Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology

Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I: early development activities

Colin F. McDonald, Aristide F. Massardo, Colin Rodgers, Aubrey Stone,
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Colin F. McDonald, Aristide F. Massardo, Colin Rodgers, Aubrey Stone, (2008) "Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines,
part I: early development activities", Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology, Vol. 80 Issue: 2, pp.139-157, doi:
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 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines,
part I: early development activities
Colin F. McDonald
McDonald Thermal Engineering, La Jolla, California, USA
Aristide F. Massardo
Faculty of Engineering, University of Genova, Genova, Italy
Colin Rodgers
ITC, San Diego, California, USA, and
Aubrey Stone
San Diego, California, USA

Abstract
Purpose Interest is currently being expressed in heat exchanged propulsion gas turbines for a variety of aeroengine applications, and in support of
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this, the aim of this paper is to evaluate the relevance of experience gained from development testing of several recuperated aeroengines in the USA in
the late 1960s.
Design/methodology/approach Technology status, including engine design features, performance, and specific weight of recuperated propulsion
gas turbines based on radial and axial turbomachinery, that were development tested in the power range of about 300 to 4,000 hp (224 to 2,984 kW) is
discussed in Part I.
Findings A successful flight worthiness test was undertaken in the USA of a helicopter powered solely by a recuperated turboshaft engine and this
demonstrated a specific fuel consumption reduction of over 25 percent compared with the simple-cycle engine. However; in an era of low-fuel cost, and
uncertainty about the long-term structural integrity of the high-temperature heat exchanger, further development work was not undertaken.
Practical implications The gas turbines tested were based on conventional simple-cycle engines with essentially bolted-on recuperators.
Optimum approaches to minimize engine overall weight were needed in which the recuperator was integrated with the engine structure from the onset
of design, and these are discussed in Part II.
Originality/value Based on engine hardware testing, a formidable technology base was established, which although dated, could provide insight
into the technical issues likely to be associated with the introduction of future heat exchanged aeroengines. These are projected to have the potential
for reduced fuel burn, less emissions, and lower noise, and recuperated and intercooled turboshaft, turboprop, and turbofan variants are discussed in
Part III.

Keywords Turbines, Aerospace engineering

Paper type Technical paper

1. Introduction fuel consumption reduction and increased flight range. Even

In the 20 years or so following the Second World War, intense
R&D in the areas of compressor and turbine aerothermal
improvement, turbine blade cooling, combustion, materials
science, and mechanical design, yielded attractive
performance for propulsion gas turbines, including
turboprop, turboshaft, turbojet and later turbofans based on
the simplest of thermodynamic cycles.
Over the last four decades or so, various organizations,
together with new engineers entering the field, have investigated
what performance gains for aircraft and helicopters could be
realised by utilising a recuperator, particularly in the areas of
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1748-8842.htm
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
80/2 (2008) 139 157
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1748-8842]
[DOI 10.1108/00022660810859364]
factoring in on-going improvements achieved in simple-cycle
engine components, the periodically reported findings showed
that, while the results were dependent on mission profile (for
say, an antisubmarine warfare patrol aircraft), recuperated
The authors would like express their thanks to Dr PeterFortescue, a
pioneer in the development of the recuperated turboprop engine, for his
expertise and comments on early gas turbine aeroengines, particularly on
the Bristol Theseus engine, and to Dr John Mason for technical advice on
high-temperature heat exchangers. Thanks are also extended to Professor
David Gordon Wilson, Professor Pericles Pilidis, Jim Oswald, and
Bryan Seegers for reviewing and providing constructive comments on the
first draft of this paper.
The authors really appreciate help given to them by John Leonard of
Rolls-Royce, Indianapolis on early Allison engines, and for reviewing and
providing comments on the first draft of the paper. As a mechanical
engineer, formerly employed by the Rolls-Royce Aeroegine Division in the
UK, the lead author wishes to thank the Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust,
Allison Branch, for providing invaluable material related to early heat
exchanged propulsion gas turbines. This paper has been enhanced by the
inclusion of hardware photographs and unique sketches, and the authors
are appreciative to all concerned, with credits duly noted.

