltrate causing subsurface
zLand
L d application
li ti off sludge
l d iis a common contamination
practice, resulting in infiltration of
contaminants
t i t anddhhence, subsurface
b f
contamination
 h) Particulate matter from
g) Animals Feedlots airborne
ib sources
z A feedlot or feedyard is a type of animal feeding zFallouts of particulate matter originating
operation (AFO) which is used for finishing from smoke, flue dust, aerosols, and
livestock, notably beef cattle, hogs/pigs, sheep automobile emissions may deposit water-
water
and poultry prior to slaughter
soluble and toxic chemicals on the ground
z Feedlots used for livestock cover small areas but
surface and their infiltration cause
provide a huge volume of wastes
subsurface contamination.
z These wastes, and seepage from lagoons that
store any liquid
li id wastes cause subsurface
b f
contamination

2) Sources originating above the

water table (vadose zone)
a) Waste Disposal in Excavations
A variety
y of substances deposited
p or stored in the g
ground zOpen excavations are often the
above the water table lead subsurface contamination. unregulated dumps to dispose various
Examples:
1. Waste disposal in excavations
wastes including liquid wastes
2. Landfills zInfiltration cause contamination
3 Surface impoundments
3.
4. Leakage from underground storage tanks
5 Leakage from underground pipelines
5.
6. Septic tanks
 b) Landfills
zMunicipal and industrial wastes were
disposed of in unlined open dumps
zLeachates generated from waste
decomposition and infiltration of rainwater
and subsurface runoff cause
contamination
c) Surface impoundments
zSurface impoundments e e.g.
g ponds &
lagoons consist of shallow excavations
and are used to dispose agricultural
agricultural,
municipal and industrial wastes
zMany are located in permeable soils
causing extensive infiltration of soluble
waste constituents into subsurface

d) Leakage from Underground Storage Tanks e) Leakage from Underground Pipelines

zUnderground storage tanks are used to zLong buried pipelines to transport liquid
store huge quantity of liquids for municipal, zLeakage of these pipelines due to
industrial and agricultural purposes corrosion/cracking cause extensive
zLeakage due to corrosion/cracking of contamination
tanks cause contamination zHowever,
H th
they are diffi
difficultlt tto detect
d t t
zPetroleum leakage is the most widespread
problem
bl
 f) Septic Tanks 3) Sources originating below the water
table (saturated zone)
zEffluent discharges from these tanks often A variety
y of substances deposited
p or stored in the g
ground
cause high levels of biological above the water table lead subsurface contamination.
Examples:
contamination into subsurface,
subsurface especially 1. Waste disposal in wet excavations
when they are located in permeable soil 2. Deep well injection
3 Mines
3.
4. Agricultural drainage wells and tiles
5 Abandoned or improperly constructed wells
5.

a) Waste disposal in wet excavations b) Deep well injection

zMining excavations extend to level of zFor many years
years, liquid wastes were
groundwater and are filled with water disposed off by pumping into deep wells
zWhen abandoned they serve as dumps for zThe injection of highly toxic wastes led to
both solid and liquid wastes extensive subsurface contamination
zDue
D tto direct
di t connectionti tto the
th aquifer,
if
extensive groundwater contamination
occurs
 c) Mines
c).
zMany mines are deeper than the water
table
zPumping of mine water to the surface
surface,
leaching of spoil material, milling wastes
etc caused numerous contamination
etc.
problems
e) Abandoned/Improperly Constructed Wells
z When a well is abandoned, the casing is pulled
out
z In other situations,, the casing g mayy become so
corroded that holes developed
z In both situations,, fluid of higher
g pressure
p will
migrate and contaminate adjacent aquifers
z Improperly constructed water supply wells may
either contaminate an aquifer or produce
contaminated water
d) Agricultural Drainage Wells & Tiles
zTo enhance drainage in swampy areasareas,
field tiles and drainage wells are used to
allow water to drain into deeper
deeper, more
permeable soils
zSuch drainage may contain agricultural
chemicals that cause groundwater
contamination
TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS
zOf thousands of contaminated sites in US
217,000 of them require urgent remedial
action
zGroundwater and soils are the most
prevalent contaminated media at these
p
sites (say, 70%)
zIn addition, large
g qquantities of sediments,
landfill waste and slag are present as
contaminated materials
 TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS
z The contaminants encountered are:
- organic compounds
- heavy metals (inorganic), and
- radionuclides
radionuclides,
z DOE has mixed wastes including radioactive
wastes
z DOD sites contain explosives and unexploded
ordnance (military supplies including weapons,
ammunition combat vehicles,
ammunition, vehicles and maintenance
tools and equipment etc.)
z Cost to clean up USD 187 billion

