Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Introduction 69
Basic principles 69
Simplified block diagram operation 72
Historical, technical and legal context 1 Installation 74
Introduction 1 Controls and operation 76
Historical background 1 Characteristics 77
Basic principles of radio 2 Ramp testing 78
n a t a l systems 8
Categorization of airborne radio equipments 11 6 Hyperbolic navigation systems 79
Navigation nomenclature 13 General principles 79
Interference 13 Omega navigation system 83
Maintenance 17 The Decca navigator 95
Regulating and advisory bodies 18 Loran C 101
The cockpit and equipment racks of modern aircraft, circuitry are given since 1 feel most readers will be
large and small, are becoming filled with ever more more interested in the operation of the system as a
sophisticated systems. This book attempts t o describe whole. Nevertheless, some circuits are given purely as
a certain class of such systems, namely those which examples. Should the reader need circuit knowledge,
rely for their operation o n electromagnetic radiation. the equipment maintenance manual is the best place
The subject matter is complex and wide-ranging, to find it, assuming he knows the system and he has
hence not all aspects can be covered in one volume. a basic knowledge of electronics.
In deciding where the treatment should be light or The state of the art of the equipment described is
perhaps non-existent, I have asked myself two also varied. I did not see the point of describing only
questions: (1) which aspects can most usefully be equipment containing microprocessors, since the vast
covered in a book; and (2) at which group of people majority of systems in service do not use them as yet.
involved in aviation should a book covering such On the other hand if the life of this book is not to be
aspects be aimed? too severely restricted, the latest techniques must be
The answer to (1) must be 'describe the theory'. described. Within the pages that follow, analogue,
One can, and indeed must, read or be told about how andogueldigital, hardwired digital and programmable
to operate the systems; how t o navigate using the digital equipments all find a place.
systems; how to solder, crimp and change items; As stated previously, the book is aimed primarily
how t o use test equipment, etc. but proficiency is at the maintenance engineer. However, I hope several
impossible without practice. On the other hand groups might be interested. This poses problems
gaining an understanding of how a particular system concerning the background knowledge required. For
works is more of a mental exercise which can be what I hope is a fairly substantial part of the book,
guided in a book such as this. This is not t o say that any reasonably intelligent technically minded person
more practical matters are neglected, since it would with a basic knowledge of mathematics and a
not help one's understanding of the theory of familiarity with aircraft will have no difficulty that
operation not to see, at least in words and pictures, two or perhaps three readings will not overcome.
how a particular system is controlled, presents its There are parts, however, where some knowledge of
information, reacts t o the environment, etc. electronics, radio theory or more sophisticated
Having decided the main line of attack the more mathematics is needed. In three chapters where the
difficult question of depth of treatment must be going gets a bit tough, I have relegated the offending
answered; in other words whlch group should be material t o an appendix. Some background material
satisfied? Pilots need a superficial knowledge of how is covered in Chapter 1, in particular, basic radio
all the systems work; maintenance engineers on the theory and a discussion of digital systems in so far as
ramp and in the hangar a more detailed knowledge; coding and computers are concerned.
workshop engineers must have an understanding of If you are one of the few people who plough all
the circuitry for perhaps a limited range of the way through the Preface t o a book, you may have
equipments; while designers should have the greatest decided by now that this book is concerned with
depth of knowledge of all. It is virtually impossible theory and little else. That this is not so may be clear
to draw dividing lines, but it is hoped that if enough if I outline briefly the contents of each chapter. An
theory is given to satisfy the aircraft radio introduction saying a few words about the history
maintenance engineer then the book might be useful and function of the system is followed by a fairly
to all groups mentioned. thorough coverage of the basic principles. In some
The depth of treatment varies, it being impossible chapters the next item is a discussion of the
to cover everything, or indeed anything, to the depth installation, i.e. the units, how they are
I would have liked. In particular few details of interconnected, w h c h other systems they interface
with and any special considerations such as cooling, Communications Components Corporation
positioning, type of antennas and feeders, etc. This, The Decca Navigator Company Limited
together with a description of controls and operation, Field Tech Limited
puts some practical meat on t o the bare bones of the Hazeltine Corporation
theory which continues with a consideration of the IFR Electronics Inc
block diagram operation. In certain chapters the King Radio Corporation
order: installation - controls and operation - block Litton Systems International Inc., Aero Products
diagram, is reversed where I thought it was perhaps t o Division
the reader's disadvantage to break u p the flow of the Marconi Avionics Limited
more theoretical aspects. A brief look at MEL Equipment Company Limited
characteristics, in practically all cases based on RCA Limited
ARINC publications, and testinglmaintenance Rockwell-Collins (UK) Limited
concludes each chapter. Ryan Stormscope
Most chapters deal with one system; none of them Tel-Instrument Electronics Corporation (TIC)
is exclusively military. The exceptions are, in reverse
Although I am grateful to all the above, I must reserve
order, Chapter 13 where I look at the current scene
a special word of thanks to Mr Wayne Brown of
and review some systems we should see in the next
Bendix, Mr A . E. Crawford of King and Mr T. C.
few years; Chapter 12 which is a bringing-together
Wood of RCA, who arranged for the dispatch of
of some of the previously covered systems; Chapter 6
covering Omega, Decca Navigator and Loran C; several expensive and heavy maintenance manuals in
Chapter 2 which covers both radio and non-radio reply to my request for information. These manuals,
communications; and Chapter 1 where some chosen and indeed all other information received, were used
background material is given. in the preparation of this book and continue to be
I should point out that this is not a textbook in used in the training of students at Brunel Technical
the sense that everythng is examinable in accordance College, Bristol, England.
with some syllabus. The reader will take from the 1 also wish to thank all my colleagues at Brunel
book however big a chunk he desires, depending on who have helped, often unwittingly, in conversation.
I-us background knowledge, his profession, the In particular my thanks go to John Stokes, Clive
examinations he hopes t o take and, of course, his Stratton and Peter Kemp for proof-reading some of
inclination. Some will have, or end up with, an the chapters and also Leighton Fletcher for helping
understanding of all that is included herein, in which with the illustrations. May I add that, although I
received technical assistance from the above, any
case I hope the book may be seen as a source of
mistakes which remain are obviously mine. I would
reference.
be grateful to any reader who might take the trouble
to point out any errors.
Finally, my thanks to Pauline kckards, whose
Acknowledgements fingers must be sore from typing; to the publishers
who displayed great patience as the deadline for the
A number of manufacturers have given valuable submission of the typescript came and went; and,
assistance including the supplying of material and most of all, to my wife Pat and son Adam who
granting permission to reproduce data and showed even more patience and understanding than
illustrations. Without the generosity of the following, Pitmans.
this book would have been of very limited use.
Bendix Avionics Division Bristol,
Boeing Commercial Aeroplane Company ErzgZund
British Aerospace
1 ~istorical,technical and legal
B Time
b
Radio frequency
x = 0.1 s, y = 0.3 s transmitted
T
Mixer Detector
oscillator
(1.0.)
to use a frequency synthesizer with a single crystal t o In all of the above the logic may be reversed (positive
provide stability and accuracy. and negative logic). Thus we can represent a binary
digit (bit) by an electrical signal, but if the number to
be represented is larger than 1, we must combine bits
Digital Systems into some intelligible code.
Binary code has been mentioned; this is simply
Coding counting to the base 2 rather than the base 10
Most of the airborne systems in use are basically (decimal code) as we do normally. Unfortunately,
analogue, i.e. they deal with signals which represent binary numbers soon become very large, for example
various quantities continuously and smoothly. For 91 = 1 0 1 1 0 1 l 2 (the subscripts indicating the
example in DME a very small increase in range results base ), so octal (base 8 = Z3) and hexadecimal
in a corresponding increase in time; we say time is an (base 16 = 2') may be used. The machine may still
analogue of distance. With a digital system, deal with a 110 situation but the numbers are more
information is represented by a number encoded in manageable when written down, for example
some suitable way. 91 = 133, = 5BI6.Note, in the examples given, if
Since it is difficult t o detect many different voltage we split the binary number into groups of three from
or current levels only two are used, and this leads the right (least significant bit, 1.s.b.) we have
naturally to expressing numbers to the base 2 (binary 1, 01 1, 0112 = 1, 3, 3s, i.e. each group is the binary
code) where the only digits are 0 and 1. It remains t o code for an octal digit. Similarly
define electronic representations of 0 and 1 in an 101, 101 1'2 " 5, BI6,
unambiguous way. Various methods are used with Binary and hexadecimal codes are used in digital
(a) being by far the most common, in the computers, octal code is used for the ATC
non-exhaustive list which follows. transponder (Chapter 8). The task of frequency
selection is one which lends itself to coding, and
among several which have been used, the two most
(a) Voltage level no voltage =0 common are binary coded decimal (b.c.d.) and two
high voltage = 1 from five (215). Both of these codes retain the
(b) Pulse polarity positive = 1 decimal digit 'flavour' of the number to be encoded
negative =0 at the expense of using extra bits. To represent 9 1,0
(c) Pulse position a time interval is split in we consider the decimal digits 9 and 1 separately to
two halves: give :
pulse in first half = 1
pulse in second half = 0
(d) Phase change at specified read time a
sine wave:
changes phase Equivalents for all the codes mentioned are given for
(1 80C) = 1 decimal numbers 0 t o 15 in Table 1.5.
does not change It can be seen from the above that more bits than
phase =0 are absolutely necessary are used for b.c.d. and 215.
Table 1.5 Various code equivalents 4. conversion from binary to.b .c.d.;
5. b.c.d. fed t o frequency synthesizer;
Base Code 6. conversion from b.c.d. to special code;
7. special code fed to readout device.
10 2 8 16 BCD 2/5
So far we have only discussed the coding of
numerical data. The I S 0 (International Standards
Organisation) alphabet No, 5 is a seven-bit word code
which can be used to encode upper and lower case
letters, punctuation marks, decimal digits and various
other characters and control symbols. The full code
may be found,in most of the latest ARINC
characteristics and will not be repeated here, however,
examples are A 1 0 0 0 0 0 I ,
70 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 , etc. A parity bit may be added
to give a byte.
Where a limited number of actual words need to be
encoded, e.g. 'distance', 'speed', 'heading', etc. special
codes may be designated. Such codes are described in
ARINC specification 429-2 digital information
transfer system (DITS) which is discussed in
Chapter 13.
If the bits are transmitted serially, one after the other
in time down a line, then more time is needed for the Microcomputers
transmission of a number than would be needed if The microprocessor has brought powerful computers
binary code were used. If the bits are transmitted in on to aircraft to perform a number of functions,
parallel, one bit per line, then more lines are needed. including the solution of navigation equations, in a
This has a certain advantage in that the redundancy more sophisticated way than before. A
may be used to detect transmission errors, for microcomputer consists of a microprocessor and
example 1 0 1 1 0 could not be a 215 code and several peripheral integrated circuits (chips), to help
1 0 1 0 could not be b.c.d, the microprocessor perform its function.
Error checking can also be used with binary codes. There are four basic parts to computers, micro or
We will always be restricted to a certain maximum otherwise: memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
number of bits, one of which can be designated a control unit and the input/output unit (110). In a
parity bit used solely for error detecting. Suppose we microcomputer the ALU and control unit are usually
had eight bits available, each group of eight bits would combined on a single chip, the microprocessor or
be called a word of length 8 (commonly called a central processing unit (CPU). Figure 1.9 illustrates a
byte). The first seven bits of the word would be used basic system.
to encode the decimal digit (0 to 127) while the The memory contains both instructions and data
eighth would be the parity bit. For odd parity we set in the form of binary words. Memory is of two basic
the parity bit t o 0 or 1 so as to make the total types: read only (ROM) and random access (RAM).
number of ones in the word odd; similarly for even The ROM does not remember any previous state
parity. Thus 6 = 0000 1 101 odd parity or which may have existed; it merely defines a functional
610 = 0000 1 100 even parity. Error correcting (as relationship between its input lines and its output
opposed t o detecting) codes exist but do not find use lines. The RAM could be termed read and write
in airborne equipment as yet. memory, since data can be both read from memory
To consider a practical application of the above - and written into memory, i.e. its state may change.
suppose a particular frequency is selected on a Information in RAM is usually lost when power is
control unit, we may have the following sequence of switched off.
events: The ALU contains the necessary circuitry to allow
it to carry out arithmetic operations, such as addition
1 . information from controller: 215 code; and subtraction, and logical functions such as Boolean
2. conversion from 215 to binary; algebra operations (combinations of NANDs and
3. microcomputer processes binary data; NORs e tc .).