139
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I
Colin F. McDonald et al.
variants were not deemed attractive enough to deploy in an era
of low-fuel cost, and based on the limited magnitude of the
increased range, when considering the combined weight of
the heavier engine and reduced fuel inventory (i.e. effect of the
parasitic heat exchanger weight). Repeatedly, over the years the
nemesis of the more complex thermodynamic cycle was
identified as the lack of high-temperature heat exchanger
technology readiness, notably their excessive weight and size,
and more importantly their questionable integrity and reliability
when operating in a severe thermally cyclic environment.
This three-part paper puts into perspective the use of a
more complex thermodynamic cycle for future propulsion gas
turbines. It is interesting to note that several recuperated
turboshaft and turboprop engines were built and tested in the
1960s, but were not replicated or deployed. On a positive note,
one of the small recuperated turboshaft gas turbine engines
was successfully flight tested for 50 h in a light observation
helicopter. Valuable technical data were gained from these
programmes, and these are summarized in Part I of this
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paper, mainly for historical interest since many engineers
entering the gas turbine field today are simply unaware of
work done by early pioneers and supporters of recuperated
propulsion aeroengines.
In the two decades or so, following the flight demonstration
of a recuperated gas turbine, studies continued on
recuperated turboshaft engines, mainly for military
helicopter applications as discussed in Part II of this paper.
However, in this era, there were still essentially three
prevailing factors that favoured the continued use of
conventional gas turbines, namely significant advancements
made in the performance of simple-cycle engines, low-fuel
cost, and incomplete development of light weight
recuperators with a high degree of structural integrity. This
situation would prevail until the late 1990s.
While all avenues of gas turbine technology are being
exploited to the highest degree possible, further significant
advancements in the performance of simple-cycle aeroengines
(for example, say a 20 to 25 percent reduction in specific fuel
consumption (SFC)) are becoming more difficult to
realise compared with earlier gains achieved over the last
half century. The engines for future passenger and
freight carrying aircraft must be made more efficient to
combat ever-increasing fuel cost, and indeed its availability in
troublesome times, since countries worldwide have become so
dependent on crude oil. This increasing efficiency must be
achieved in concert with reduced pollutant emissions, and
lower noise levels. The use of a recuperator, and a necessary
intercooler for high-pressure ratio engines, has the potential
for meeting these demanding requirements. They also apply
to military applications, where in addition to increased range
(e.g. for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) patrol aircraft, ultra
long-range cruise missiles, UAVs and various expendable
drone engines) lower IR signatures can be achieved.
Finally, after several decades of development, a new
generation of compact and light weight recuperators, with
demonstrated structural integrity and reliability, have become
a reality. These make it possible to consider heat exchanged
propulsion gas turbines for service in say a decade from now.
As in the past, it is likely that such a technology advancement
will be initially pioneered to meet defence applications, with
later transfer of know-how to commercial endeavours,
particularly intercooled and recuperated turbofan engines,
and this is addressed in Part III of this paper.
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Volume 80 Number 2 2008 139 157
2. Propulsion gas turbine performance
2.1 Simple-cycle engine performance evolution
This topic will only be briefly addressed, since the
performance and physical size of aviation gas turbines
have been documented previously (Aviation Week & Space
Technology, 2007). It is germane, however, to include the
performance of engines in the mid to late 1960s since it was in
that era that recuperation was considered for both turboprop
and turboshaft engines in the USA. Since, performance is
dependent on a number of factors, including the following;
axial or radial flow turbomachinery, turbine inlet temperature,
pressure ratio, and the various component efficiencies, only
the following generalized data are given for the range of
engines considered. With compressor pressure ratios less
than about ten to one, and turbine inlet temperatures not
exceeding about 2000F (1093C), SFC and engine
specific weight were roughly in the range of 0.55-0.65 lb/
hp h (0.33 to 0.40 kg/kW h), and 1.5 to 2.5 hp/lb
(2.5-4.1 kW/kg), respectively, for axial flow turboprop
engines (Lancaster,1976).
As will be discussed in a later section, the Allison T56
turboprop engine is of particular interest. It was introduced
in the mid-1950s (Wheatley et al., 1965), and with on-going
technology advancements its power was increased, and by the
mid-1960s several thousand of these turboprop engines had
been produced. It is noteworthy that versions of this
turboprop engine are still in service today. As will be
discussed in following sections, recuperated and regenerated
variants of this engine were studied, and one experimental
engine with a fixed boundary heat exchanger was fabricated
and tested, but not deployed.
2.2 Projected benefits of recuperation
In the case of recuperated industrial gas turbines, that operate
continuously at 100 percent rated power, maximum fuel
savings can be realised by utilising high levels of heat
exchanger effectiveness, typically around 90 percent based on
practical size and cost considerations.
Since, aviation gas turbines only operate at full thrust or
power during take-off and climb to altitude, what is important
is fuel consumption at part load cruise power, where the bulk
of the mission time would be spent. A comparison showing
the difference in SFC for simple-cycle and recuperated engine
operation is shown on Figure 1. This is for a small single-
spool fixed geometry turboshaft engine that was actually test
flown in a helicopter, and this will be discussed in a following
section. During the helicopter flight worthiness test, the
reduction in SFC of the recuperated version increased
the flight range by 25.7 percent compared with the simple-
cycle engine.
It should be noted that if a high-recuperator gas inlet
temperature is maintained (by means of a variable geometry
power turbine nozzle), a flatter part power SFC curve can be
realised.
While recuperated engines have reduced fuel burn giving
increased range, particularly for helicopter turboshaft
engines, the parasitic weight of the heat exchanger must
be considered, since it is the combined weight of the fuel
inventory and the additional weight of the recuperator that
is important. While dependent on mission profile, various
studies have shown, that unlike recuperated industrial gas
turbines (that have effectiveness values of say 90 percent),
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Colin F. McDonald et al. Volume 80 Number 2 2008 139 157

Figure 1 Demonstrated fuel savings for small recuperated turboshaft gas turbine from helicopter flight worthiness test in 1968

TWO-PASS CROSS
COUNTERFLOW
RECUPERATOR

RECUPERATED ENGINE, %
40

FUEL SAVED USING

35
C T
30

RECUPERATED CYCLE
25

20
0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80
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RECUPERATOR EFFECTIVENESS
1.20
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION, LB / HP HR

1.00
Si
m
p le
-C
yc
le E
n gi
0.80 Re nee
cu
pe
rat
ed
En
gin
ee Fuel Saved at
0.60 Normal Rated Power

0.40
20 40 60 80 100
ENGINE POWER, %

the optimum effectiveness for a propulsion turboshaft or 3. Early regenerative aeroengine concept
turboprop engine is in the range of 60-75 percent for flight
durations of less than 3 h. The influence of effectiveness on The legendary Messerschmitt Me 262 fighter, powered by
fuel saved at normal rated power for the aforementioned two Junkers 109-004A turbojets flew for the first time on
recuperated helicopter engine is shown on Figure 1. A point July 8, 1942 (Ethell and Price, 1979). This was the first flight
to remember here is that for a typical recuperator, advancing of an aircraft powered by two axial-flow turbojet engines.
from say 60 to 75 percent effectiveness, the heat exchanger The following year a regenerative turboprop engine design
matrix volumetric size and weight would increase by a factor (PTL) was proposed by Brown Boveri & Cie in Germany
of approximately two. (Kay, 2003). Based on an axial-flow turbomachine layout, the
Over six decades have passed since innovative engineers in heat exchangers consisted of two rotary drum regenerators
Europe first started investigating heat exchanged propulsion that would be rotated by small electric motors. A layout of this
gas turbines, but because of security concerns during the 5,000 hp (3,730 kW) engine concept is shown on Figure 2
war years very little technical data were published. The (from Kay, 2003).With a compressor pressure ratio of 7, and
salient features of early recuperated propulsion engines that a heat exchanger effectiveness in the range 90-95 percent, the
were studied, and those that were built and tested in the estimated fuel consumption at altitude was such that if two of
mid to late 1960s as shown on Table I have been gleaned these engines replaced the four 1,700 hp (1,270 kW) piston
from various sources including (Finch, 1950; Gunston, engines in the Me264 bomber, the aircraft could have had the
1995; Kerrebrock, 1983; Wilson and Korakianitis, 1998; range to make a round trip bombing raid on New York from
Leyes and Fleming, 1999), and are discussed in the an airbase on the European Continent. In theory, the use of a
following sections. rotating drum regenerator (considered in the USA some two

141
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Table I Salient features of early recuperated turbine aeroengines

Modified
Engine Bristol Theseus Modified Lycoming T53-L-9 Allison T56-A-7 Allison T78-A-2 Modified Allison T63-A-5 Engine study
Year 1945 1965 1964 1965 1967 1970
Engine type Turboprop Turboshaft Turboprop Turboprop Turboshaft Turboshaft
Application Commercial airliner Helicopter Experimental Proposed ASW Light observation helicopter Military helicopter
engine patrol aircraft
Colin F. McDonald et al.