COMMON CONTAMINANTS AT WHY REMEDIATION OF CONTAMINATED SITE

CONTAMINATED SITES A DAUNTING TASK TO GE PROFESSIONALS?

zRefer to Table 9 9.2

2 (pg 219-220)
219 220) which For contaminants in the subsurface, they are
summarises common contaminants at z Distinctly different properties
sites,
sites z Complex distribution
zImportance z Complex behaviour
- chemical
h i l characteristics
h t i ti andd z Exampler 1: heavy metals in the soils may distribute
ion the form of either a) dissolved in soil
- toxicity of contaminants, and solution/porewater,
so ut o /po e ate , b) occupy
occupyinggeexchange
c a ge ssites
tes o
on
- major sources and pathways leading to inorganic soil constituents, c) specifically adsorbed on
inorganic soil constituents, d) associted with insoluble
subsurface contamination
soil organic matter, e) precipitated as pure or mixed
solids, and f) present in the structure of the minerals
 WHY REMEDIATION OF CONTAMINATED SITE
WHY REMEDIATION OF CONTAMINATED SITE A DAUNTING TASK TO GE PROFESSIONALS?
A DAUNTING TASK TO GE PROFESSIONALS?
z Example 3: organic compounds may exist in 4
phases in soils
z Example 2: the amounts of heavy metals
1) dissolved
present in abovementioned phases are
2) adsorbed
controlled byy the interdependent
p g
geochemical 3) gaseous
process such as 4) free/pure
1)) adsorption
p & desorption
p z Example 4:depending on the following processes the
2) redox reactions organic compounds may change from one phase to
another
3) complex formations 1) volatilization
4) precipitation & dissolution of solids 2) dissolution
5) acid-base reactions 3) adsorption, and
4) biodegradation

WHY REMEDIATION OF CONTAMINATED SITE

A DAUNTING TASK TO GE PROFESSIONALS?
z An in-depth understanding of
various geochemical processes that control the
phase distribution of contaminants in soils is
critical for the assessment and remediation of
contaminated sites
z Refer to geo-chemistry of contaminants
ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS &
REGULATIONS
zTo regulate remediation of contaminated
sites
z1) assessment and remediation of
previously contaminated sites, and
2) proper management of newly created
hazardous wastes
 ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS & ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS &
REGULATIONS (A
(American
i E
Experience)
i ) REGULATIONS (A
(American
i E
Experience)
i )
American laws & regulations related to Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Response
assessment and remediation of contaminated Compensation and Liabilities Act (CERCLA)
sites
it are: zAlso
Al kknown as S Superfund
f d program
zComprehensive Environmental Response, zTo provide financial assistance for the
Compensation and Liabilities Act (CERCLA) remediation of abandoned hazardous waste
zResource Conservation and Recoveryy Act sites that pose serious risk to the health and
(RCRA) safety of the public & environment
zState voluntary site remediation programs zAdministered byy USEPA in cooperation
p with
regional governmental agencies

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Comprehensive Environmental Response,