Fig. 1.9 Basic microcomputer organization
The control unit provides timing instructions and from memory, on the data bus, to the control unit
synchronization for all other units. The control where it is decoded. The program counter
signals cause the other units to move data, manipulate automatically increments by one count, and after the
numbers, input and output information. All this current instruction has been executed the next
activity depends on a set of step-by-step instructions instruction is fetched. This basic cycle of:
(known as the program) which reside in memory.
The I/O unit is the computer's interface with the fetch
outside world. decode
From Fig. 1.9 it can be seen that the units are increment
interconnected by three main buses. A bus is several execute
electrical connections dedicated to a particular task.
A unidirectional bus allows data flow in one direction
only, unlike a bidirectional bus where flow is two-way. is repeated continuously. During the execution of an
In a microcomputer we usually have: instruction data may have to be fetched from
memory, for example t o add two numbers the
1. address bus: sixteen unidirectional lines; instruction will need to tell the CPU not only that an
2. data bus: eight or sixteen bidirectional lines; addition operation is necessary, but the location, in
3. control bus: the number of lines varies with the the memory, of the numbers to be added.
system and may have both unidirectional and The rate at which instructions are executed
bidirectional lines. depends on the complexity of the instruction and the
frequency of the system clock. Each pulse from the
To operate, each step-by-step instruction must be clock initiates the next action of the system; several
fetched, in order, from memory and executed by the actions per instruction are needed. Often the clock
CPU. To keep track of the next step in the program, circuit is on the CPU chip, the only external
a program counter is used which increments each time component being a crystal.
an instruction is fetched. Before an instruction can The 110 data flows via logical circuits called ports.
be executed, it must be decoded in the CPU to These ports may be opened in a similar way to that in
determine how it is to be accomplished. which memory is addressed. In some systems the 110
On switch-on, the program counter is set to the ports are treated as if they were RAM - an address
first stored instruction. The address (location) of this opens a particular port and data flows in or out of
first instruction is placed on the address bus by the that port depending on whether a read or write signal
program counter causing the instruction t o be fetched is present. A variety of chips are used for 110, some
of which are very basic; others (programmable ports) which it operates (see Tables 1.2 and 1.3) and as
more flexible. being pulsed, a.m. or f.m. From both the design and
The program which is resident in ROM is maintenance point of view, the frequency at which
subdivided into routines. Some routines will be equipment operates is perhaps more important than
running continuously unless stopped; others may only the modulation used, at least in so far as the choice of
be called for when the need arises. For example, a components and test equipment is concerned.
navigation computer will continuously compute the The higher the frequency the greater the effect of
aircraft position by running the main routine (or stray capacitance and inductance, signal transit time
loop) which instructs the ALU as t o which and skin effect in conductors. In the microwave
calculations must be carried out using data available region (s.h.f. and the high end of u.h.f.) waveguide
in memory. This data must be updated periodically replaces co-axial cable, certainly above 5 GHz, and
by accepting information from, say, a radio special components whose dimensions play a critical
navigation sensor. When data is available from the part in their operation are introduced (klystrons,
external equipment, an interrupt signal is generated magnetrons, etc.).
and fed to the microcomputer on an interrupt line.
Such a signal causes the computer t o abandon the Analogue-Digital
main routine and commence a service routine which These terms have already been mentioned and certain
will supervise the transfer of the new data into aspects of digital systems have been discussed. In
memory. After transfer the main routine will modern airborne systems the information in the radio
recommence at the next step, remembered by a CPU and intermediate frequency stages, including the
register. 'wireless' r.f. link, is usually in analogue form (the
The topics discussed in the paragraphs above can exception being secondary surveillance radar (see
all be classified as hardware or software. The Chapter 8), to be joined in future by microwave
hardware is the sum total of actual components landing systems, data link and the replacement for
making up the computer: chips, active and passive SSR (see Chapter 13)). In addition commonly used
discrete components, and interwiring. Software transducers such as synchros, potentiometers,
comprises programs, procedures and the languages or microphones, telephones and speakers are all analogue
codes used for internal and external communication. devices. Not all transducers are in the analogue
Software determines the state of the hardware at any category, a shaft angle encoder used in encoding
particular time. In an airborne computer both the altimeters is basically an analogue to digital converter.
software and hardware are fixed by the designer. With the exception of the above almost everything
The operator does not have to program the computer else in current equipment is digital, whereas
in the sense that he must write a routine; however, previously systems were all analogue. There is a
he plays his part in how the computer will function further subdivision within digital equipment into
by, for example, selecting a switch position which those using a combination of hardware and software
will cause certain data to be presented t o him by the (computer-controlled) and those using only hardware
computer, inserting a card (hardware), on which (hardwired logic). The trend is towards the former.
coded instructions or data (software) have been
written, into a card reader, etc. Function
Examples of the use of microcomputers are The two basic categories with regard t o function are
considered in some of the chapters t o follow. These communications and navigation. If navigation is
applications, and the above brief discussion, should defined in its widest sense as safe, economical passage
give the reader a basic idea on how computers work; from A t o B via selected points (waypoints) then
for details of circuitry and programming consult the communications systems could be considered as
readily available specialist literature. belonging t o the navigation category. If, however,
communications systems are regarded as those
systems capable of transmitting speech over radio or
Categorization of Airborne Radio wire links, and all other systems as navigation, we are
Equipments obeying a sensible convention. The introduction of
data links will require some amendment to the
Frequency and Modulation definition of communications systems, since
Since the techniques involved vary greatly with the non-navigational data will be transmitted but not as a
r.f. and type of modulation used, it is often useful to speech pattern,
categorize equipment as to the band of frequencies in Navigation systems may be subdivided into radio
and non-radio, but only the radio systems concern us landing systems belong to the landing-aids category;
here. Another possihle subdivision is position-fixing different types of these subdivisions of the category
(on a map), height-finding, landing aids and of navigation systems will he considered in Chapters
environment-monitoring. For the latter we have 9. 1 I and 5 respectively. Position-fixing systems
weather avoidance systems, while radio altimeters may be further subdivided into self-contained and
belong to the height-finding category and instru~nent ground-station-based. The former uses dead
RECEIVER
reference system
static
Air data pressure
s y s t e m s ~
instruments sextant m't
Central air data TAT/EPRL * TAT/E PRL
-.
,
computer system4 system indicators
Fjight-d_irp_c\o!
switching
instrument indicators
Magnetic
+ heading
reference
-- switching
--------
radio alt.
system ,
4L
DM 1 e
system indicators
Marker Marker
b e a m syst. beacon i d .
cables. Pick-up is the term used when the interfering pick-up is not appreciably affected by the
source is a.c. power (400 Hz in aircraft), while non-magne tic screen. At high frequencies skin effect
cross-talk is interference from a nearby confines the magnetic fields of co-axial cables to their
signal-carrying cable. The problem arises out of the interior. Most signal-carrying cables are both screened
capacitance and mutual inductance which exists and twisted; some, where integrity is especially
between the cables. A pair of wires may be twisted important, e.g. radio altimeter output, may have
together to reduce both types of interference - the double screening.
pick-up or cross-talk on adjacent loops, formed by The screen around a wire must be earthed in order
the twist, tending to cancel out. An earthed metallic to be effective. However if both ends of the screen
screen or shield will provide an effective reduction in are earthed, an earth loop may be formed since the
capacitive interference but low-frequency inductive complete circuit through the screen, remote earth
[="th" radar
Localizer No. 3
antema
ADF sense - No. 1
antenna No. 2
VOR No. 1
VOR No. 2
points and the airframe is of non-zero resistance. As a number of signal carrying wires are brought together,
consequence, interfering sources may cause a e.g. audio signals being fed to an interphone amplifier.
potential difference t o exist between the ends of the Suitably designed potential divider networks keep
screen. The resulting current flow and its associated this conducted cross-t alk to a minimum (Chapter 2).
H field would cause interference in the inner Adequate separation of antennas operating within
conductor. Earth loops are a particular problem in the same frequency band is necessary to prevent
audio systems and must be avoided. mutual interference by radiation. Frequency and
The earth points for screened cables and a.c. power time domain filtering may be used in helping to avoid
must be remote from one another. If a screen were t o such interference, the former in C.W. systems, the
be connected directly t o an a.c. power earth, latter in pulsed systems. Different polarization (E
conducted mains interference may result. Another field direction) will assist in preventing cross-coupling
form of conducted interference is cross-talk where a between antennas.
WPT 0
Wind direction
and velocity
North
WPT 1
I On track
Wind direction
and velocity
2 Communication systems
selection switches in the AIS. Light aircraft v.h.f.s frequency control for internal circuits and d.m.e, and
usually have a panel-mounted combined transceiver last but not least, audio selection switches. Such
and control unit, an example being the King KY 196 equipment will he considered in Chapter 12.
illustrated in Fig. 2.1. The current trend is for Figure 2.3 shows one of a triple v.h.f. comms
combined COM/NAV/RNAV, Fig. 2.2 illustrates the installation as might be fitted t o a large passenger
Bendix CN-201 I , a general aviation panel-mounted transport aircraft: VHF2 and VHF3 are similar to
unit comprising two comms transceivers, two nav. VHFl but are supplied from a different 28 V d.c. bus
receivers, glidepath receiver, marker receiver, bar and feed different selection switches in the AIS.
ATE
++
v.h.f. C O M M
0 0
p l [rnl Freq.
b
0 @ FWD
MTR PWR REF
OFF\ 1/PWR
Mic.
P.t.t.
b 0
SQUELCH DISABLE
AIS b
Rcv Audio MTO
4 63 Aerial
Sidetone
4
PHONE 0 0 MIC.
t ! 4 t
v.h.f. No. 2 v.h.f. No. 3
Rcv 28 V d.c.
Audio Stby
To Selcal Bus
The transceiver, which is rack-mounted, contains Frequency control is achieved by concentric knobs,
all the electronic circuitry and has provision for the the outer one of which varies the tens and units while
maintenance technician to connect mic. and tels the inner one varies the tenths and hundredths. An
direct, disable the squelch, and measure VSWR. alternative is shown in Fig. 2.1 where there is one
These provisions for testing are by no means universal frequency control and two displays. On rotating the
but if the system conforms to ARINC 566 a plug is frequency knobs clockwise or anticlockwise, the
provided to which automatic test equipment (ATE) standby frequency only will increment or decrement
can be connected. A protective cover for the ATE respectively. Standby may then become in-use by
plug is fitted when the unit is not in the workshop. operation of the transfer switch. There are many
The antenna can take various forms: whip, blade controllers in service with only in-use selection.
or suppressed. In a triple vh.f. comms installation Some or all of the following switches/controls may
these may be two top-mounted blade antennas and be provided by manufacturers on request.
one bottom-mounted; an alternative would be two
blade and one suppressed within the fincap dielectric. Volume Control A potentiometer , which allows
The whip antenna is to be found on smaller aircraft. variable attenuation of audio, prior to feeding the AIS
All antennas are mounted so as to receive and may be fitted as a separate control or as a concentric
transmit vertically polarized waves. knob on the frequency selector(s). Such a volume
The blade antenna may be quite complex. It will control may have sidetone coupled through it on
be self-resonant near the centre of the band with transmit.
bandwidth improvement provided by a short-circuited
stub across the feed terminal or a more complicated Squelch Control A squelch circuit disables the
reactive network built in which will permit height and receiver output when no signals are being received so
hence drag reduction. preventing noise being fed to the crew headsets
between ground transmissions. The squelch control is
Controls and Operation a potentiometer which allows the pilot to set the level
It is common to have in-use and standby frequencies at which the squelch opens, so allowing audio output
available, the former controlling the transceiver from the receiver. When the control is set t o
frequency. This is the situation in Fig. 2.3 where we minimum squelch (fully clockwise) the Hi and Lo
have two sets of frequency controls and two displays, squelch-disable leads, brought to the control unit
the in-use one being selected by the transfer switch from the transceiver, should be shorted, so giving a
and annunciated by a lamp above the display. definite squelch-disable.
Mode Selector Control Provides selection of normal Receiver The receiver is a single. conversion superhet .
a.m., extended range a.m. or Satcom. If the Satcom The r.f. stage employs varactor diode tuning, utilizing
antenna has switchable lobes such switching may be the tuning voltage from the stabilized master
included in the mode switch, or could be separate. oscillator (s.m.0.). Both the r.f. amplifier and mixer
are dual gate field-effect transistors (f.e.t.). The r,f.