Demonstration goal Fuel savings of 150 gallons/h Increased range at part power Initial test of Increased loiter Flight demonstration of recuperated Optimized annular
recuperated time at part propulsion engine recuperator wrapped
version of T56 power around the engine
engine
Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I

Engine power, (eshp) 2,200 1,100 4,050 4,125 280 963

Compressor type Axial/radial Axial/radial Axial Axial Axial/radial Axial/radial
Turbine type Axial Axial Axial Axial Axial Axial
Airflow (lb/s) 30.0 10.7 33.0 33.0 2.8 5.0
Compressor pressure
ratio 5.0 6.3 9.25 11.7 6.2 9.0

142
Turbine Inlet
Temperature (8F) 1,382 1,720 1,970 2,060 ,1,770 2,300
Specific fuel
consumption (lb/hp h) 0.60 0.52 ,0.50 0.417 0.587 0.365
Specific Power (hp/lb/s) 73 103 123 125 100 193
Engine length (in.) 106 88 167 159 40 30
Engine diameter (in.) 48 34 66 36 33 23.5
Engine dry weight (lb) 2,130 810 1,833 1,564 185 203
Specific weight (hp/lb) 1.03 1.36 2.2 2.64 1.51 4.75
Experimental/ During initial run in 1945, the Fuel savings of 24 percent at 75 SFC reduction of The T78 engine Engine completed 50 h flight worthiness test Paper design indicated 28
development recuperator failed. Further percent normal rated power 36 percent at was built and successfully in modified YOH-6A helicopter. percent reduction in sfc
recuperated development work continued only demonstrated. This recuperated part power tested but was Demonstrated 25.7 percent increased range compared with simple
propulsion engine on simple cycle version engine was never deployed demonstrated not deployed over simple cycle engine cycle version
status/experience
Volume 80 Number 2 2008 139 157
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I
Colin F. McDonald et al.
Figure 2 Layout of German heat exchanged turboprop engine concept in 1943
Twin-drum Ritz radial-
Contra-rotating flow, regenerative heat
airscrews and gearing exchangers (driven by
small electric motors)
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Low-pressure
compressor
Note: Based on utilization of Twin rotary drum regenerators
Source: Airlife Publishing Ltd
decades later as will be mentioned in a later section) promised
a very significant reduction in SFC, but because of higher
priority projects in Germany this engine never materialized,
and only modules of the heat exchanger were tested by the
end of the war.
4. Bristol Theseus: recuperated turboprop engine
In 1943, the same year as the aforementioned heat exchanged
engine design was being proposed in Germany, the Bristol
Aeroplane Company in the UK submitted a proposal to the
Ministry of Aviation Production for a turboprop engine for a
long-range aircraft with a cruising speed of 250 mph
(402 kph) at an altitude of 20,000 ft (6,095 m). To match or
better the performance of reciprocating engines, the Bristol
Theseus was the first aviation engine to incorporate a
recuperator. Details of this interesting engine (Aviation,
1946; Aircraft Engineering, 1946) are given on Table I. It was
calculated that this heat exchanged engine would save about
150 gallons (680 l) per hour under typical cruising
conditions.
Various details of this heat exchanged turboprop engine are
shown on Figure 3. These include an overall view of the
engine (Figure 3(a)), a partially sectioned isometric view
showing the annular tubular recuperator positioned to the
rear of the turbomachinery (Figure 3(b)), and the gas flow
paths can be seen from the simplified engine cross-section
(Figure 3(c)).
With a low-surface geometry compactness and a low-
effectiveness recuperator, the estimated SFC was on the order
of 0.60 lb/hp h (0.36 kg/kW h), and the engine specific weight
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Volume 80 Number 2 2008 139 157
Twin-drum Ritz radial-
flow, regenerative heat
Coaxial power exchangers (driven by
turbines small electric motors)
Exhaust
C C
Air side
Gas side
C C
C C
C C
High-pressure
Separate compressor compressor
turbines
about 1.0 hp/lb (1.64 kW/kg). The surface geometry was novel
and involved arranging the tubes along involute curves, and in
flattening them, air passages of uniform width were formed
between adjacent rows. The tubes were then brazed into the
headers.
This pioneer recuperated aircraft gas turbine was first run
with the heat exchanger in place in late 1945. During a hot-
start, a fuel fire started in the recuperator matrix causing the
braze material to melt and the heat exchanger was destroyed
(Fortescue, 2004). Following this, the recuperated variant
was discontinued. The simple-cycle Theseus engine never
went into production, but is noteworthy, since in addition to
embodying a recuperator, it was the first aeroengine to run
with a free power turbine (driving the propeller), and to have
an axial compressor (with nine stages) followed by a
centrifugal stage, a configuration which is of course,
common place today in many small gas turbines.
5. Development of recuperated turboprop
engines
5.1 Background
With simple-cycle turboprop engines well established in
service, there was a flurry of interest in exploring technologies
for follow-on performance improvement. Most of these were
of an evolutionary nature, including higher component
efficiencies and increased turbine inlet temperature.
However, in the mid-1960s, heat-exchanged variants
attracted some interest. Many different concepts were
investigated and documented (Chapman, 1964; Brock and
Gershon, 1964; Crockett et al., 1965; Redmond and
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I
Colin F. McDonald et al.
Figure 3 Bristol Theseus recuperated turboprop engin
G J H L
F
B C E rotating at 30 rpm were considered.
A As will be outlined in a later section, the research and
D vehicular engines, seal leakage and wear were excessive and this
K
(a) Recuperated Theseus Turboprop Engine Assembly
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(b) Overall Engine Arrangement
(c) Engine Cross-section Showing Gas Flow Paths
Source: Bristol Aeroplane Company
Beam, 1965; Crockett and Field, 1965; Sallee and Mehold,
1965; White and Kailos, 1965; Marwood and Preuser, 1965;
Wheely et al., 1967; Lockay and Kumirov, 1968), and just a
few of the selected approaches that led to recuperated
hardware development and testing are highlighted below.
5.2 Allison T56 heat exchanged engine variants
The well known T56 turboprop engine has been in service for