Compensation and Liabilities Act (CERCLA) Compensation and Liabilities Act (CERCLA)
z Also known as Superfund program
z To provide financial assistance for the remediation of
zUnder this program
program, the purchasers of
abandoned hazardous waste sites that pose serious risk to the contaminated sites may be held responsible fot
health and safety of the public & environment
z Administered by USEPA in cooperation with regional
the damage caused by previous ownersowners, even if
governmental agencies the activities that caused damage in the past
z Determine sites eligible for federal aid under the program were legal then
then.
z USEPA establish quantitative hazard ranking system across US
z Sites with score high enough to above system are placed on zAddition, regulations require a contaminated
National Priorities List ((NPL)) are deemed eligible
g to receive
funding for extensive long-term remediation. site be remediated to very low contaminant
z Superfund sites must comply with the stringent remediation levels so that its risk to public health is
y standards, and documentation required
codes, liability q by
y the
program minimised
Comprehensive Environmental Response, CERCLAs 9 stages of response to the
Compensation and Liabilities Act (CERCLA) hazardous wastes sites
z Refer to Fig.9.2(pg 222), CERCLA requires nine
stages of response to the hazardous wastes sites Stage 1: discovery and notification
1. discovery and notification
zThe responsible party (RP) must immediately
2. p
preliminary y assessment
3. removal action
report the release of a hazardous substance to
4. NPL determination the National Response Centre if the release
5 remedial
5. di l iinvestigation
ti ti quantity (RQ) is exceeded (RQs range from 1 to
6. feasibility study 500 lb/24-hour or 0.455 to 227.273 kg/24-hour
7 record of decision
7. zFor
F mixtures
i t and
d solutions,
l ti th
there iis a release
l
8. remedial design
when a component hazardous substance
9. remedial action
exceeds
d itits RQ

CERCLAs 9 stages of response to the CERCLAs 9 stages of response to the

hazardous wastes sites hazardous wastes sites

Stage 2; Preliminary Assessment (PA) Stage 3: Removal Action (RA)

z Undertake only if USEPA determines there is an immediate
zA review of existing data to determine if there is threat to human health or the environment
a need for a removal/remedial action z This response
p usually
y lead to a complete
p cleanup
p
z USEPA must terminate RA after spending USD 2 million or the
zReview available regulatory history, site lapse of 12 months from the date of initial removal unless
operations, demographic data( data refers to circumstances warrant continued action
z Examples of RA, installation of security fence. Warning signs,
selected population characteristics as used in removal of wastes to an approved RCRA facility, drainage
government, marketing
g g or opinion
p research),
) controls to prevent runoff, capping of contaminated soils,
segregation
ti and d storage
t off d
drummed
d wastes,
t removall off hi
highly
hl
aerial photos and local topography etc contaminated soils or drums, provision of alternative water
zReview MAY be followed up p with an SI with supplies, incineration or treatment of waste-on-site, and
stabilization of impoundments.
impoundments
limited sampling
 CERCLAs 9 stages of response to the CERCLAs 9 stages of response to the
hazardous wastes sites hazardous wastes sites

Stage 4: NPL determination Stage 5: Remedial Investigation (RI)

zIf a site is not listed on the NPL, it is eligible for zA detailed SI by USEPA or responsible parties
a Superfund-financed
Superfund financed removal action BUT NOT (RPs)
a remedial action
zIncludes sampling and exposure assessment to
zThe
The decision to list is based on the hazard
ranking system score. d t
determine
i th
the nature
t andd extent
t t off
contamination of air, soil and water
zThe
The score is sensitive to the potential for
RELEASE and PROXIMITY of people. zA risk assessment
zAA score of 28.5/100 makes a site eligible for the zAn RP can be fined USD 25,000 , per
p dayy if RP
NPL does not comply with an information request.

CERCLAs 9 stages of response to the CERCLAs 9 stages of response to the

hazardous wastes sites hazardous wastes sites
Stage
g 6: Feasibility
y Study
y ((FS)) Stage
g 6: Feasibility
y Study
y ((FS))
z It is an evaluation of remedial alternatives z FS to consider 9 factors
z Off-site transport
p and disposal
p without treatment is the 1. p
protection of human health & the environment
least desired remedy 2. compliance with applicable and relevant
z For each site, requirements.
q
a) Cost: note: a) the exact cleanup level has not been
g Remedial Investigation
Average g ((RI)) or Feasibility
y specified by Congress/USEPA/courts
Study (FS) cost = USD 1.3 m b) drinking water standards & lifetime cancer
b) Time: risk < 10-4 are commonly used
An RI or FS may take 18-30 months to complete 3. long-term effectiveness and performance
 CERCLAs 9 stages of response to the CERCLAs 9 stages of response to the
hazardous wastes sites hazardous wastes sites
Stage
g 6: Feasibility
y Studyy ((FS)) Stage
g 7: Record of Decision ((ROD))
FS to consider 9 factors (continue.)
4 reduction in volume
4. volume, toxicity and mobility USEPA
z selects a remedy
5. short-term effectiveness z prepares a remedy plan
6. implementability z Seeks state, community, and RP acceptance during a
7. cost public review and comment period
z However,
H ROD can bbe reopened
d & amended
d d
8. site acceptance
9 community acceptance
9.