On-Off Switch Energizes master power relay in amplifier f.e.t. has the input signal applied t o gate 1
transceiver. The switch may be separate, incorporated while the a.g.c. voltage is applied to gate 2, The
in mode selector switch as an extra switch position, or mixer connections are: gate 1, signal; gate 2, s.rn.0.
ganged with the volume or squelch control. The difference frequency from the mixer, 11.4 MHz,
is passed by a crystal filter, providing the desired
Receiver Selectivity Switch Normal or sharp narrow bandpass, to the i.f. amplifiers. Two stages of
selectivity. When Satcom is selected sharp selectivity a.g.c.-controlled i.f. amplification are used; the first of
automatically applies. which is a linear integrated circuit.
The detector and squelch gate utilize transistors on
an integrated circuit transistor array. A further array
Block Diagram Operation (KY 196)
Figure 2.4 is a simplified block diagram of the King is used for the squelch-control circuitry. Noise at
KY 196 panel-mounted v.h.f. cornm. transceiver. 8 kHz from the detector output is sampled and used
This equipment, intended for the general aviation to close the squelch gate if its amplitude is as
market, is not typical of in+ervice transceivers since from the receiver operating at full gain.
frequency and display control is achieved with the aid When a signal is received, the noise output from the
detector dfxreases due to the a.g.c. action; as a
a microprocessor; however within the lifetime of
consequence the squelch gate opens allowing the
this book such implementation will become
audio signal to pass. The squelch can be disabled by
commonplace.
118.70
Frequency display
121.90
I
Mod. ---+
m
I
Tx
S' tone
>
Switch
Rx AI S
Use T Standby
Anode
drive
Display
drive
+
Cathode
drive , _ _ _
- _ _ _ _ _ - I
I
4- I I
-
I V.C.O. S.M.O. I
:
i
Multiplex
counter
Clock
sync.
Display
dlrnmsr
A
a I
I
I
I
I
I
Phase
det.
t
Ref. Osc. and
divider
,,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Non- I Programmable divider I
I I
volatile
memory
L -- -- -ep
-- - - -52- - - - - - - - -1
f 1
Microcomputer 8 0 4 8
t tI Increment/
Decrement
Tuning
Volts 1 R.F.
A.G.C. A.G.C.
(s.m.0.)
Carrier Noise
squelch squelch
detector detector
,
s
dI Sidetone
Squelch Audio
out
means of a switch incorporated in the volume transmitter chain comprises a pre-driver, driver and
control. When the received signal has excessive noise final stage all broad band tuned, operated in Class C
on the carrier, the noise-operated squelch would keep and with modulated collectors. The a.m. r.f. is fed via
the squelch gate closed were it not for a low-pass filter, which attenuates harmonics, to the
carrier-operated or backup squelch. As the carrier antenna. On receive the t.r. diode is forward biased
level increases, a point is reached where the squelch to feed the received signal from the antenna through
gate is opened regardless o f the noise level. the low-pass filter to the receive r.f. amplifier.
The mean detector output voltage is used to The modulator chain comprises microphone
determine the i.f. a.g.c. voltage. As the i.f. a.g.c. pre-amplifier, diode limiting, an f.e.t . switching stage,
voltage exceeds a set reference the r.f. a.g.c. voltage integrated circuit modulator driver and two modulator
decreases. transistors connected in parallel. The pre-amp output
The detected audio is fed via the squelch gate, is sufficient to subsequently give at least 85 per cent
low-pass filter, volume control and audio amplifier to modulation, the limiter preventing the depth of
the rear panel connector. A minimum of 100 mW modulation exceeding 100 per cent. The mic. audio
audio power into a 500 Ll load is provided. line is broken by the f.e.t. switch during receive.
Thansrnitter The transmitter (Fig. 2.6) feeds 16 W of Stabilized Master OscilEator The s.m.0. is a
a.m. r.f. to the antenna. Modulation is achieved by conventional phase locked loop with the codes for the
superimposing the amplified mic, audio on the programmable divider being generated by a
transmitter chain supply. The carrier frequency microprocessor. Discrete components are used for
corresponds to the in-use display. the voltage controlled oscillator (V.C.O.)and buffers
Radio frequency is fed from the s.m.0. t o an r.f. while integrated circuits (i.c.) are used elsewhere.
amplifier. This input drive is switched by the The reference signal of 25 kHz is provided by an
transmit receive switching circuits, the drive being oscillator divider i,c. which utilizes a 3.2 MHz crystal
effectively shorted to earth when the press to to give the necessary stability. Only seven stages of a
transmit (p.t .t.) button is not depressed. The fourteen-stage ripple-carry binary counter are used t o
Mic.
input
Limiter .
switch
--+ Modulator - b
Sidetone
J
4
I Y
switching
T.R. diode
Rx r
t
Fractional MHz
divider
M H ~iont.
' M H cont.
~
from pP from p P
give the necessary division of 27 = 128. This reference, is made; i.e. zeros after the displayed decimal point.
together with the output of the programmable The prescaler which performs this division is a u.h.f.
divider, is fed to the phase detector which is part of programmable divider (+ 1O/ 11) followed by a
an LC.,the rest of which is unused. The pulsating d.c. divide-by-four i.c. The whole MHz divider uses a
on the output of the phase detector has a d.c. 74LS162 b.c.d. decade counter and a 74LS163 binary
component which after filtering is used to control the counter which together can be programmed to divide
frequency of the v.c.0. by varactor tuning. If there is by an integer between 1 18 and 145, hence the
a ~nthesiiermalfunction, an out-of-lock signal from prescaler and whole MHz divider give a total division
the phase detector is used to switch off the s.m.0. of 4720 (40 X 1 18) to 5800 (40 X 145) in steps of
feed to the transmitter. 40. Thus a required v.c.0. output of, say, 130.00 MHz
The programmable divider consists basically of would be achieved with a division of 5200 (40 X 130)
three sets of counters as shown in Fig. 2.7. The since 130 MHz + 5200 = 25 kHz = reference
buffered v.c.0. output is first divided by either 40 or frequency.
41, the former being so when a discrete MHz selection The 25 kHz steps are obtained by forcing the
prescaler to divide by 41, the required number of The 8048 has been programmed to generate a
times in the count sequence. Each time the division binary code for the 'use' and 'standby' frequencies.
ratio is 41, one extra cycle of the v.c.0. frequency is The code, as well as being stored in the 8048, is also
needed to achieve an output of 25 kHz from the stored in a 1400-bit electrically alterable read only
programmable divider. To see that this is so, consider memory (EAROM). This external memory is
the previous example where we had a division ratio of effectively a non-volatile RAM, the data and address
5200 to give 130.00 MHz, i.e. 5200 cycles at being communicated in serial form via a one-pin
130-00MHz occupies 40 ps = period of 25 kHz. bidirectional bus, the readlwritelerase mode being
Now a prescaler division ratio of 41 once during 40 ps controlled by a three-bit code. When power is
means 520 1 cycles of the v.c.0. output occupy 40 ps applied the microprocessor reads the last frequencies
so the frequency is 5201/(40 X lom6)= 130.025 MHz stored in the EAROM which are then utilized as the
as required. The prescaler ratio is controlled by the initial 'use' and 'standby' frequencies. In the event of
fractional MHz divider, again employing a 74LS 162 failure of the EAROM the microprocessor will display
and 74LS163. The number of divide-by-41 events in 120-00 MHz as its initial frequencies. The EAROM
40 ps is determined by the kHz control code from the will store data for an indefinite period without power.
microprocessor and can be anywhere from 0 to 39 The 'standby' frequency is changed by clockwise
times. Therefore each whole megacycle can have or counterclockwise detent rotation of the frequency
N X 25 kHz added where N ranges from 0 to 39. This select knobs. 1 MHz, 50 kHz and 25 kHz changes can
produces 25 kHz steps from 0 kHz to 975 kHz. be made with two knobs, one of which incorporates a
push-pull switch for 50125 kHz step changes. The
microprocessor is programmed to increment or
Microprocessor and Display The microprocessor decrement the 'standby' frequency by the appropriate
used, an 8048, contains sufficient memory for the step whenever it senses the operation of one of the
program and data required in this application to be frequency-select knobs.
stored on the chip. In addition to this memory and, The code for the frequency in use is fed to the
of course, an eight-bit c.p.u., we have an eight-bit programmable dividers from the microprocessor.
timerlcounter and a clock on board. Through 'Use' and 'standby' frequencies are exchanged on
twenty-seven I/O lines the 8048 interfaces with the operation of the momentary transfer switch. When
programmable divider, display drive circuits and the transceiver is in the receive mode the
non-volatile memory. microprocessor adds 11-4 MHz to the 'use' frequency
code since the local oscillator signal fed to the
receiver mixer should be this amount higher than the
desired received carrier in order to give a difference
frequency equal to the i.f.
Both 'usei and 'standby' codes are fed to the
display drivers. The 'use' code represents the
transmit frequency and is not increased by 11.4 MHz
in the receive mode. Each digit is fed in turn to the
cathode decoderldriver , an i .c. containing a seven-
segment decoder, decimal point and comma drives
and programmable current sinks. The decimal point
and comma outputs (i and h) are used to drive the
Memory
Reac
--I 110 buffer.
I-
Data 110
Data flow
Write
decode
logic
c3
I Decode
I I
Clock Clock
1
Display
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8
(A1 to AS) (a to i)
Anode Cathode
driver decoderldriver
~b A B C D
t h A A A
B.C.D. Dimming
Multiplexer
code current
Sync. Clock
Anode
drive A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8
B.C.D.
code
4
Use
L
F -.
a
Standby
b
4 b
11110 sec.
Fig. 2.10 King KY 196 simplified display drive block
diagram
a 1 of 8 counter/rnultiplexer so that the anode drives modulated off-resonant signal and an unmodulated
(A1 to A8) are switched sequentially. As the anode desired signal, the resultant audio output shall not
drives are switched the appropriate b.c.d. information exceed -10 dB with reference t o the output produced
from the microprocessor is being decoded by the by a desired signal only when modulated 30 per cent
cathode decoderldriver, the result being that the (under specified signal levelloff resonance conditions).
necessary segments of each digit are lighted one d i g t
at a time at approximately 110 times per second. Undesired Responses
A synchronization pulse is sent t o the multiplexer All spurious responses in band 108-135 MHz shall be
from the microprocessor every 8 cycles t o maintain down at least 100 dB otherwise, including image,
display synchronization. at least 8 0 dB down.
Audio Output
Characteristics
Gain
The selected characteristics which follow are drawn A 3 pV a.m. signal with 3 0 per cent modulation at
from ARINC Characteristic 566 covering airborne 1000 Hz will produce 100 mW in a 200-500 S2 load.
v.h.f. communications and Satcom Mark 1 . Details
of Satcom and extended range a.m. are not included. Frequency Response
Audio power output level shall not vary more than
System Units 6 dB over frequency range 300-2500 Hz.
1. V.h.f. transceiver; Frequencies 2 5750 Hz must be attenuated by at
2. modulation adaptor/modem - f.m. provision least 20 dB.
for Satcom;
3. power amplifier - Satcom and extended range; Harmonic Distortion
4. pre-amplifier - Satcom and extended range; Less than 7-5 per cent with 30 per cent modulation.
5. control panel; Less than 20 per cent with 9 0 per cent modulation.
6. remote frequency readout indicator - optional;
7. antennas - separate Satcom antenna. AGC
Note: 1 and 2 may be incorporated in one line No more than 3 dB variation with input signals from
replaceable unit (1.r.u.). 5 pV to 100 mV.
Sensitivity Sidetone
3 pV, 30 per cent modulation at 1000 Hz to give With 9 0 per cent a.m. at 1000 Hz the sidetone output
S t NJN 2 6 d B . shall be at least 100 mW into either a 200 or 500 L?
load.
Selectivity
Minimum 6 dB points at f 15 kHz (* 8 kHz sharp). Mic. Input
Maximum 60 dB points at + 3 1a 5 kHz (+ 15 kHz Mic. audio input circuit to have an impedance of
sharp). 150 i'2 for use with a carbon mic. or a transistor rnic.
Maximum 100 dB points at f 40 kHz ( 5 18.5 kHz operating from the (approx.) 2 0 V d.c. carbon mic.
sharp). supply.
Mic. -+ No. 1
Xmit No. 1 Selcal
28V t.r.
Tel. *
' Aerial
No. 1 coupling
p.t.t.
Controller
No. 2
p.t.t.