half a century, and embodying on-going technology
advancements its performance has improved in this time
frame. In its conventional simple-cycle form as shown on
Figure 4, it is perhaps best known for its many years of service
to this day, with over 5,000 engines powering the US Air
Force C-130s, and the US Navy P-3, and E-2C aircraft.
Continuing improvements are expected to keep this engine in
service for decades to come (Aviation Week & Space
Technology, 2004). Early studies of heat exchanged variants
of this engine are briefly discussed below.
5.2.1 Rotary regenerative concept
In the 1960s, work was initiated on small heat exchanged
vehicular gas turbines. One of the concepts involved the use of
a rotary drum regenerator, as first proposed in Germany two
decades earlier, and a variant of the T56 using a rear-mounted
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Volume 80 Number 2 2008 139 157
heat exchanger of this type was investigated. An overall sketch
of this engine arrangement is shown on Figure 5. For this
periodic-flow regenerator, two 3.3 ft (1.0 m) diameter drums
development of metallic and ceramic regenerators of various
types, in spite of large expenditures by the automobile industry,
did not lead to a viable product for the projected vehicular gas
turbine market. In the case of the low-compressor ratio
adversely affected engine performance. This would have been
far more severe for higher pressure ratio aeroengines, and no
further work was done beyond the initial design phase.
5.2.2 Liquid metal indirect system
In the 1950s, studies had investigated a system employing two
independent heat exchangers that were coupled by a liquid
system. The pumped liquid-metal transferred thermal energy
from the turbine exhaust exchanger to air flowing through the
compressor discharge heat exchanger before entering the
combustion chamber.
A 4,000 hp (2,984 kW) turboprop engine concept
embodying a liquid metal heat transport system was first
proposed 55 years ago (London and Kays, 1951). The various
heat exchangers installed within the engine envelope can be
seen on Figure 6.
A design variant of the T56 turboprop engine based on a
liquid-metal system is shown on Figure 7. Over a period of
several years, development was done on liquid-metal systems
(Lombardo, 1964; Moskowitz et al., 1972), but because of
their complexity and reliability concerns they were not
deployed. State-of-the-art technology in this time frame
favoured the use of simpler and more conventional fixed-
boundary air-to-gas heat exchangers, and the remainder of
this paper focuses only on this type of heat recovery device for
recuperated gas turbine aeroengine service.
5.2.3 Test of prototype recuperated T56 engine
The selection of a tubular heat exchanger was essentially
based on it being more highly developed and offering a lower
weight than the aforementioned systems. A hardware
programme was initiated that led to the test of a
recuperated version of the T56 turboprop engine (Beam
and Cutler, 1964). It was recognized from the onset that an
optimum system, in terms of maximizing performance and
minimizing weight was not realizable. The thermodynamic
parameters (e.g. pressure ratio, turbine inlet temperature,
etc.) were associated with the existing simple-cycle gas
turbine, and to this engine architecture an air-to-gas heat
exchanger was simply added. While this was not an optimum
solution, detailed analyses and trade-off studies were done on
the recuperator to establish the best solution possible.
An isometric view of the engine on Figure 8 (from Stevens,
1964) shows the gas flow paths in the rear mounted annular
recuperator. A straight-tube heat exchanger embodying
15,000 dimpled tubes was selected. With an effectiveness of
0.68, a two-pass cross-counterflow configuration was used.
Hot gas from the turbine exhaust flowed single-pass through
the tubes, and the high-pressure compressor discharge air
flowed across the tube bundle in two passes. The selection of
this flow configuration yielded a large recuperator outer
diameter of 4 ft (1.22 m). As can be seen from Figure 9 this
resulted in a rather bulbous rear end to this prototype
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I
Colin F. McDonald et al.
Figure 4 Simple-cycle T56 turboprop engine
Source: Allison Engine Company
Figure 5 T56 engine concept with twin drum rotary regenerators
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Source: Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust, Allison Branch
experimental engine. The specific weight of this one of a kind
engine was on the order of 2.2 hp/lb (3.6 kW/kg).
This experimental engine, not including a gearbox,
operated without mechanical difficulty during two runs of
6 h on a dynamometer. Examination of the recuperator after
the test revealed no mechanical after effects, but a thin layer of
soot was observed on surfaces exposed to metal temperatures
below about 700F (371C). The engine demonstrated, that at
the cruise power test point, it would have a reduction in SFC
of 36 percent compared with the simple-cycle base engine
(Beam et al., 1964), and showed that a recuperated turboprop
engine was a valid concept. As outlined in the following
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Volume 80 Number 2 2008 139 157
section the successful demonstration of this experimental
prototype engine paved the way for the T78, a more
ambitious recuperated turboprop engine.
5.2.4 Recuperated T78 turboprop engine
Following the demonstration of the prototype recuperated
T56 engine described above, a new engine was considered for
an ASW patrol aircraft. The attractive part-power SFC
characteristic of a recuperated turboprop engine matched the
mission profile that involved protracted periods of low-speed,
and low altitude operation at a power setting as low as
35 percent of the maximum continuous rating.
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Colin F. McDonald et al. Volume 80 Number 2 2008 139 157

Figure 6 Heat exchanged turboprop engine concept with liquid metal heat transport system

0.970 ft
0.726 ft
0.970 ft

2.07 ft
4.14 ft
0.468 ft
Compressor
Coupling-liquid
pump
Turbine Air side heat exchangers
Tailpipe Coupling-liquid (one for each combustor)
cold supply line
Gas side Combustor
heat exchangers
Coupling-liquid
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hot return line