CERCLAs 9 stages of response to the CERCLAs 9 stages of response to the

hazardous wastes sites hazardous wastes sites

Stageg 9: Remedial Action ((RA))

St
Stage 8:
8 R
Remedial
di l D
Design
i (RD)
The prerequisites for an RA are:
g on the NPL
1. Listing
z RD provides engineering and construction
specifications for the selected remedy 2. a) The state must contribute 10% when no financially
feasible RP can be located
z It may take 12 to 18 months to complete
3. b) The state contributes 50% if the site is state
owned
4 c) RI or FS,
4. FS ROD and RD must be complete.
complete
 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(
(RCRA) ) (RCRA)
z A set of regulations promulgated by US Congress in
1976
z Purpose: to control newly created hazardous waste z Steps
St required
i d ffor the
th remediation
di ti ffor contaminated
t i t d
from cradle to grave sites under RCRA are similar to thoses under
CERCLA
z Provide criteria for defining
z Refer Section 9.4.1; pg 221-223)
a) hazardous waste
z Refer Fig.
g 9.3 & Table 9.3
b) generator
t responsibilities
ibiliti
c) transport requirements
d) manifest systems,
systems and treatment,
treatment storage,
storage and
disposal facility (TSDF) requirements
e) address problems result from underground tanks
storing petroleum & other hazardous substances

STATE VOLUNTARY SITE STATE VOLUNTARY SITE

REMEDIATION PROGRAMS REMEDIATION PROGRAMS
z Almost half of the states in US offer/assist some types of voluntary The criteria are:
remediation (cleanup) of contaminated site b programs
z Purpose is to encourage the remediation of sites with possible 1. Sites not listed or proposed for listing on the NPL list of
contamination while prevent any increase liability for the participating Superfund
parties 2. Sites currently not subject to current environmental
z When a remediation project is completed, many states will issue a enforcement actions/orders
statement releasing the participants from state liability for any
contamination that may exist at the site 3 Sites not subject to RCRA (Resource Conservation and
3.
z Moreover, state agencies will often assist project participants if they are Recovery Act) corrective action
subject to federal liability 4. Sites do not ppose an immediate & significant
g risk of harm
z Only sites meet certain criteria are eligible to participate in this program to human health or environment
5. Sites not pose a significant threat to public/private drinking
water supplies
 STATE VOLUNTARY SITE
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS/FACTORS
REMEDIATION PROGRAMS
z One should contact relevant state environment Beside regulations mentioned, there are many
agency where the site is located related factors affecting the remediation of
z To be well verse with the eligibility
g y requirements,
q , contaminated sites
sites, namely
agreements, site investigation/characterization 1. End use of the site proposed future use may dictate the need for
procedures, response action requirements, remediation and the cleanup level required
2
2. C t off cleanup
Cost l it depends
d d on site
it conditions
diti and
d th
the applicable
li bl
certifications & inspection, a final agency sign- regulations; more stringent means higher cost
off, release, and covenant not to sue 3. Health & safety Federal regulations require stringent safety
z Refer
R f to Fig.
Fi 9.3
9 3 (pg
( 225)
22 ) ffor a comparison
i off measures att contaminated
t i t d sites.
it Stringent
St i t protection
t ti measures for f
workers in hazardous waste operations. Site-specific health and safety
salient features of voluntary site remediation plan is prepared and strictly followed. All persons work/visit the site
programs in 6 midwestern states in US require to follow the safety measures