Aerial
coupling
+
-
+ ,
Mic. dr
No. 2
2 t.r. b
Tel. No. 2
Selcal
Xmit
financial reasons, to have a fixed antenna coupler. antennas on aircraft which fly faster than, say, 400
Such a system operates on a restricted number of knots, have led to the use of notch and probe
channels (say twenty). As a particular channel is antennas whch effectively excite the airframe so that
selected, appropriate switching takes place in the it becomes a radiating element.
coupler to ensure the r.f. feed to the antenna is via Modern wire antennas are constructed of
previously adjusted, reactive components, which copper-clad steel or phosphor bronze, giving a reduced
make the effective antenna length equal to a quarter r.f. resistance compared with earlier stainless-steel
of a wavelength, thus presenting an impedance of wires. A covering of polythene reduces the effects of
approximately 50 52. The required final manual precipitation static. Positioning is normally a single
adjustment must be carried out by maintenance span between forward fuselage and vertical stabilizer.
personnel on the aircraft. Larger aircraft will have twin antennas while a single
The antenna used varies greatly, depending on the installation, possibly in a 'V' configuration, is more
type of aircraft. For low-speed aircraft a long wire common for smaller aircraft. The r.f. feed is usually
antenna is popular although whip antennas may be at the forward attachment via an antenna mast. The
found on some light aircraft employing low-powered rear tethering is by means of a tensioning unit.
h.f. systems. The aerodynamic problems of wire The antenna mast is subject to pitting and erosion
of the leading edge; a neoprene covering will provide through the h.f. equipment. Bujld-up of precipitation
some protection, nevertheless regular inspections are static on antennas, particularly probes, is dealt with
called for. Protection against condensation within the by providing a high resistance static drain (about
mast may be provided by containers of silica gel 6 M a ) path to earth connected between the antenna
which should be periodically inspected for a change in feed point and the ATU.
colour from blue to pink, indicating saturation. It is important in dual installations that only one
Hollow masts are usually provided with a water-drain h.f. system can transmit at any one time; this is
path which should be kept free from obstruction. achieved by means of an interlock circuit. This basic
The two most important features of the rear requirement is illustrated in Fig. 2.1 1 where it can be
tethering point are that the wire is kept under tension seen that the No. 1 p.t.t. line is routed via a contact
and that a weak link is provided so as to ensure that of the No. 2 interlock relay, similarly with No. 2
any break occurs at the rear, so preventing the wire p.t.t. The interlock relays will be external to the
wrapping itself around the vertical stabilizer and transceivers o f t e ~fitted in an h.f. accessory box.
rudder. On light aircraft a very simple arrangement of While one of the h.f. systems is transmitting the other
a spring, or rubber bungee, and hook may be used. system must be protected against induced voltages
The spring maintains the tension but if this becomes from the keyed system. In addition, with some
excessive the hook will open and the wire will be free installations, we may have a probe used as a
at the rear end. On larger aircraft a spring-tensioning transmitting antenna for both systems and as a
unit will be used to cope with the more severe receiving antenna for, say, No. 1 system. The No. 2
conditions encountered due to higher speeds and receiving antenna might be a notch. It follows that on
fuselage flexing. The unit loads the wire by means of keying either system we will have a sequence of
a metal spring, usually enclosed in a barrel housing. events which might proceed as follows.
A serrated tail rod is attached to the tethering point
on the aircraft and inserted into the barrel where it is
HF 1 keyed:
secured by a spring collet, the grip of which increases 1. HF 2 keyline broken by a contact of HF 1
interlock relay;
with tension. The wire is attached to a chuck unit
which incorporates a copper pin serving as a weak link
2. HF 2 antenna grounded;
designed to shear when the tension exceeds about 3. HF 2ATU input and output feeds grounded and
180 lbf. Some units incorporate two-stage protection feed to receiver broken.
against overload. Two pins of different strengths are HF 2 keyed:
used; should the first shear, a small extension (31 16 in.) 1. HF 1 keyline broken by a contact of HF 2
of overall length results, thus reducing tension and interlock relay;
exposing a yellow warning band on the unit. 2. HF I probe antenna transferred from HF 1;
Notch antennas consist of a slot cut into the ATU to HF 2 ATU;
aircraft structure, often at the base of the vertical 3. HF 2 notch antenna feed grounded;
stabilizer. The inductance of the notch is 4. HF 1 ATU input and output feeds grounded
series-resonatedby a high-voltage variable capacitor and feed to receiver broken.
driven by a phase-sensing servo. Signal injection is via
matching circuitry driven by a SWR sensing servo. Controls and Operation
Since the notch is high 'Q' the input is transformed to Separate controllers are employed in dual installations,
a voltage across the notch which is of the order of each having 'in-use' frequency selection only. Older
thousands of volts. This large voltage provides the systems and some light aircraft systems have limited
driving force for current flow in the airframe which channel selection where dialling a particular channel
serves as the radiator. number tunes the system, including ATU, to a
A probe antenna, which is aerodynamically pre-assigned frequency, a channellfrequency chart is
acceptable, may be fitted at either of the wing-tips or required in such cases. With modern sets, indication
on top of the vertical stabilizer. Again series tuning of the frequency selected is given directly on the
provides the necessary driving force for radiation. controller.
The probe antenna, as well as the wire antenna, is The controls shown in Fig. 2.1 1 are those referred
liable to suffer lightning strikes, so protection in the to in ARINC 559A; variations are common and will
form of a lightning arrester (spark gap) is fitted. be listed below.
Any voltage in excess of approximately 16 kV on the
antenna will cause an arc across the electrodes of the Mode Selector Switch. OFF-AM-SSB The 'turn off'
hykoge-n-filled spark gap, thus preventing discharge function may be a separate switch or indeed may not
&kyc.,
be employed at all; switching on and off being indicator A meter mounted on the front panel of the
achieved with the master radio switch. The 'AM' controller may be provided in order t o give an
position may be designated 'AME' (AM equivalent or indication of radiated power.
compatible) and is selected whenever transmission
and reception is required using a.m. or s.s.b. plus full Block Diagram Operation
carrier (a.m .e .). The 'SSB' position provides for
transmission and reception of upper sideband only. Dansceiver Figure 2.12 is a simplified block diagram
Although use of the upper sideband is the norm of an a.rn.1s.s.b. transceiver. The operation will be
for aeronautical h.f. communications some controllers described by function.
have 'USB' and 'LSB' positions. In addition 'DATA'
and 'CW' modes may be available. The former is for Amplitude Modulated Transmission The frequency
possible future use of data links by h.f. using the selected on the controller determines the output from
upper sideband - the receiver is operated at the frequency synthesizer to the r.f. translator which
maximum gain, The latter is for c .w . transmission and shifts the frequency up and provides sufficient drive
reception, morse code, by 'key bashing', being the for the power amplifier (p.a.). The mic. input, after
information-carrying medium. amplification, feeds the modulator which produces
high-level amplitude modulation of the r.f. amplified
Frequency Selectors Frequency selectors consist of, by the p.a. The ref,signal is fed to the ATU via the
typically, four controls which allow selection of antenna transfer relay contact.
frequencies between 2.8 and 24 MHz in 1 kHz steps The PA output signal is sampled by the sidetone
(ARINC 559A). Military requirements are for a detector which feeds sidetone audio via the contact
frequency coverage of 2 t o 30 MHz in 0.1 kHz steps, of the deenergized sidetone relay and the sidetone
consequently one will find systems offering 280 000 adjust potentiometer to the audio output amplifier.
'channels' meeting these requirements in full or
28 000 channels meeting the extended range but not Single Sideband Transmission Low-level modulation
the 0-1 kHz step requirement. is necessary since there is no carrier to modulate at
When a new frequency is selected the ATU must the p.a. stage, hence the mic. input, f,, is fed t o a
adjust itself since the antenna characteristics will balanced modulator together with a fixed carrier
change. For this purpose the transmitter is keyed frequency, fc, from the frequency synthesizer. The
momentarily in order that SWR and phase can be balanced modulator output consists of both sidebands
measured and used to drive the ATU servos. f, t f, and fc - f,, the carrier being suppressed.
The required sideband is passed by a filter t o the r.f.
Squelch Control Normal control of squelch translator after further amplification.
threshold may be provided. As an alternative an r.f. If we consider an audio response from 300 to
sensitivity control may be used, but where Selcal is 3000 Hz we see that the separation between the
utilized it is important that the receiver operates at lowest u.s.b. frequency and the highest 1.s.b.
full sensitivity at all times with a squelch circuit being frequency is only 600 Hz. It follows that the filter
employed only for aural monitoring and not affecting used must have very steep slurts and a flat bandpass.
the output to the Selcal decoder. A mechanical filter can be used in which an input
transducer converts the electrical signal into
Audio Volume Control Provides for adjustment of mechanical vibrations, these are transmitted by
audio level. Such a control may be located elsewhere, mechanically resonant metal discs and coupling rods
such as on an audio selector panel, part of the AIS. and finally converted back to an electrical signal by
an output transducer.
Clarifier This control is t o be found on some h.f. Frequency translation is by a mixing process
controllers. With s.s.b. signals while the phase of the rather than a multiplicative process since if the
re-inserted carrier is of little consequence its u.s.b. f, + f;, were multiplied by N we would
frequency should be accurate. Should the frequency radiate a frequency of N ( fc + f,) rather than
be incorrect by, say, in excess of + 20 Hz ft t f, +f,. The amount by which the u.s.b. is
deterioration of the quality of speech will result. translated, ft, is determined by the frequency selected
A clarifier allows for manual adjustment of the on the controller. Final amplification takes place in
re-inserted carrier frequency. Use of highly accurate the p.a. prior to feeding the r.f. to the ATU.
and stable frequency synthesizers make the provision To obtain sidetone from the p.a. stage a carrier
of such a control unnecessary. would need to be re-inserted. A simpler method,
r-
A
Squelch 1 + w
Audio
gate b
to AIS
4-(P
A
Tuning
relay
Squelch ,
Squelch Tone
gen.
Sidetone
cont. setting
A d relay
A.M. A.G.C.
*To r.f./i.f. stages
det. det.
A
Rx
f-
S.S.B.
0
R.F.
Filter 4
lxtranslator ,*
A 4 L
f, + fm - T0/fl
ATU
- Product
det.
+ f~ Frequency
synthesizer
fc + fm
fc- ,f t
Control
Tuning
relay
wires
Balanced f~
mod.
Mic.
Modulator .
which nevertheless confirms that a signal has reached signal, which is dealt with in the same way as before.
the p.a., is to use the rectified r.f. t o operate a
sidetone relay. When energized the contact of this Antenna Tuning Unit Figure 2.13 illustrates an
relay connects the amplified mic. audio t o the output automatic ATU simplified block diagram. On
audio amplifier . selecting a new frequency a retune signal is sent to
the ATU control circuits which then:
Amplitude Modulated Reception The received signal
1. keys the transmitter;
passes from the ATU via the de-energized antenna
2 . inserts an attenuator in transceiver output line
transfer relay contact to an ref. amplifier and thence
(Fig. 2.12);
to the r.f. translator. After the translator normal a.m.
3. switches on the tuning tone signal generator
detection takes place, the audio so obtained being fed
(Fig. 2.12) and drives a tune warning lamp
to the output stage. A variety of a.g.c. and squelch
(optional);
circuits may be employed.
4. switches on reference phases for servo motors.
Single Sideband Reception The circuit action on The r.f. signal on the input feed is monitored by a
s.s.b, is similar to that o n a.m. until after the loading servo system and a phasing servo system. If
translator when the translated r.f. is fed to the product the load impedance is high then the line current, I L ,
detector along with the re-inserted 'carrier' f,. The is low and the line voltage VL is high. This is
output of the product detector is the required audio detected by the loading servo discriminator which
I Tune Tx
Retune tone key
1,
I ATU 1
1
I
,
Loading
servo
' Control
circuit
- I
I
I
I v
I I
1 1 ;;:;;it
I I
1
I
Auto Variable I
reactive - I
dl
Spark
gap.
Phasing
servo I
- -
1
t
Self test
V.H.F. V.H.F.
I
Reset
( 5 wires)
Code
select
(4 x 4
wires)
-I Self test
e
drive
r:s
:l
V.H.F. 1
V.H.F. 2
V.H.F. 3
H.F. 1
H.F. 2
circuit
Channel
amps
--+ Chime To
4I 4 switch chimes
Supply
Fig. 2.14 Typical Selcal block diagram
the decoder. Only one annunciator lamp is required. tones A to S are numbered 1 t o 16 (0) the open wires
Code selection in an ARlNC 596 system is achieved will be as given by the corresponding binary number;
by means of a 'b.c.d.' format. Each of the four tone e.g. tone M-12-1100,so with the wires designated
selectors has four wires associated with it; for any 8,4,2 and 1 we see 8 and 4 will be open. Note this is
particular tone an appropriate combination of the not really b.c.d. but is nevertheless termed so.
wires will be open circuit, the rest grounded. If the Testing of Selcal is quite straightforward. If
possible a test rig consisting of a tone generator in sub-systems making up the total audio system. The
conjunction with a v.h.f. and h.f. transmitter should remainder of this chapter will be concerned with the
be used, otherwise permission to utilize a AIS on a Boeing 747.