Source: London and Kays

Figure 7 T56 engine concept with indirect liquid metal coupled regenerator

Source: Allison Engine Company

Figure 8 Isometric view of T56 engine with tubular recuperator

PREHEATED AIR
REGENERATOR FLOW EXHAUST FLOW
MATRIX THROUGH REGENERATOR
COMPRESSOR
DELIVERY

Source: Flight International

146
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I
Colin F. McDonald et al.
Figure 9 Experimental T56 engine with tubular recuperator
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Source: Allison Engine Company
Allison won a contract to develop the T78 in June 1963, and
the engine was first run on March 16, 1965. It was a large
recuperated turboprop engine, designed to produce over
4,000 hp (2,985 kW) at take-off, this putting it in the same
power class as the T56 (Stevens, 1964; Beam et al., 1964;
Yaffee, 1964; Anderton, 1964; Cutler and Spears, 1964a, b
October). An isometric view of the T78-A-2 engine showing
the gas flow paths is shown on Figure 10, and an overall view
of the engine assembly is shown on Figure 11.
Like the T56, the T78 was a single-spool engine (with a
maximum rotational speed of 19,320 rpm) with a 14 stage
Figure 10 Layout of T78 recuperated turboprop engine
Source: Allison Engine Company
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axial compressor, six combustion chambers, a four-stage
turbine, and a remote two-stage gearbox. However, it did
have variable inlet guide vanes, and six stages of variable
stators, and operated in a variable speed mode, all of which
were different from the T56 engine (Jensen and Leonard,
2002).
Compared with the experimental T56 engine, a much
improved heat exchanger was used for the T78. Again, an
aft-mounted annular tubular matrix was used. It still had a
two-pass cross-counterflow configuration, but unlike the T56
the high-pressure compressor discharge air flowed single pass
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I
Colin F. McDonald et al.
Figure 11 Overall assembly of T78 recuperated turboprop engine
Source: Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust, Allison Branch
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inside the tubes. This resulted in a longer recuperator, but
with a reduced diameter as noted on Table II.
This engine configuration embodied a recuperator hot gas
by-pass valve in the centre of the annular tube bundle. The
T78 was thus a dual purpose engine. It could be operated in
the recuperated mode for maximum economy cruising, or
with the valve open the exhaust gas pressure drop was
reduced permitting a higher level of power at take-off, and for
high-altitude operation.
With a recuperator effectiveness of 0.74, the projected SFC
was about 0.40 lb/hp h, (0.24 kg/kW h) and the engine had a
specific weight on the order of 2.64 hp/lb (4.34 kW/kg). It was
projected (Lancaster, 1976) that when fully optimized an
engine of this type had the potential for an attractive SFC of
0.35 lb/hp h (0.21 kg/kW h).
This interesting engine was demonstrated, but never carried
into full development or production. Because of its specialized
application for a ASW patrol aircraft (believed to be the
Lockheed P-3 Orion at the time) it was thought that only a
relatively few aircraft would be built, and the attendant
development and cost of a recuperated turboprop engine
would be high, and thus it did not enter service in the mid-
1960s. Another factor, surely of concern in this era, was the
issue of the reliability and long-term structural integrity (i.e.
assurance of remaining leak-tight) of the high-temperature heat
exchanger in the severe thermal cycling environment associated
with an aeroengine. As will be discussed in a later section, this
concern was prevalent for a further two decades or so.
5.3 Pratt & Whitney regenerated T74 engine
Compared with the aforementioned vehicular regenerative
gas turbines the much higher pressure ratio in aeroengines
increased the difficulty of sealing between the air and gas
streams on the face of a moving heat exchanger matrix, and
different approaches were explored to address this issue. A
novel regenerator was proposed for the T74 engine (Smith,
1963), which was a variant of the PT6 turboprop engine,
rated in the early 1960s at 600 hp (448 kW). Details of the
regenerated T74 have been reported previously (White,
1965), and a view of the engine is shown on Figure 12.
The rotary toroidal heat exchanger had a doughnut shaped
torus that rotated at low speed (Selfors, 1968). The heat
transfer surface was a 24-mesh screen pack. Sealing was
provided by a combination of bulkheads between the screen
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pack assemblies. Tunnels separated the cold and hot flows
with piston rings for sealing the toroidal circumference, and
segmented rings for the inner and outer diameters.
Designed with an effectiveness of about 0.85, to give an SFC
on the order of 0.40 lb/hp h, (0.24 kg/kW h) a running time of
several hundred hours was accumulated on a regenerator test
rig, and a good understanding of how to minimize seal leakage
was realized. The installation of this type of heat exchanger
results in a somewhat awkward arrangement in terms of engine
architecture and gas flow paths, and this type of regenerator was
not deployed or replicated.
Because of their potential for very high effectiveness,
regenerators of varying types continued to be intermittently
studied for different aeroengine types as briefly mentioned in
Part II of this paper.
6. Development of recuperated turboshaft
engines
In addition to the above activities in the turboprop field, there
was interest in how to improve the performance of helicopter
turboshaft engines, particularly for small units with lower
simple-cycle efficiency (Weidhuner, 1966; Fabri, 1971;
Savostin and Tikhonov, 1966). As will be discussed below,
development in this field led to the first flight demonstration
of a recuperated engine in the USA.
6.1 Test of a Lycoming T53 recuperated engine
The T53 engine was first introduced in 1956 and several
thousand of these engines have accumulated tens of millions
of hours operation in a variety of military helicopters. A view
of the conventional simple-cycle T53 engine is shown on
Figure 13.
In 1965, a development programme was undertaken to
modify an existing T53 turboshaft engine to include a
recuperator (USAAVLABS, 1965). Recuperator surface
geometries were evaluated and a plain tube type was
selected. A cross-counterflow U-tube annular bundle had
the high-pressure discharge air flowing two-pass inside the
tubes, and the hot gas flowing radically outwards in one pass
across the tubes. The recuperator was mounted at the turbine
exhaust end of the engine as shown on Figure 14.
Based on an effectiveness of 0.66, the recuperator was sized
to give an engine fuel savings of 24 percent over the simple-
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Table II Early propulsion gas turbine heat exchanger features

Modified Lycoming
Engine Bristol Theseus T53-L-9 Modified Allison T56-A-7 Allison T78-A-2 Modified Allison T63-A-5 Engine study
Year 1945 1965 1964 1965 1967 1970
Airflow (lb/s) 30.0 10.7 33.0 33.0 2.8 5.0
Pressure ratio 5.0 6.3 9.25 11.7 6.2 9.0
Recuperator
gas inlet temp.
(8F) 932 1,085 1,260 , 1,300 1,222 1,332
Colin F. McDonald et al.