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS/FACTORS REMEDIATION APPROACH

z Purpose: A systematic approach for the assessment and
4. Environmental liabilityy who is responsible
p for the remediation of contaminated sites is necessary to facilitate
contamination and who will pay for the remediation are the remediation process and avoid undue delay
contentious questions to be answered. CERCLA uses the
z The most important
p aspects
p are:
court system to assign specific liability
liability. Four classes
potentially responsible parties: i) current owner/operator of 1. Site characterization
the site, ii) former owner/operator at time of disposal of 2. Risk assessment
hazardous waste, iii)) any person arranged ffor the disposal 3. Selection of an effective remedial action
or treatment of waste at site, iv) any transporter of z Fig 9.4, an outline of the systematic approach
hazardous waste to the site. That is,, almost anyone y
z Advantage:
Ad t All
Allow iinnovative
ti iintegration
t ti off various
i ttasks
k and
d
involved with the site is a potentially responsible party and
lead to speedier, cost-effective remedial program
liable for the cost of cleanup
 REMEDIATION APPROACH
REMEDIATION APPROACH
1 Site Characterization (SC)
1.
1 Site
1. Sit Ch
Characterization
t i ti (SC)
z An inadequate SC leads to collect unnecessary/misleading
z Often the 1st step
p in a contamination site remediation data technical misjudgment & affect cost and duration of
data,
strategy remedial action or extensive contamination problem
z Consists of collection and assessment of data like resulting from inadequate/inappropriate remedial action
contaminant
t i t type
t andd distribution
di t ib ti att a site
it under
d z Often a lengthy & expensive process. Thus it is
investigation advantageous top follow an effective SC strategy to
z Results form the basis for decisions e.g. requirements of optimize
p efficiencyy and cost
remedial action, guide for design, implementation & z Effective SC includes the collection of data pertaining to: 1)
monitoring of the remedial system/work (see Chap 10 in site geologic data (incl. site stratigraphy, important
the textbook for details) geologic
l i fformations
ti etc.),
t ) 2) hhydrogeologic
d l i ddata
t ((e.g. major
j
z Each site is unique, SC be tailored to meet site-specific water-bearing formations and their hydraulics properties,
requirements
q and 3) site contamination data (incl. type, concentration,
and distribution, surface conditions at and around the site
etc.)

REMEDIATION APPROACH REMEDIATION APPROACH

1 Site Characterization (SC)
1.
z Often little information at the beginning of an
investigation
z Suggest to follow a phased approach for SC
z Advantages: 1) minimise financial impact by
improving the planning of the investigation and 2)
ensuring the collection of relevant data
z A 3-phase approach is suggested
1 Site Characterization (SC)
1.
PHASE I
z Definition of investigation purpose and
performance of preliminary site assessment
z Preliminary assessment provides geographical
location, background information, regional
hydrogeologic information, and potential sources
of contamination at site
z Two tasks: literature review and a site visit
 REMEDIATION APPROACH REMEDIATION APPROACH
1 Site Characterization (SC)
1. 1 Site Characterization (SC)
1.
PHASE II PHASE III
z Based on results of Phase I activities, the purpose and z Detailed SI to define site geology, hydrogeology, and the
scope of Phase II exploratory SI is developed contamination profile.
z If contmination was detected during preliminary z Data obtained must be adequate to properly assess the
investigation, the exploratory SI must be used to confirm risk posed at site and allow for effective designs of
such findings
g and to obtain further data necessary y for possible remedial systems
p y
design of a detailed SI program z A detailed work plan incl. field and lab testing programs
z A detailed work plan is prepared for the SI describing the and QA/QC and S&H plans be outlined
scope off related
l t d field
fi ld and
d llaboratory
b t ttesting
ti ((sampling
li & z Depending on accessibility, and proposed future purpose
testing procedures, sampling locations and frequency, a of a site
QA/QC plan, a safety and health (S&H) plan, a work z May last a few weeks to a few years
schedule, and a cost assessment etc.
z Time and effort render this phase very costly

REMEDIATION APPROACH REMEDIATION APPROACH

1 Site Characterization (SC)
1. 1 Site Characterization (SC)
1.
PHASE IV ((where necessary)
y) General
z If data collected after the first 3 phases are inadequate, z Depending on the logistics of the project, SC may require
phase IV will be developed and implemented to gain regulatory compliance and/or approval at different stages
additional information of the investigation
z Additional phases of SC must be performed until all z Thus, important to review the applicable regulations during
pertinent data is collected
p the preliminary site assessment (i.e. Phase I)
z Meetings with regulatory officials may be beneficial to
ensure the investigation procedures and results conform to
regulatory standards and prevent delay in obtaining the
required regulatory permits and/or approvals.