Selcal-equipped ground station should be sought. It is unusual t o consider all the systems and
sub-systems which follow as part of AIS, a term
w h c h should perhaps be restricted to the system
Audio lntegrating Systems (AIS) - l ntercom w h c h provides for the selection of radio system audio
outputs and inputs and crew in tercomrnunications.
Introduction However a brief description of all systems w h c h
All the systems in this book exhibit a variety of generate, process or record audio signals will be given.
characteristics but none more so than AIS. In a light The following services comprise the complete audio
aircraft the function of the audio system is t o provide system:
an interface between the pilot's mic. and tel. and the
selected receiver and transmitter; such a 'system' 1. flight interphone: allows flight deck crew to
might be little more than a locally manufactured communicate with each other or with ground
panel-mounted junction box with a built-in audio stations;
amplifier and appropriate switching. In contrast a 2. cabin interphone: allows flight deck and cabin
large multi-crew passenger aircraft has several crew to communicate;
Attendant's chime
call system
Handsets
4
Audio Cabin
+ interphone
system
PTT -
Audio
t
Pass.
address
system
PA
.
.L
Audio
PTT-
override Pass-
i entertain.
VOR/ILS NAV ' (music)
system
Marker beacon
system
Monitor
Low range signals
radio altimeter +
system
Service
ATC system -
DME system I I
- Audio
Selcal
- Voice r-----
..Voice r e c 1I
p~ovisions,
I
I
' system
(provisionsl 1
F R O H BOOM M A S K SWITCH
I INPH
I TO BOOM MASK SWITCH
I I
GAIN
1 085
I I
JACK
TEST
HEAOPHONE
AUDIO
SPLAKER
4UOIO
VU
Y t LURDE
lCL R
I
- I ACCESSORY CARO
I
*,,Li,O
IJACS i i L--L1--
----
PANEL
1 I I1-~:1ERDr
m I -------- I i
: w!
MUTING i
- - -7 ---,-----!---
I I
VUF 1
1
VOR 1 ADk I
1
H K R BCN
U
&2
I VHf 2
VHF 3
HF I
HF 1
4DF 3
OME 1
Arc
LR RAO A L T
t
INTERPHONE SPEAKER
L-J
4UOIO SELECTOR PANEL
VOR I DME 2
Fig. 2.18 Audio signal selection (courtesy Boeing
Commercial Aeroplane Co.)
Fig. 2.16 Boeing 747: flight interphone (courtesy Boeing
Commercial Aeroplane Co.)
CONTROL WHEEL
PTT IN1
SPEAKER MUTE
BOOM
M1CROPHONE
MICROPHONE
MASK
HIGH --p- . - - T--
-
CONTROLIMICROPMONL
LDW
PTT - R I l
CONTROL
NORM
7
ASPs for selection as required. *ttenciantrs stations1
Pressing a mic. select button on the ASP will (typicaU
hirnallight 'me/light
connect the corresponding system mic. input lines to nsor n r nit
relay K2 and to contacts on the ASP r.t.int. p.t.t. 6'
switch. Thus when a p.t.t. switch is pressed, the mic.
lines will be made by either the contacts of K2 or by control Control logic and
the ASP p.t.t. switch in the r.t. position. In Fig. 2.19 unit switching circuits
the h.f.2 select switch is shown as typical of all comm.
select switches. When the PA select switch is pressed
the flight interphone mic. circuit is interrupted and Central switching unit
PA audio is applied to the fail-normal switch; in llnMrphons1 V P A I
addition the rnic. lines to the PA system are made.
Operation of any p.t.t. switch mutes both interphone
speakers to prevent acoustic feedback.
Cabin Interphone Fig. 2.20 Boeing 747: cabin interphone (courtesy Boeing
The cabin interphone is a miniature automatic Commercial Aeroplane Co .)
telephone exchange servicing several subscribers:
the cabin attendants and the captain. In addition
the system interfaces with the PA to allow
announcements to be made. The system is more complex than has been
Numbers are dialled by pushbuttons on the suggested above but a basic description has been given, t
telephone type handsets or on the pilot's control supported by Fig. 2.20.
unit. Eleven two-figure numbers are allocated to the
subscribers, plus additional numbers for PA in Service Interphone
various or all compartments, an 'all-attendants' call A total of twenty-two handset jacks are located in
and an 'all-call'. Two dialling codes consist of letters: various parts of the airframe in order that ground
P-P is used by an attendant to alert the pilot (call crew can communicate with one another using the
light flashes on control unit and chime sounds once) service interphone system. The system is rather
while PA-PA is used by the pilot to gain absolute simpler than those considered above. Mic. audio from
priority over all other users of the PA system. The all handsets, with 'press to talk' depressed, are
directory is listed on the push-to-talk switch combined in and amplified by the service interphone
incorporated in each handset to minimize ambient amplifier in the interphone audio accessory box.
noise. The amplified signal is fed to all handset tels.
All dialling code decoding and the necessary trunk Volume control adjustment is provided by a preset
switching is carried out in the central switching unit, potentiometer.
CSU (automatic exchange). The CSU also contains With the flight engineer's interphone switch
three amplifiers, one of w h c h is permanently selected to ON the input summing networks for both
allocated to the pilot on what is effectively a private service and flight interphone systems are combined.
trunk. Of the five other available trunks, two are All mic. inputs from either system are amplified and
allocated to the attendants, two to the PA system and fed to both systems.
one for dialling. (Note a trunk is simply a circuit
which can connect two subscribers.) Passenger Address
The cabin interphone and service interphone The system comprises three PA amplifiers, tape deck,
systems may be combined into a common network annunciator panel, attendant's panel, PA accessory
by appropriate selection on the flight engineer's box, control assemblies, speaker switch panel and
interphone switch panel, captain's ASP and cabin fifty-three loudspeakers. The various PA messages
interphone control unit. Any handset may then be have an order of priority assigned to them: pilot's
lifted and connected into the network (dial 'all-call'). announcements, at tendant's announcements,
In a similar way the flight interphone circuits may be prerecorded announcements and finally boarding
used to make specific calls over the cabin interphone music. All PA audio is broadcast over the speaker
system. system and also, except for boarding music, overrides
AUDIO
* M A I N CABIN
SPEAKERS
* V I A SPEAKE R
SCITCHING
P PANEL
E M ~ R G E ~ CGYR U AUDIO
OXIGEh SYS
-
20V DC
PA
I -- - ---
l N T t RPItOliE ACID10 ACCC_SSORY BOX-
- - - -- - -
- -- I ANNUNCIATOR
PANEL
.SELECT TAPE
PA
AMP
NO 1
CANCEL
CONTROL
CONTROL
I
P A R A L L E L CONTROL
-
I I 1I I
CABIN I N T S V S AUDIO
C *
I
CONTROL
*
PA
AMP
I
SENSI~IVITI NO 1
CONTROL OUTPUT
AS'l AMPLIFIEU
AUDIO
7
-
M A I N CABIN
SPEAKERS
VIA SPEAKER
PASSENGER SWITCHING
PANEL
SENSITIVITV
yMP
NO 3
:;S""' +
F L I G H T INTERPHONE
LUDlO INPUl
L
&
* M P NO I
N O 2. S W I T C H I N G A S Y -
+AUDIO
Fig. 2.21 Boeing 747: service interphone (courtesy Boeing Fig. 2.22 Boeing 747: passenger address (courtesy Boeing
Commercial Aeroplane Co.) Commercial Aeroplane Co.)
entertainment audio fed to the passenger stethoscope amplifiers. When the aircraft is on the ground with
headsets. A prerecorded emergency announcement landing gear locked down and ground power applied
may be initiated by the pilot or an attendant, or the level of speaker audio is reduced by 6 dB.
automatically in the event of cabin decompression. The tape deck contains up to five tape cartridges
A chime is generated when the pilot turns on 'fasten apart from the necessary tape-drive mechanism,
seat-belt' or 'no smoking' signs. playback head and a pre-amplifier. Boarding music is
The passenger address amplifiers are fed via the selected at an attendant's panel while prerecorded
flight or cabin interphone systems for pilot or announcements are selected by means of twelve
attendant announcements respectively. Distribution pushbuttons on the annunciator panel.
of audio from the amplifiers to the speakers in various
zones depends on the class configuration, since some Passenger Entertainment System
announcements may be intended for only a certain The passenger entertainment system of the Boeing
class of passengers. 747 and any other modern large airliner is perhaps
The necessary distribution is achieved by means of the most complex of all airborne systems. It is also
switches on the speaker switching panel. Audio is also the system likely to cause most trouble and,
fed to the flight interphone system for sidetone fortunately, least likely to affect the safety of the
purposes. aircraft unless bad servicing leads t o a fire or
Number 2 and number 3 amplifiers are slaved t o loose-article hazard. Even on the same type of
number 1 for all-class announcements. Should aircraft a variety of services will be available since
separate class announcements be required the parallel different operators will offer different entertainment
control relay is energized, so separating the number 1 in a bid to capture more customers. In view of the
audio from that of number 2 and 3. The control above comments, the following description is
assemblies in the PA accessory box contain particularly brief and does not do justice t o the
potentiometers used t o set the gain of the PA complexity involved.
~ u y , ~,P.A.
,
override
I) ........
........
- v
Zone A Other
Tape Main sub-
-b multiplexer submultiplexers
deck multiplexer
Seats
1 2 3
-
Channel select
444
vv 7 Seat
Other seat
columns
demultiplexer ' 'Other seat
demultiplexers
41 42 3
Audio
Seats
Both movies and music are provided, the movie 'system', as can be seen from the schematic diagram :
audio being fed to individual seats via the music in Fig. 2.24. The horn and flight-deck call button ari
portion of the system. Ten tape-deck channels, four located in the nose wheel bay while the ground-crew /
movie audio channels and one p.a. channel (total call (with illumination) and aural warning box are on1
fifteen) are provided using time multiplexing. A time the flight deck. Operation is self-explanatory from
interval, ternled a frame, is divided into fifteen the diagram. Should horn or chime sound, the groud
channel times during which the signal amplitude of crew, or flight crew respectively, will contact each
each channel is sampled. The audio signal amplitudes other using one of the interphone systems.
are binary coded (twelve bits) and transmitted,
together with channel identification, clock and sync.
pulses, over a co-axial cable running throughout the
F L I G H T DECK C A L L
aircraft.
The music channels (five stereo, ten monaural or a
mixture) are multiplexed in the main multiplexer, the
resulting digital signal being fed to six submultiplexers 130 SEC TDI
G R O CREW C A L L
be separate from the control panel) is strategically separately or all together. A playback head and
situated so that it can pick up flight crew speech and monitor amplifier allows a satisfactory test to be
general cockpit sounds. observed on meters or heard over a headset via jack
While the control panel is situated in the cockpit, plug sockets. Pressing the test button on the control
the recorder unit (CVR) is located at the other end of panel or the all-test button on the CVR causes the
the aircraft where it is least likely t o suffer damage in channels to be monitored sequentially.
the event of an accident. The CVR is constructed so The power supply for the system should be from a
as to withstand shock and fire damage, and additionally source which provides maximum reliability. Since the
is painted in a fire-resistant orange paint to assist in tape is subject t o wear and thus has a limited life, the
recovery from a wreck. CVR should be switched off when not in use. A
The recorded audio may be erased providing the suitable method would be to remove power to the
landing gear and parking brake interlock relay CVR whenever external ground power is connected.
contacts are closed. As a further safeguard against
accidental erasure a delay is incorporated in the bulk
'
erase circuit which requires the operator t o depress Testing and Trouble Shooting the Audio
i the 'erase' switch for two seconds before erasure Systems
E commences.
Test facilities are provided for all four channels, Various self-test facilities may be provided'by which
tones may be generated and heard over headsets. fmding short circuits or howls due to coffee-induced
However, t o test properly all switches should be te1.-mic. feedback (i.e. spilt liquid providing a
operated and all mic. and tel. jacks, as well as conducting path between tel. and rnic. circuits).
speakers, should be checked for the required audio. Where one has a number of units in series, e.g.
This should be sufficiently loud, clear and noise-free. demultiplexers in an entertainment system,
Amplifier gain presets in accessory boxes may need to disconnecting can be a particularly rapid method of
be adjusted, A full functional test is best done by fault-finding; it is usually best to split the run in half,
two men, although it is not impossible for one man then in half again, and so on until the faulty unit or
with two headsets and an extension lead to establish connection is found. Continuity checks on very long
two-way contact between various stations. cables can be achieved by shorting to earth at one end
Faults can be quite difficult to find owing to the and then measuring the resistance to earth at the
complicated switching arrangements. However the other. The resistance to earth should also be
wide range of switching can be used to advantage in measured with the short removed in case a natural
order to isolate suspect units or interconnections, short exists.