Effectiveness 0.40 0.66 0.68 0.74 0.60 0.65

Recuperator Rear mounted and integrated with Add-on recuperator Add-on recuperator behind Add-on recuperator behind Bolt-on recuperator above Optimized recuperator
installation engine from onset behind turbine turbine turbine turbine wrapped around engine
Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I

Matrix type Annular Annular Annular Annular Annular Annular

Flow Two-pass cross counterflow Two-pass cross Two-pass cross counterflow Two-pass cross counterflow Two-pass cross counterflow Two-pass cross counterflow
configuration counterflow
Air flow Across tube bundle Inside U-tubes Across tube bundle Single pass inside tubes Single pass inside tubes Single pass inside tubes
Gas flow Single pass inside tubes Single pass outside tubes Single pass inside tubes Across tube bundle Across tube bundle Across tube bundle
Matrix Brazed tubular Brazed tubular Brazed tubular Brazed tubular Brazed tubular Brazed tubular

149
construction
Tube type Flattened, arranged in involute pattern Plain tube Dimpled tube Dimpled tube Dimpled tube Dimpled tube
Tube number 1,700 1,920 15,000 4,172 5,490 4,800
Tube diameter
(in.) 0.625 0.25 0.25 0.217 0.10 0.10
Tube wall
thickness (in.) 0.012 0.007 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.004
Matrix outer
diameter(in.) 45.0 32.0 48.0 35.0 14.5 21.0
Matrix inner
diameter (in.) 16.0 17.0 26.0 ,21.0 9.3 16.0
Matrix length
(in.) 31.0 40.0 18.5 ,65.0 9.8 16.2
Matrix weight
(lb) 500 224 320 424 51 76
Recuperator High-turbine outlet temperature More complex and Excessive recuperator diameter Superior smaller diamenter Recuperator performed trouble- Recuperator design
development caused brazed tube joints to fall during heavier U-tube type because of flow configuration matrix used for engine free during 50 h helicopter flight represented late 1960s
Volume 80 Number 2 2008 139 157

experience initial engine test bundle not replicated not replicated demonstration test worthiness test technology state-of-the art
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I
Colin F. McDonald et al.
Figure 12 T74 engine with toroidal rotary regenerator
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Source: Pratt and Whitney Company
Figure 13 Simple-cycle T53 turboshaft gas turbine layout
Source: Avco Lycoming
cycle engine at an engine power rating of 75 percent. The
engine, with a specific weight of 1.36 hp/lb (2.24 kW/kg) was
built and tested but not deployed for helicopter service.
6.2 Flight test of Allison recuperated T63 engine
As outlined in previous sections, several simple-cycle engines
were modified to include recuperators, and while these
experimental engines were built and tested, they were not test
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flown in aircraft or helicopters, and in the USA this was
recognized to be vitally needed (Kailos, 1967).
The next step to verify the validity of a recuperated
turboshaft propulsion engine was to initiate a programme
leading to a flight demonstration test. An engine with a lower
power output than the ones described previously was
recommended. The Allison 250 turboshaft is well known,
and more than 28,000 have been produced for civil and
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Colin F. McDonald et al. Volume 80 Number 2 2008 139 157

Figure 14 T53 turboshaft engine with tubular recuperator

Source: Avco Lycoming

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military applications. A view of this simple-cycle engine is In evaluating this engine, one means considered to enhance
given on Figure 15. The military version of the Model 250 performance was the use of a heat recovery exchanger (Wetzler,
engine, designated T63 was first utilized by the US Army to 1965). Initially, both regenerators and recuperators were
power the OH-58 light observation helicopter. considered and heat exchangers of both types were fabricated.