REMEDIATION APPROACH
1 Site Characterization (SC)
1.
General
z Non-invasive geophysical technique like ground
penetrating radar, cross-well radar, electrical resistance
tomography vertical induction profiling and high
tomography, high-resolution
resolution
seismic reflection produce computer-generated images of
subsurface geological conditions (qualitative at best)
z Other approaches are: chemical tracers to identify and
quantify contaminated zones based on their affinity for a
particular contaminant and the measured change in tracer
concentration between wells using a combination of
conservative and partitioning tracers.
REMEDIATION APPROACH
1 Site Characterization (SC)
1.
General
z Innovative SC techniques are increasingly used to gather
relevant data efficiently and cost effectively, e.g. vehicle-
mounted cone direct-push
direct push probes like penetrometer and
sensors are used to characterise contaminated site quickly
z Probes are available for direct measurement of in-situ
contaminant concentration, or configured to expedite the
collection of soil, groundwater, and soil gas samples for
subsequent laboratory analysis
z Measure standard stratigraphic data to give flexible real-
time analysis
REMEDIATION APPROACH
2. Risk (Impact) Assessment (RA or IA)
z After a contaminated site is thoroughly characterised, an RA
will follow
z An RA or IA is a systematic evaluation used to determine the
potential risk posed by the detected contamination to human
health and the environment under present & possible future
conditions (see Fig. 9.4, pg 229)
z If Ra/IA reveals contamination gives rise to an unacceptable
risk, a remedial strategy will be developed to assess the
problem
z If corrective action is deemed necessary, the RA will help to
develop remedial strategies and goals to minimise potential
risks posed at site
z Detailed RA/IA measurement methods are found in Chap 11
of the book
REMEDIATION APPROACH REMEDIATION APPROACH
2. Risk (Impact) Assessment (RA or IA) 2. Risk (Impact) Assessment (RA or IA)
z USEPA & ASTM have developed comprehensive RA z ASTM Standard E 1739, the Guide for Risk-Based Corrective
procedures (RBCA), is a tiered assessment originally adopted to
Action (RBCA)
z USEPA procedure was originally developed by US Academy help sites that contaminated leaking submerged storage
of Sciences in 1983 and was adopted by USEPA with tanks containing petroleum (ASTM, 2002)
modifications for Superfund feasibility studies and RCRA z Although the standard is more toward such sites, many
corrective measure studies regulatory agencies use a slightly modified version for non-
z This procedure provides a general but comprehensive UST sites
approach for performing RA at contaminated sites z This RBCA approach integrates risk and exposure
z This RA consists of 4 steps: i) hazard identification, ii) assessment practices with site assessment activities and
exposure assessment, iii) toxicity assessment, and iv) risk selection
l ti off the
th remediation
di ti ttechnique
h i
characterisation z The RBCA process allows corrective action activities to be
tailored for site
site-specific
specific conditions and risks.
z This assures the chosen course of action will protect both
human health and environment

REMEDIATION APPROACH REMEDIATION APPROACH

3. Remedial Action (ReA) 3. Remedial Action (ReA)
z If RA/IA results reveal a site pose no risk to human health z A remedial method must be flexible in application to ensure
and the environment,
environment no remedial action is required adaptability to site-specific
site specific soil and groundwater conditions
z In some cases, monitoring of a site may be required to z The selected method must be able to address site
validate the results of the RA/IA. contamination while offering compatibility with the geology
z Corrective action is required when risks posed by the site and hydrogeology of the site
are deemed unacceptable
z If so,
so remedial strategy will develop to ensure the remedial
method complies with all technical, economic and
regulatory considerations
z The costs & benefits of remedial alternatives are compared
by flexibility, compatibility, speed, cost of each method
REMEDIATION APPROACH REMEDIATION APPROACH
3. Remedial Action (ReA) Two Categories Remedial Methods 3. Remedial Action (ReA) Two Categories Remedial Methods
z Generally, there are 2 categories remedial methods: 1) in-situ, and 2) ex- z 2) Ex-situ remedial methods
situ remediation method i) use to treat excavated soils and/or extracted groundwater
z 1) In-situ
I it remedialdi l methods
th d ii) depending on site-specific conditions, surface treatment may be
i) use to treat contaminated soils and/or groundwater in-place performed either on-site or off-site
ii) no need to excavate the contaminated soils and extract groundwater iii) they are attractive because no consideration to subsurface conditions
iii) less expensive is necessary
iv) less site disturbance iv) offer easier control and monitoring during implementation of remedial
v) increased safety to both on-site
on site workers and public within the vicinity activity
of the remedial project
vi) successful implementation of this method requires a thorough
understanding of sub-surface
sub surface conditions
vii) at some sites, in-situ containment using bottom barriers, vertical walls,
and caps may be a feasible strategy to minimize the risk posed by the
contamination
viii)The in-situ barriers (see Chap 12 for details) may serve as an interim
remedial action