Disconnecting units provides a good method of
3 Automatic direction finding
Fore and
st. 1
Rotor
(search coil)
Fore and aft loop
Direction of
propagation
Tuning
Modern ADFs employ so-called digital tuning
whereby spot frequencies are selected, as opposed to
older sets where continuous tuning was usual.
A conventional frequency synthesizer is used to
generate the local oscillator (first 1.0. if double
superhet) frequency. The tuning voltage fed to the
Pi 3.4 Composite polar diagram v.c.0. in the phase lock loop is also used for varicap
Fig. 3.5 An ADF simplified block diagram
tuning in the r.f. stages. Remote selection is by b.c.d. b.f.0. output is mixed with the i.f. so as t o produce
(ARINC 570) or some other code such as 215. an audio difference frequency. Good sensitivity is
required since the effective height of modern
Balanced Modulator low-drag antennas gives a low level of signal pick-up.
Figure 3.7 shows the balanced modulator used in the Good selectivity is required to avoid adjacent channel
King KR 85. Diodes CR 1 13 and CR 1 14 are turned interference in the crowded 1.f.lrn.f. band.
on and off by the switching oscillator (Q 3 1 1 and
Q 3 12) so alternately switching the loop signal to one Indication of Bearing
of two sides of the balanced transformer T 1 16. The In all indicators the pointer is aligned in the direction
output of TI16 is thus the loop signal with its phase of the NDB. The angle of rotation clockwise from a
switched between 0' and 180" at the oscillator rate. lubber line at the top of the indicator gives the relative
bearing of the NDB. If the instrument has a fixed
Receiver scale it is known as a relative bearing indicator (RBI).
A conventional superhet receiver is used with an i.f. More common is a radio magnetic indicator (RMI)
frequency of 141 kHz in the case of the KR 85; i.f. which has a rotating scale slaved to the compass
and r.f. gain may be manually controlled but in any heading. An RMI will give the magnetic bearing of
case a.g.c. is used. An audio amp, with normal gain the NDB on the scale as well as the relative bearing by
control, amplifies the detected signal and feeds the the amount of rotation of the pointer from the lubber '
AIS for identification purposes. A beat frequency line. Figure 3.8 illustrates the readings on RBI and
oscillator (b.f.0.) can be switched in to facilitate the MI for a given NDB relative bearing and aircraft
identification of NDBs transmitting keyed c.w. The heading. An RMI normally provides for indication of
&
two magnetic headings from a co~ybinationof two
ADF receivers and two VOR receivers. Figure 3.9
A
NDB 1 N 2 2 shows a typical RMI while Fig. 3.10 shows the RMI
circuit and typical switching arrangements which may
be internal or external to the RMIs.
Assume search coil aligned with zero bearing
Switching
voltage
Balanced
mod. O/P
N.D.B.
Sense
A
r.f.
Composite
signal
I Ietected
Rx out
n phase
Q .
Astable
rnultivibrator
(2311-312
-
Q
No.1 Inst.
AIS 4 ADF trans-
3A 5A
cont. former
-
'
lr
Loop
1A Panel
1A lights
No. 1 26 V SUPP~Y
400Hz
?-iff
Quadrantal Capt.
u error-loop
equalizer
Corrector
box
i
Rx
4
No. 1
VOR
From Compass
Sense
cable No. 2 ADF hdg
Susceptrformer b
or No. 2 VOR
equalizer
I
I To other
RMl's
Sense
aerial
Fig. 3.12 Typical ADF installation
0
Insulated
sense ae.
terminal I
'. b
4-
-4
To Rx
rr
Earth f\ fl 1 n +
terminal
i'\
Inner
screen
Outer
screen
Fig. 3.14 Sense aerial matching
bottom of the fuselage it should not be mounted near
B.F.O.
the nose, tail, large or movable protuberances or near
other system antennae. Similar considerations apply & ,jW[
to the sense antenna, although being omnidirectional
alignment is not a problem. Ideally the sense antenna
will be mounted at the electrical centre of the aircraft
in order to give accurate over-station turn-around of
the bearing pointer.
The interconnections in the system must take into
account that the phasing of voltages produced by Fig. 3.15 ARINC 570 control panel (typical)
sense and loop antennas will be different for top and
bottom mounting. The method used will depend on
the manufacturer but if the system conforms to
Function Switch. OFF-ANT-ADF In the antenna
ARINC 570 the synchro repeater connections will be
position (ANT) the receiver operates from the sense
as in Table 3.1. If, as in some light aircraft
antenna only, the bearing pointer being parked at 90'
relative bearing. This position may be used for
Table 3.1 Synchro connections for alternate aerial tuning and NDB,station identification. In the ADF
locations. Indicator synchro receiver corrections position signals from both loop and sense antenna
provide normal ADF operation, the RMI indicating
Aerial position
Bottom
loop, loop,
Top
loop,
Top
loop,
the bearing o f the station.
bottom top top bottom
sense sense Frequency Select Knobs Three knobs are used; one
is mounted co-axially with the function switch, to
S1 S1 S1 S3 ~3 select frequency in 0 - 5 , 10 and 100 kHz increments.
Synchro S2 S2 S2 52 s2 Digital type frequency display segments indicate the
transmitter $3 S3 S3 S1 S1 selected frequency. The information is passed to the
corrections R1 R1 R2 R1 R2 receiver as parallel b.c.d.
R2 R2 RI R2 R1
Beat Frequency Oscillator Switch Selects the BFO
installations, the goniorneter is in the indicator and for use when the NDB selected is identified by
the bearing is presented directly rather than by synchro on-off keying of the carrier.
feed then the following corrections are necessary: A number of other switches may be found on
1. loop from top to bottom: longitudinal coil various controllers, as briefly described below.
connections to goniometer stator reversed;
2. sense from top to bottom; search coil Function Switch. OFF-ANT-ADF-LOOP An extra
connections reversed. position of the function switch may be provided to
operate the receiver from the loop aerial only. This
Obviously one must check for which position, top or position, LOOP, would be used in conjunction with a
bottom, the connections are made in the supplied loop control.
unit.
Protection from interference is of vital importance, Loop Control Spring loaded to off. When operated
and to this end adequate screening of cables should be clockwise or anticlockwise the search coil rotates in
employed. ARINC 570 calls f o r four individually the selected direction. This control can be used for
shielded co-axial cables insulated and twisted, then manual direction-finding, the search coil being rotated
jacketed. The sense antenna connector should use until an audio null is achieved or, if provided, a visual
double shielding (tri-axial) cable. The cable runs tuning indicator indicates a null. Although not used
should be clear of any high-level transmitting cables in most modern equipments this does have the
or a.c. power cables. advantage over ADF that the nulls are sharper; ADF
operation would have t o be used to sense the correct
null.
Controls and Operation
Gain Control An audio gain control is usually
A standard ARINC 570 control panel is illustrated in provided and may be annotated volume. On at least
Fig. 3.15. one system the gain of the R.F. amps is manually
: adjustable when ANT or LOOP is selected, whereas Sensitivity
: audio gain is controlled on ADF. Signal + noise t o noise ratio 6 dB or better with
35 pV/m field strength modulated 30 per cent at
Beat Frequency Oscillator Tone A rotary switch, 1000 Hz and hi-root-cap = 1-0.
giving b.f.0. on-off, and a potentiometer may be
mounted on the same shaft turned by the b.f.0. Station Interference
control. When switched on the frequency of the An undesired signal from a source 90" to that of the
b.f.0. can be adjusted, so varying the tone in the desired signal at the frequencies and relative signal
headset. levels listed in Table 3.2 shall not cause a change in
indicated bearing of more than 3".
Preselect Frequency Capability Provision can be
made for in use and standby frequencies selected by Receiver Selectiviq
means of a transfer switch. When frequency selection Passband at least 1.9 kHz at -6 dB points not more
is made only the standby frequency changes. than 7 kHz at -60 dB points. Resonant frequency
Switching the transfer switch (TFR) will now reverse within k 175 Hz of selected frequency.
the roles of in-use and standby frequencies. Both
frequencies are displayed and clear annunciation of
which is in use is required.
Calibration and Testing on the Ramp
Loop Swing
Character istics The procedure for determining the sign and size of
errors in an ADF installation is known as a loop
The following characteristics are selected and swing. On initial installation a swing should be
summarized from the ADF System Mark 3 ARINC carried out at 15' heading intervals. Check swings
570. should be carried out whenever called for in the
maintenance schedule, after a lightning strike, when
Frequency Selection an airframe modification close t o the ADF antenna is
Range: 190-1750 kHz; spacing: 0.5 kHz; channelling completed or when a new avionic system is installed.
time less than 4 s; parallel b .c.d. frequency selection The check swing is carried out at 45' intervals. A
with provision for serial b .c.d. swing should not be carried out within +- 2 h of sunset
or sunrise to avoid night effect.
ADF Accuracy The loop swing may be carried out in the air or on
+ 2" excluding q.e. for any field strength from the ground. The advantage of an air swing is that the
50 pV/m to 100 000 pV/m, assuming a sense aerial aircraft is operating in its normal environment away
quality factor of 1 SO. (Sense aerial quality factor = from external disturbances but, in some ways, a
effective height X square root of capacitance, ground swing is t o be preferred, since readings may be
i.e. hi-root-cap). taken more accurately. If the loop is mounted on the
f 3" excluding q.e. for a field strength as low as bottom of the fuselage the swing may be affected by
25 pV/m. the close proximity of the ground, in which case an
4 3" after q.e. correction. air swing should be carried out. An installation
should be checked by air test after q.e.s have been
ADF Hunting corrected.
Less than + l o .
Ground Swing A ground loop swing must be carried
Table 3.2 Station interference conditions, with out at a site known not to introduce bearing errors.
reference to desired frequency A base suitable for compass swings will not necessarily
be suitable for loop swings. A survey using portable
Undesired frequency Undesired signal strength direction finding (D/F) equipment must be carried
out if the site is doubtful.
*2kH~ -4 dB The loop may be swung with reference to true or
i3kHz -10 dB magnetic north. Using true north has the advantage
k 6 kHz -55 dB that the loop swinging base may be permanently
4 7 kHz -70 dB marked out. If the swing is with reference to
magnetic north the loop should be calibrated using a
datum compass, such as the medium landing compass, are recorded on a loop swing record chart, a specimen
which should be aligned with the longitudinal axis of of which is shown as Table 3 -3.
the aircraft and positioned about 100 ft from the The correction (D) is the signed angle which must
aircraft. To sight the longitudinal axis, sighting rods be added to the indicated magnetic bearing of the
or clearly visible plumb lines may be fixed t o the station (B + C) in order to give the true magnetic
aircraft centre line. Use of an upright nose-mounted bearing (A). So, for example, adding -5.5" to 41' +
propeller and the vertical stabilizer may suffice 354" gives 389.5" = 29.5" as required.
providing sighting is carried out carefully from a When completed the values obtained in the final
suitable distance. For a check swing the aircraft gyro column should be plotted as a q.e. correction curve,
magnetic compass may be used provided this has been as shown in Fig. 3.16. The average of the absolute
recently swung, corrected and a calibration chart values of the peaks gives the amount of correction
made out. required, the polarity being given by the sign of the
The aircraft must contain its full complement of correction in the first quadrant. So in the example
equipment. Doors and panels in the vicinity of the given we have:
ADF antennas must be closed. Internal power
supplies should be used whenever possible since the
external generator and lead may cause errors in the
readings.
The ADF is tuned to a station or NDB within as the required correction. The correction is made by
range and of a known magnetic bearing from the site. suitable choice of components in the QE corrector
With the aircraft on the required number of headings loop equalizer as instructed by the manufacturer.
the ADF reading and the aircraft magnetic heading The correction should be more or less the same for
identical installations in a particular aircraft type.
Once the prototype has had a calibration swing and
Table 3.3 Loop swing record chart the component values are chosen, subsequent swings
on series aircraft should show the error bounded by
A/C Tail No ............. *
A/C Type ................ 3' as required.
Date ......................... Time 10.00 Base ........................ Loop alignment error is given by the average of the
Station Droitwich Freq. 200 kHz Mag.Brg (A)029.5
-
peaks. So in the example we have:
Magnetic heading Automatic direction Correction
datum compass finding relative bearing (D)
(Bj (C!