Figure 15 Simple-cycle Allison Model 250 helicopter turboshaft engine

Source: Allison Engine Company

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Colin F. McDonald et al.
The Allison regenerative engine concept PD-81, based on the
Model 250 engine is shown on Figure 16. A regenerative version
of the Model 250 engine (Figure 17) was run but not test flown.
One of the reasons that a T63 engine was selected for heat
exchanged demonstration was that its gas flow paths were
amenable to a bolted-on recuperator, and focus was put on
this variant. Two annular tubular recuperator modules were
mounted above the turbomachinery as shown on Figure 18.
Taking advantage of the findings from previous work, a two-pass
cross-counterflow arrangement was selected with the high-
pressure compressor discharge air flowing single pass inside the
tubes. Compared with the previous recuperators, a more
compact dimpled-tube surface geometry was utilized, and with
an effectiveness of 0.60, each recuperator module weighed
25 lbs (11.3 kg.). Installation of the recuperator modules
increased the weight of the simple-cycle engine by about
40 percent. A direct weight comparison cannot be made of the
recuperated engines highlighted on Table I, because available
open literature data were not definitive regarding inclusion or
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exclusion of components such as the gearbox, and various
externally mounted accessories (e.g. fuel and oil pumps,
controls, starter, etc.).
Testing of the recuperated engine was thorough and
included performance, duration and environmental
evaluation during over 150 h of testing, which included 278
starts and approximately 4,500 accelerations (Privoznik,
1968a). At the end of this testing period, no engine
performance degradation was detected. There was no
evidence of carbon build-up in the recuperators, and only a
light soot deposit on the tubes was observed.
The recuperated T63 engine was installed in a YOH-6A
helicopter (Figure 19) and a 50 h flight worthiness test was
Figure 16 Allison PD-81 regenerative engine concept based on the
Model 250
Source: Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust, Allison Branch
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completed with no problems encountered. A noise level test
revealed a reduction between one and three decibels
compared with the simple-cycle engine installed in the same
helicopter.
Visual inspection and pressure testing of the recuperators
after the flight test showed no evidence of deterioration. The
tear-down inspection of the engine did not reveal any serious
discrepancies, and all parts were in excellent condition.
An important finding from this flight test of a helicopter
powered solely by a recuperated turboshaft engine was that the
addition of a recuperator to this small engine significantly
reduced its fuel consumption, and this increased the maximum
range of the helicopter by 25.7 percent (Privoznik, 1968b).
Addition of the recuperator lowered the exhaust temperature by
320F (160C). As a result the infrared signature of this military
helicopter would be significantly lowered.
During this project, no problems were encountered and it
was concluded that a recuperated turboshaft engine would be
no more susceptible to performance degradation than the
standard T63 engine.
The October 20, 1967 flight of the recuperated T63 was a
significant accomplishment and stands alone to the authors
knowledge. Alas, no further flight tests of a recuperated
engine providing the sole source of power for an aircraft were
undertaken in the USA in the remainder of the twentieth
century.
7. Early recuperator technology status
In the 1960s, significant advances were made in reducing the
SFC in both aviation and industrial gas turbines. This was
achieved by using higher pressure ratios, and on-going
improved compressor and turbine aerothermal design,
increased turbine inlet temperature resulting from more
sophisticated turbine blade cooling, material advancements,
and improved mechanical design.
The same cannot really be said for advancements in high-
temperature heat exchanger technology in this time frame. In
the 1960s and the 1970s, a variety of heat transfer surfaces were
considered, mainly for small gas turbines, but advancing the
recuperator state-of-the-art was modest, and essentially aimed
at low-pressure ratio engines for vehicular applications.
However, these never proceeded beyond the development
phase because of high cost, and the continuing performance
advancements being made by spark-ignition and diesel engines.
The evolution of gas turbine recuperators for various surface
geometries has been addressed previously (McDonald, 1999),
and is briefly discussed in the following sections.
7.1 Primary surface geometry recuperators
The simplicity of formed flat plate heat exchangers, in which a
matrix is assembled from a stack of cells, and leak tight seals
made at their periphery by welding, appealed to early
gas turbine heat exchanger designers, and development work
was initiated in the UK in the 1950s (Hryniszak, 1958). With
this type of construction, direct forced convection between
the two fluid streams takes place across a simple metallic
boundary without the need for finned secondary surfaces.
Compact surface geometries, involving small hydraulic
diameter passages, can be realized, and low cost was
projected since this type of construction obviates the need
for a time consuming brazing operation in a high-temperature
furnace.
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Figure 17 Allison regenerative engine based on the Model 250

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Source: Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust, Allison Branch

Figure 18 T63 helicopter turboshaft engine with twin tubular bolt-on recuperator modules

Source: Allison Engine Company

However; early developments of this potentially light weight
type of recuperator did not match up to expectations because
of thermal stress problems. Failures in the matrix due to
cracking resulted in unacceptable leakage in early small
experimental automotive gas turbine engines (Barnard,
2003), and further work in the 1960s on this type of fixed-
boundary heat exchanger was not undertaken. However; it
was not forgotten and several decades later compact primary
surface recuperators with good performance and structural
integrity were developed and these are addressed in Part II of
this paper.
7.2 Plate-Fin surface geometry recuperator
A large heat transfer data base exists for a variety of plate-fin
surface geometries (Kays and London, 1964), and heat
exchangers of this type have been used for a wide range of