REMEDIATION APPROACH REMEDIATION APPROACH

3. Remedial Technologies (RT) Two Groups 3. Remedial Technologies (RT) Two Groups
z Generally, there are 2 groups of RT based on their scope of application. z 2) The Saturated Zone Technologies (see Chap 14 for details)
1) vadose zone, and 2) saturated zone technologies i) address subsurface contamination
ii) for contamination in the saturated zone other technologies must be
z 1) The Vadose Zone Technologies (see Chap 13 for details) considered for possible implementation (see Chap 14)
i) this is the zone where its geological profile extends from the iii)) to remediate it is essential to understand the operation,
p
ground surface to the upper surface of the principal water- applicability, advantages, and drawbacks of available subsurface
bearing formation
technologies
ii) the financial impact of this remediation program may be
substantially reduced if the source of pollution is identified and
remediated while it is still in the vadose zone, before the onset of
groundwater contamination
iii) a number of remedial technologies suitable for vadose zone
treatment but many of these are incapable of treating contaminated
g
groundwater.
REMEDIATION APPROACH
3. Remedial Technologies (RT) General
SUMMARY
1. Countless contaminated sites that posed considerable threat to human
1. Using just one technology may be inadequate to remediate some
health and environment exist throughout the US and elsewhere in the
contaminated sites where, say,
world
a)) different
diff t types
t off contaminants
t i t exist
i t (e.g.
( heavy
h metals
t l combinedbi d
2. These sites require characterization of potential contamination and
with volatile organic compounds etc.)
possible implementation of remedial action
b) the contaminants present in a complex geological environment
3. It is of utmost importance
p to characterize the site p
properly
p y
(
(e.g. heterogeneous
h t soilil profile
fil consists
i t off llenses/layers
/l off llow-
permeability zones surrounded by high-permeability soils etc.) 4. Characterization includes the definition of sites geology, hydrology, and
contamination potential relates to the environment, and the locations
2. Under above situations, different remediation technologies can be used
and demographics
g p of nearby
yppopulations
p
sequentially
ti ll ((one after
ft another
th iin a sequence)) tto achieve hi the
th requiredi d
remedial goals 5. Characterization will be followed by performing risk/impact assessment
of hazards at the site before a suitable remedial action is
3. The use of such multiple remediation technologies is often referred to as
p
contemplated/selected
t t
treatment t trains
t i
6. To perform the above different tasks in a financially responsible (or cost
4. Alternatively, different remediation technologies can be used concurrently
effective) manner, a rational remedial strategy is adopted and followed
5. A monitoring is implemented during and after remedial operations to right
g from initial site characterization until completion
p of site cleanup
p
confirm adequate remediation
6. Once the site is declared a clean site, it may be reused or redeveloped

SUMMARY
7. If the risk posed by the detected contamination is unacceptable an
appropriate remedial technology must be selected and implemented
properly. This requires a thorough understanding of the conditions
within the subsurface. However, the advantages and drawbacks/
shortcomings of the available remedial options must also be Characterization of Performing
Contaminated Site Risk/Impact
understood to avoid improper implementation that may exacerbate site
Assessment
contamination
t i ti - definition of sites
8. Remediation professionals who have knowledge of available remedial geology, hydrology, on hazards at the
technologies will be better equipped to use proper/correct judgment for and contamination site before a suitable
th d
the decisions
i i regarding
di th the remediation
di ti off contaminated
t i t d sites
it potential
t ti l relates
l t tto remedial
di l action
ti iis
the environment, contemplated/selecte
and the locations d
g p
and demographics
of nearby
populations