Since this is in excess of + 0-25" this error should be
taken out by re-alignment of the loop.
The line correction = -2.125 has been drawn on
Fig. 3.1 6. The correction curve should cross this Iine
at 0 , 9 0 , 180 and 270' if there is no field alignment
error. Within the limits of the accuracy of the plot
and the scale we can see that this is the case in our
example. If there were a field alignment error it
would be measured along the horizontal axis.
Functional Test .
Ideally there will be at least one station or NDB
within range in each quadrant; in busy regions this will
certainly be so, for example, at London Heathrow
more than twenty beacons can be received under good
conditions. The true magnetic bearing of those
Indicated ADF bearing beacons t o be used must be known. An accuracy
check is performed by tuning into a beacon in each
Fig. 3.16 Quadrantal error correction curve for Table 3.3 quadrant and ensuring that for each the pointer
indicates the bearing t o within the limits laid down in
the procedure, say f 5". The figure given will only be
Two possible methods are position-line swinging achievable if the aircraft is well away from large metal
and single-point swinging. With the first method a objects, and if the test is not carried out within 2 h of
series of landmarks which give a ground reference line sunrise or sunset. Use of external power may also
aligned with a distant transmitter are chosen. A give erroneous readings.
zig-zag pattern is flown, both toward and away from All controls should be operated to ensure correct
the transmitter, the readings being taken as the functioning. In particular if a loop control is
aircraft crosses the line at various headings. With the provided the pointer should be displaced 170" first
second method a clearly defined point, some distance clockwise and then anticlockwise from the correct
from the transmitter, is chosen. A clover-leaf pattern reading, t o which the pointer should return without
is flown centred on this point, readings being taken on excessive hunting.
-- -
Cosptcoswt ; )
t : . . . ' / \- /
\
\
Fre uency
rnoaulator
9960 Hz
gen.
+ Amplitude
modulator
k v.h.f.
Tx.
, \\
\
Y
- 1-1/'
1
A
lr
p=
W=
2rr.30 HZ
2 n . f , MHz
'7 Audio a.m.
O-mic.
1. 30 Hz a.m.: the variable phase signal. at X' magnetic bearing from the station the variable
2. 9960 Hz a m . : this is a subcarrier frequency, phase will Zag the reference phase by x". Figures 4.1,
modulated at 30 Hz with a deviation of 4.2 and 4.3 illustrate the basic principles.
+ 480 Hz. The 30 Hz signal is the reference The airborne equipment receives the composite
phase. signal radiated by the station to which the receiver is
3. 1020 Hz a.m.: identification signal keyed t o tuned. After detection the various modulating signals
provide morse code identification at least three are separated by filters. The 30 Hz reference signal is
times each 30 s. Where a VOR and DME are
co-located the identification transmissions are
synchronized (associated identity, see
Chapter 7).
4. Voice a.m.: the VOR system can be used as a
ground-to-air communication channel as long as
this does not interfere with its basic navigational
-Variable #
30 Hz a.m.
Reference (i,
function. The frequency range of the voice 30 Hz f.m.
modulation is limited to 300-3000 Hz.
V A R I A B L E PHASE
SIGNAL (AM)
- SECOND
30
ROTATING P A T T E R N
( 3 0 REVOLUTIONS P E R SECOND)
\ I
10DRADiAL
9960Hz SUBCARRIER
F R E O MOD AT 3 0 H I
+& SECOND
REFERENCE P H A S E VOLTAGE
( A F T E R F M DETECTION1
t
V O L T A G E S AT A I R C R A F T
ON 2 4 0 ' R A D I A L
phase compared with the variable signal, the difference station can be presented to the pilot. Figure 4.4
in phase giving the bearing from the station. The illustrates that the relative bearing to the station is the
actual reading presented to the pilot is the bearing to difference between the magnetic bearing to the station
the station rather than from, so if the difference in and the aircraft heading. An RMI is used to display
phase between variable and reference signal is 135" the information. Such instruments are considered in
the 'to' bearing would be 135 + 180 = 3 15', as shown Chapter 3 . In this application the card is driven by
in Fig. 4.4. the compass, as normal, so that the card reading at
If compass information (heading) is combined with the lubber line is the aircraft heading. At the same
the VOR-derived beaxing the relative bearing of the time a pointer is driven to a position determined by
fly-left or fly-right signals are derived and presented to
the pilot.
A complication is that radial information depends
only on the phase difference between modulating
signals and is independent of heading; hence the
fly-right or fly-left information may send the aircraft
the 'long way round'. Further, when an aircraft is on
course, i.e. the steering command is nulled, the
aircraft may be heading either toward or away from
the station on the selected radial. A TOIFROM
indication removes the ambiguity. With the aircraft
heading, roughly, towards (away from) the station
and the TOIFROM indicator indicating TO (FROM),
the steering information gives the most direct path in
u
Fig. 4.4 Tolfrom magnetic bearings and relative bearing
order to intercept the selected radial.
If the reference phase (R) is phase shifted by the
selected course (C) and then compared with the
variable phase, a fly-right indication will be given if
R + C lags V, while if R + C leads V, the command
the difference between the bearing to the station and will be fly-left. If we now add 180 to the
the heading. A differential synchro or resolver is used phase-shifted reference phase we have R + C + 180
to give the required angular difference. Figure 4.5 which will, on addition, either cancel V, partially or
shows the RMI presentation corresponding to the completely, in which case a TO indication will be
situation diagram shown in Fig. 4.4. Only one pointer given, or reinforce V, partially or completely, in
is shown, for clarity. which case a FROM indication will be given.
The previous two paragraphs refer to 'automatic' Figure 4.6 shows two possible situations. In both
VOR, so called since the pilot need do no more than cases the selected course is 042, i.e. the pilot wishes
switch on and tune in t o an in-range station in order to fly towards the station on the 222 radial or away
to obtain bearing information. 'Manual' VOR from the station on the 042 radial. With aircraft A
requires the pilot to select a particular radial on which we have a fly-left and a TO indication; with aircraft B
he wants to position his aircraft. The actual radial on we have a fly-right and a FROM indication. Note that
which the aircraft is flying is compared with the if the headings of the aircraft were reversed, the
desired radial. If the two are different the appropriate indications would be the same, so sending them the
'long way round'. Figure 4.7 slzows an electronic
deviation indicator corresponding to aircraft B. The
indication at top right shows the aircraft to be on the
022 radial from a second VOR station.
Fly left
R + 42"
fly right
u1
(R + 42" leads V)
airborne equipment will give the correct indications at 30 Hz anticlockwise around the ring of antennas.
when used with stations of either type. In the DVOR To a receiver, remote from the site, it appears as if the
the reference signal is 30 Hz a.m. while the variable signal sources are approachng and receding, and
signal is 30 Hz f.m. on a 9960 Hz sub-carrier. Since hence the received signal suffers a Doppler shift
the roles of the a.m. and f.m. are reversed with respect (see Chapter 10). With a diameter of 13.5 m and
to CVOR the variable phase is arranged to lead the rotation speed of 30 r.p.s. the tangential speed at the
reference phase by XO for an aircraft at X' magnetic periphery is ?T X 13-5X 30 = 1272 m.p.s. At the
bearing from the station (cf. CVOR). centre frequency of the v.h.f. band, 113 MHz, one
In a double sideband DVOR (DSB-DVOR) the cycle occupies approximately 2.65 m, thus the
carrier, f,, with 30 Hz (and identification) a.m. is maximum Doppler shift is 127212.65 = 480 Hz.
radiated from an omnidirectional antenna. Two In the airborne receiver the sidebands mix with the
unmodulated r.f. sideband signals, one 9960 Hz above carrier at f, to produce 9960 + 480 Hz. Single
f,, the other 9960 Hz below f,,are radiated from sideband and alternate sideband DVOR are possible,
antennas diametrically opposite in a ring of about but since they compromise the performance of the
fifty antennas. These latter signals are cornmutated system they will not be discussed.
instruments on which VOK information is displayed
are multi-function hence quite complex switching
arrangements are involved; Figure 4.9 shows o n e
VORIILS system of a typical dual installation; only
those outputs from VOR are shown.
The antenna may serve ILS as well as VOR but
some aircraft have separate antennas, particularly if
all.wcather landing is a requirement when the
optimunl position for the localizer antenna may not
suit VOR. If separate antennas are used with a
common r.f feed to the receiver the switching logic
will be derived fiom the channel selection made a1
the control unit. The VOK antenna employs
horizontal polarization with an omnidirectional
radiation pattern. A horizontal dipole is often used
with the dipole elements forming a 'V' shape to give a
more nearly omrridirectinnal pattern. Since the
dipole is a halanced load and the co-ax. feeder is
unbalanced (with respect to earth) a balun (balanced
to unbalanced line transforn~er)is used. The dipole
may he mounted on the vertical stabilizer or nn a
Fig.4.7 lh-2014 rlcctiui~ici'oorrc dc~i.ttiani n d l c ~ l u r s t a d o f f mast, top-mounted on the fuselage.
(courtesy Dendi* Avianlcs Division) The VOR/ILS receiver contains a conventional
superhet, a filter for separation of signals and a
Reference W converter to provide the required outputs which are
30 Hz a.m.
1. audio to AIS;
Variable $5 2. bearing information to two RMls;
30 Hz f.m. 3. deviation from selected radial;
4. TOIFROM signal;
5. flag or warning signal.
DM 1 4
Compass
Self
test o S/by a
Norm
DME
Test
v
Power RF
Captain Audio
No. 1 VOR/ ILS R x Flight interphone
To DEV Flag
From
F/O
RMI 4b
b
1st officer's
I) $ VOR/ILS
transfer relay
V T V T
OBS
Captain's VOR/ILS
transfer relay
Central
instrument
5
warning panel
f
INS w Captain's RAD/INS
relay
Captain's HSI
,
display VOR/ILS information and often to a central
instrument warning system (CIWS). Should the
deviation signal be fed to the automatic flight control
system (AFCS), then obviously so must the flag or
warning signal.
1020 Hz
-
filter To A I S
- - - - - - - - -- - - - -
1
rC b 9960 Hz
Discriminator - -j Ref. channel I
I
filter
4 I
I 1042 1
* I
I
I
I
I Phase
30 Hz
filter shift 06s !
II resolver I
I
Var. I I
channel I I
I Deviation I
4b + Phase I bar I
comparator I I
b
+ +
j
Ii t Flag
I
I
I I
180" I I
phase I CDl/OBS I
shifter I I
I I
Phase I b To/From I
4~ + comparator I I
L--------------A
Phase I
shift I
resolver I
A I
I
Phase -
rb I
I
, Card
drive I
+ comparator I RMI I
represented angular displacement .) The CRM 555 operates on any of the 1 6 0 VOR
TOIFROM: ground referenced providing 3, mA for channels with a frequency accuracy of
each of two 200 52 loads in parallel. In addition a + 0.0035 per cent ( - 1 0 " ~t o +30c). Modulation of
low-level output of 200 yA may be provided t o feed the carrier is such that the simulated bearing may be
older instruments. set t o any reading between 0 and 360" with a
Warning: high level, 28 V d.c. valid, absent invalid. calibration accuracy of + l o or may be switched in
Low level, between 3 0 0 and 9 0 0 m V valid, less than 45" steps with an accuracy of 2 0.5". Carrier power
100 mV invalid. The low level signal should be can be attenuated in 1 dB steps between 0 dBm and
capable of driving from one t o five 1000 52 parallel -120 dBm (0 dBm corresponds to an output of
loads. The VOR digital output should also include 1 mW). A self-test facility is provided. The
ning bits. NAV-401L offers similar facilities but is more 'state
of the art' and so offers slightly more in the way of
np Testing performance.