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Colin F. McDonald et al.
Figure 19 YOH-6A helicopter with recuperated T63 turboshaft engine installed
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Source: US Army
applications (Howard, 1976). For gas turbine service, the
severe thermal cyclic environment (e.g. during start-up,
shutdown, and power change) posed major problems for early
plate-fin types of construction. Fabrication consists of
stacking the corrugated secondary surfaces, the separating
tube sheets, solid peripheral sealing bars and the braze alloy
sheets, in a jig fixture. This assembly is then brazed in an inert
atmosphere in a high-temperature furnace to form the heat
exchanger matrix.
During engine thermal transients, the thermal inertia
incompatibility between the thin foils and the heavier sealing
sections introduced thermal stresses. In service, these led to
metal cracking and matrix distortion (Weaving, 1962). The
resultant leakage from this type of failure caused loss of engine
performance, and this occurred through much of the early 1960s.
Also in this time frame, combustor technology had not
completely eliminated soot in the gas turbine exhaust.
Resultant fouling was particularly noticeable in compact
plate-fin recuperators, and often carbon deposited in the small
hydraulic diameter passages of the matrix caused an increase
in pressure drop and loss of engine performance (McDonald,
1968). In extreme cases, carbon build up led to metal fires in
the recuperator matrix (McDonald, 1969). The higher weight
of plate-fin variants, together with concerns about their
structural integrity, were the major factors that precluded
their use in the recuperated aeroengines highlighted on Table
I, that were experimentally tested in the 1960s.
7.3 Tubular surface geometry recuperator
Optimization studies performed over the years for low
effectiveness recuperated aeroengines showed, that in every
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case tubular geometries offered the lowest weight solution
(Dyste, 1962), and had arrangements that were compatible
with the gas flow paths in early radial and axial flow turboshaft
and turboprop engines.
As highlighted on Table II, the initial aeroengine
recuperators used embodied plain surface tubular
geometries. These were later replaced with ring-dimpled
tubes. Operating in the laminar and transition Reynolds
number regimes, local dimpling of the tubes caused boundary
layer disturbance, with resultant enhancement of heat transfer
coefficients, particularly for flow inside the small diameter
tubes (Chen et al., 2001). While other enhancement means,
such as roughened surfaces, ribs, knurling and spiral inserts,
have been examined it has been found that in terms of both
heat transfer and pumping power, ring-dimpling is the
simplest and most cost-effective, and is used in a variety of
heat exchangers today, particularly for aerospace applications.
It is germane to mention in the time frame of engines
covered in this paper that for industrial and vehicular gas
turbine recuperators, where minimizing the heat exchanger
weight was not paramount, plate-fin geometries were
dominant, essentially based on cost considerations. Small
diameter, thin-walled superalloy tubes have a high cost
(Dyste, 1966), and this limited their use for most
applications.
From Table II, it can be seen that for the different engines,
changes were made to the recuperator flow configuration and
tube size. In the case of the former, having the low-pressure
exhaust gas flowing outside and across the tube bundle had
advantages, which included a smaller matrix diameter,
reduced shell and manifold weight, and permitted thinner
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I
Colin F. McDonald et al.
tube walls when loaded in tension with internal pressure, than
for earlier designs where buckling was a factor for tubes
loaded in compression (McDonald, 1972).
Over the years, fabrication considerations permitted the use
of smaller diameter tubes resulting in increased surface
compactness. The two-pass cross-counterflow recuperator
shown on Figure 20 for the Allison T78 turboprop engine
embodied dimpled tubes with an outer diameter and of
0.217 in. (5.5 mm) and 0.004 in. (0.10 mm) wall thickness.
For the Allison T63 turboshaft engine, that was test flown in a
helicopter, the annular recuperator shown on Figure 21 had
dimpled tubes with an outer diameter and wall thickness of
0.10 (2.5 mm) and 0.004 in. (0.10 mm), respectively. To the
authors knowledge, these represent close to the lower limits,
even to this day for high-temperature brazed gas turbine
recuperator designs based on cost, practical geometrical
matrix proportions (i.e. frontal area and flow length), and
fabrication considerations.
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8. Summary
With expectation that in coming years the cost of aviation fuel
will increase significantly, and with ever increasing demands
to reduce aeroengine emissions, several non-conventional
Figure 20 Tubular heat exchanger assembly for recuperated T78
turboprop engine
Source: Garrett Corporation
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Volume 80 Number 2 2008 139 157
Figure 21 Tubular heat exchanged matrix (one of two) for T63
recuperated turboshaft engine
Source: Garrett Corporation
thermodynamic cycles and engine architecture approaches to
improve the efficiency of future propulsion gas turbines are
being actively explored, and one of the options includes
recuperation and intercooling. In this regard, it is of interest
to note that the first recuperated turboprop engine was tested
over six decades ago! Clearly, it was ahead of its time in terms
of technology readiness, but it did illustrate innovativeness on
the part of the Theseus engine designers to explore the
potential benefits associated with a more complex
thermodynamic cycle and engine architecture.
In light of the current interest in heat-exchanged aviation
engines in Europe, particularly turbofans, Part I of this paper
has reviewed projects undertaken on pioneering recuperated
propulsion gas turbines in the 1960s that actually involved the
fabrication and testing of several machines. These engines,
essentially for potential military applications, included
turboprop and turboshaft variants, and salient features of
them are highlighted on Table I. In this era of gas turbine
evolution, all of the engines considered had fairly low levels of
compressor pressure ratio.
Various types of recuperator surface geometries and types of
construction were evaluated, and since minimizing the weight
of the heat exchanger was of the essence, light weight tubular
configurations were selected for all of the engines modified for
recuperation. The level of effectiveness for propulsion
engines, based on parasitic heat exchanger weight and size
considerations was in the range of 0.60-0.75, the actual value
depending on the mission profile of course. The major
advantage of the recuperated over the simple Brayton cycle
was the improved SFC at part power, where much of the
engine operational time would be spent for long-range patrol
aircraft and helicopters.
A significant achievement was realised in 1967 when an
Allison T63 engine was modified to include a recuperator.
This engine was installed in a light observation helicopter and
a 50 h flight worthiness was successfully completed. To the
authors knowledge, based on open-literature sources, this is
the only manned flight test of an aircraft, with a recuperated
gas turbine as its sole source of propulsion, undertaken to
date in the West.
The flight test of this small turboshaft engine with a
bolted-on recuperator was trouble-free, and the reduced
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines, part I
Colin F. McDonald et al.
fuel consumption increased the maximum range of the
helicopter by 25.7 percent compared with the simple-cycle
engine. Additional benefits were also realized, including a
slightly reduced noise level, and with a reduction in exhaust
temperature of 320F (160C) a projection was made that
infrared signature from the helicopter would be significantly
reduced.
While over 200 h of testing were accumulated on this first-
of-a-kind engine, there were still some nagging doubts about
the long-term structural integrity and reliability of the least
well developed component, namely the recuperator, and no
further engine conversions were made. In addition, for a given
mission flight time, the fuel saved was not regarded as an
important economic operating factor in an era of very low-fuel
cost.
The experience gained from the various developmental
recuperated aviation engines tested in the 1960s was
beneficial in several areas leading to the following:
.
evolution of an optimized engine which was designed from
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the onset with an integral recuperator; and
.
for the heat exchanger industry to identify a recuperator of
smaller size and lighter weight with improved performance
and structural integrity for high temperature service in a
thermally cyclic gas turbine environment.
The first of these recommendations was addressed in a study
done in 1970 (McDonald, 1970), and details of an optimized
compact and light weight turboshaft engine in the 1,000 hp
(746 kW) class are given in the right hand column of Table I.
While emphasis in Part I of this paper has been on early
engine programmes involving recuperator hardware
development, it was felt to be germane to include this
column so that a direct comparison could be made between
an optimized recuperated turboshaft engine and earlier ones
in which modifications were essentially made to conventional
state-of-the-art simple-cycle engines to include a bolted-on
recuperator. It is noteworthy to mention here that the
optimized engine design study showed significant
improvements in both SFC and engine specific weight
compared with the four engines tested in the mid-1960s.
Details of this optimized recuperated turboshaft engine based
on late 1960s technology are included in Part II of this paper.
In closing, the purpose of Part I of this paper was essentially
aimed at compiling data (including an extensive bibliography)
from several experimental recuperated aeroengines that were
tested four decades ago. At that time, focus was on turboprop
and turboshaft variants, but today there is interest in the
potential of using heat exchangers for large turbofan engines
(Norris, 2003). Because of their very high-compressor
pressure ratios, intercooling together with recuperation is
required. This renewed interest in heat exchanged propulsion
engines today is mainly to the address the need for
significantly reduced fuel burn because of high-fuel cost,
reduced emissions, and lower noise levels. The potential for
heat exchanged propulsion engines entering service in the
next one to two decades is addressed in Part III of this paper.
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Corresponding author
Colin F. McDonald can be contacted at: kmcdona1@
san.rr.com
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