The TIC T-27B is part of the T-30B test set
Testing of VOR should always be carried out with a illustrated in Fig. 4.12. The facilities are not as
ramp test set capable of being tuned t o any VOR extensive as either of the previously mentioned test
frequency, radiating sufficient energy t o allow sets b u t it has the advantage of ease of operation and
satisfactory operation of the VOR and providing a less cost. It is FCC type accepted. Operation is on
means of simulating various VOR radials. Most test 108.00 MHz radiated from a telescopic antenna.
sets include provision for testing ILS as well as VOR. Bearings of 0 , 9 0 , 1 8 0 and 270" can be simulated
Among those available are the Cossor CRM 555, both TO and FROM, alternately variation, 90-1 10"
IFR NAV-40 1L. 'to' or 270-290" 'from', is available. A + l o switch
gives a useful sticky needle check. set attenuator or moving the test set antenna further
Actual testing should be carried out in accordance away. Various bearings should be simulated (check
with the procedures laid down, but briefly it would whether they are 'to' or 'from' station), the
involve correctly positioning the test set antenna and appropriate reading should be checked o n the RMI
radiating on sufficient frequencies to test frequency and the OBS operated so as to check the manual
selection of the VOR. Sensitivity may be checked by mode of VOR.
reducing the r.f. level received either by use of the test
5 Instrument landing system
In order t o be able t o land the aircraft safely under Cat egary d.h. r. v.r.
visual flight rules (VFR), i.e. without any indication
from instruments as t o the aircraft's position relative 1 60 m (200 ft) 8 0 0 m (2600 ft)
to the desired approach path, the pilot must have at II 30 m (100 ft) 400 m (1 200 f t )
least 3 miles horizontal visibility with a ceiling not IIIA - 200 11.1 ( 700 ft)
less than 1000 ft. Although most landings are carried IlIB - 3 0 m ( 150ft)
out under these conditions a significant number are IlIC - Zero
not; consequently, were it not for instrument aids tu
landing a considerable amount of revenue would be
lost due to flight cancellations and diversions. operational capabilities. Thus if the ILS facility is
One method of aiding the pilot in the approach t o category 11, the pilot would be able to land the
an airport is to use a precision approach radar (PAR) aircraft in conditions which corresponded t o those
system whereby the air traffic controller, having the quoted in Table 5.1. An obvious extension o f the
aircraft 'on radar', can give guidance over the idea of a pilot manually guiding the aircraf't wit11 no
v.h.f.-r.t. The alternative method is to provide external visual reference is to have an autopilot which
instrumentation in the cockpit giving steerillg 'flies' the aircraft in accordance with signals from the
information to the pilot which, if obeyed, will cause ILS (and other sensors including radio altinlcter) i.e.
the aircraft to make an accurate and safe descent and automatic landing.
touchdown. The latter, which may be
cornplemented/rnonitored by PAR, is the method
which concerns us here. Basic Principles
Early ILS date back t o before World War 11; the
German Lorentz being an example. During the war Directional radio beams, modulated so as t o enable
the current 1LS was developed and standardized in airborne equipment to idcntiiy the beam centres,
the United States. The basic system has remained define the correct approach pat11 to a particular
unchanged ever since but increased accuracy and runway. In addition vertical directional beams
reliability have resulted in landing-minimum provide spot checks of distance to go on the approach.
visibility conditions being reduced. The total system comprises three parts, each with a
The ICAO have defined three categories of transmitter on the ground and receiver and signal
visibility, the third of which is subdivided. All processor in the aircraft. Lateral steering is provided
categories are defined in terms of runway visual range by the localizer for both front-course and
(RVR) (see ICAO Annex 14) and, except Category back-course approaches; the glideslope provides
111, decision height (DH), below which the pilot must vertical steering for the front course only while
have visual contact with the runway or abort the marker beacons give the distance checks.
landing (see lCAO PANS-OPS). The various
categories are defined in Table 5.1 where the Localizer
standards are given in metres wit11 approximate Forty channels are allocated at 50 kHz spacing in the
equivalents in feet (in paren theses). Sometimes band 108-10-11 1-95 MHz using only those frequencies
categories TIIA and B are called 'see to land' and where the tenths of a megacycle count is odd; so, for
'see to taxi'. example 108.10 and 108-15 MHz are localiirer
The ILS equipment is categorized using the same channels while 108-20and 108.25 MHz are not.
Roman numerals and letters according t o its Those channels in the band not used for localizer are
allocated to VOR. The coverage of the beacon will (extended centre line) and limited by the lines on
normally be as shown by the hatched parts of Fig. which there is a d,d.m. of 0.155. The change in
5.1, but topographical features may dictate a d.d.rn. is linear for 2 105 rn along the line
restricted coverage whereby the -+ 10" sector may be perpendicular to the course line and passing through
reduced to 18 nautical miles range. the ILS datum point on the runway threshold; these
points 105 rn from the course line lie on the 0-155
Azimuth d.d .m. lines, as shown in Fig. 5.2. The beacon is
situated such that the above criterion is met and the
course sector is less than 6". Outside the course
sector the d.d.rn. is not less than 0.155.
The lCAO Annex 10 specification for the
localizer-radiated pattern is more complicated than
the description above indicates, in particular in the
various tolerances for category I , I1 and 111 facilities;
however we have covered the essential points for our
purposes.
The airborne equipment detects the 9 0 and 150 Hz
tones and hence causes a deviation indicator to show
a fly-left or fly-right command. Full-scale deflection
is achieved when the d.d.m. is 0.155, i.e. the aircraft
is 2 - 3 O off course. Figure 5.3 shows a mechanical and
electronic deviation indicator both showing slightly
over half-scale deflection of a fly-right command.
Provided the pilot flies to keep the command bar at
zero, or the autopilot flies to keep the d.d.m. zero,
Fig. 5.1 Localizer front beam coverage
the aircraft will approach the runway threshold along
the course line.
The horizontally polarized radiated carrier is In addition to the 90 and 150 Hz tones the
modulated by tones of 90 and 150 Hz such that an localizer carrier is modulated with an identification
aircraft to the left of the extended centre line will be tone of 1020 Hz and possibly (exceptionally category
in a region where the 90 Hz modulation predominates. 111) voice modulation for ground-to-air
Along the centre line an airborne localizer receiver communication. The identification of a beacon
will receive the carrier modulated to a depth of 20 consists of two or three letters transmitted by keying
per cent by both 90 and 150 Hz tones. Deviation the 1020 Hz tone so as to give a Morse code
from the centre line is given in d.d.m, (difference in representation. The identification is transmitted not
depth of modulation), i.e. the percentage modulation less than six times per minute when the localizer is
of the larger signal minus the percentage modulation operational.
of the smaller signal divided by 100.
The localizer course sector is defined as that sector Glideslope
in the horizontal plane containing the course line Glideslope channels are in the u .h.f. band,
0.155 DDM
4
v
Beacon -- -C o u r s e line
, Course sector < 6"
ILS datum point A0.155 DDM
Localizer Glidepath
The principle of glideslope operation is similar to the steering commands he will not maintain the
that of localizer in that the carrier is modulated with corresponding angles of descent. The first stable null
9 0 and 150 Hz tones. Above the correct glidepath occurs at 5 8 which for a glidepath of 3" is at 15'.
the 9 0 Hz modulation predominates while on the This is sufficiently different from the desired descent
correct glidepath the d.d.m. is zero, both tones giving angle to create few problems; however t o avoid
a 40 per cent depth of modulation. The coverage and confusion the glideslope beam should be 'captured'
beam characteristics shown in Figs 5.4 and 5.5 are from below.
given in terms of the glidepath angle, typically Once in the correct beam fly-up and fly-down
2+-3*. Category I facilities may have asymmetrical signals are indicated to the pilot in much the same
upper and lower sectors, the figure of 0.0875 d.d.m. way as with the localizer. Figure 5.3 illustrates a
corresponding to an angular displacement of between fly-up command of jus t over half-scale deflection.
0.070 and 0.140 6 . By contrast a category I11 facility The glideslope output is more sensitive than localizer
is as shown in Fig. 5.5 with a tolerance of +l 0.02 8 on in that typically ai0 off the glidepath will give
the 0.1 2 8 lines. full-scale deflection (about 0.1 75 d.d.m.) compared
Although d.d.m. = 0 lines occur at 2 0 , 3 19 and 4 0 with about 21' off the course line for full-scale
they are not stable in the sense that if the pilot obeys deflection.
Marker Beacons
A marker beacon radiates directly upwards using a
carrier frequency of 75 MHz. The modulating signal
depends on the function of the marker.
An airways, fan or 'Z' marker is a position aid for
en-route navigation located on airways or at holding
points. As such it is not part of ILS. The carrier is
modulated with a 3000 Hz signal w h c h causes a
white lamp to flash in the aircraft w h l e station
identification in Morse code is fed to the AIS.
The outer marker is normally located 4 4 miles
from the runway threshold. The carrier is
amplitude-modulated by 400 Hz keyed to give two
dashes per second w h c h can be heard via the AIS and
causes a blue (or purpIe) lamp to flash.
The middle marker is located 3500 ft from the
runway threshold. The carrier is amplitude-modulated
by 1300 Hz keyed to give a dot-dash pair 95 times per
DDM minute which can be heard via the AIS and causes an
amber lamp to flash.
The ILS marker beam widths are sufficiently wide
I in the plane perpendicular to the course line to cover
Fig. 5.4 Glideslope coverage the course sector.
72
I' Tuning
300-3000 HZ
*
4 Superhet
filter
,To AIS
Band pass
filter
- Rectifier
I
I
II
Flag
4)
150 Hz I
I
Band pass + Rectifier 1
filter I
I Deviation indicator
I
L -,----,- A
Fig. 5.6 Lo calizer simplified block diagram
'in
ILS H I
"ref 'ref
'ref
indicator for the same d.d.rn. Signal separation is localizer operation. Figure 5.7 shows the circuit used
achieved by three filters: audio, 9 0 and 150 Hz. The in the King KN 72 VORlLOC converter. When a
audio signal, identification and possibly voice, is VOR frequency is selected the ILS Hi line is low, so
passed via audio amplifiers (incorporating a noise turning off Q1 which effectively disconnects R2 from
limiter) to the AIS. The 9 0 and 150 Hz signals are the circuit, the centre frequency of 30 Hz is set by
full wave rectified, the difference between the R3. Selection of a localizer frequency causes the ILS
rectifier outputs driving the deviation indication Hi line to go high, so turning on Q1 and placing R2 in
while the sum drives the flag out of view. parallel with R3. R2 is set to give a centre frequency
The 90 and 150 Hz filters, together with the of 90 or 150 Hz as appropriate.
rectifiers and any associated circuitry, are often part The glidepath receiver converter block diagram is
of the so-called VORILOC converter which may be similar to that of the localizer except that the audio
within the v.h.f. navigation receiver or a separate unit. channel is not required. A separate receiver may be
A combined converter will usually employ active used or all navigation circuitry may be within the
filters which serve as either 30 Hz bandpass filters for same unit. In any event separate antennas are used
VOR operation or 901150 Hz band pass filters for for localizer and glidepath.
Receiver White
filter
Blue
Antenna coaxial
connectors 08558
Antenna coaxi
connector DB5
antenna B 5 5 8
screws (8 places)
Y 2
j O Y U
-
' No. 2
I
I
I
I
( Capture antennas
Right door I
L- -
- - - - - - -- -
, - -
- -- -- - ---
- I
- - - -
-1 VORIILS
receiver
I Track aerials I No. 3
1 D I
4 I
I
I -
VOR/ILS
I - Hybrid
coupler
1 receiver
I I L 1 - 1 No. 1
t
AFCS. Output characteristics should not vary for being marked in decibels, e.g.:
loads between 200 CZ and no load. When 9 0 Hz
6.6 dR fly-right (+ 0.1549 d.d.m.),
predominates the 'hot' side of all deviation outputs
4 - 0 dB fly-left (- 0.0929 d.d.m.),
should be positive with respect to the 'common' side:
3.76 dB fly-up (+ 0-175 d.d.m.), etc
in this case 'fly-left' is given.
Glideslope: sin~ilarto localizer but high- and low-level Further switch positions on tlie d.d.m. switch allow
outputs arc 2 V and 150 tnV respectively for for deleting one or other of the tones. In addition a
0,175 d.d.m. variable 0 to t 150 PA deviation is available. Stepped
attenuators provide output levels variable between
F1a.q Outputs Two high-level warning signals (super 0 dBrn and -120 dBm in 1 dBrn steps, in order that
flag) and one low-level warning signal should be receiver sensitivity may be checked (test set aerial
provided hy both localizer and glidepath receivers. positioning will affect this check), Modulating tones
The high-level flag characteristic is 2R V d.c. for valid of 400, 1300 and 3000 l l r are available for marker
status with current capabilities; 25 nlA for AFCS checks. Finally, 1020 Hz modulation is available for
warning; 250 rnA for instrument warnings. The audio checks. As mentioned in Chapter 4 the
low-level flag should provide a voltage of between CRM 555 can also be used to check VOR.
300 and 900 mV into LIPto five parallel 1000Q .
loads. IFR NAV-402 AP Contains a modulated signal
generator for marker, VOK, localizer, glideslope and
Mflnitoring cotnmunications testing. The output of the test set is
Warning sipals when: no r.f., a t h e r YO or 150 Hz variable between -7 and -1 10 dRm on all frequencies
missing, total depth of modulation of coropositc set hy a variable frequency control (phase-locked at
90/150 Hz signal is less than 28 per cenl, etc. 25 kHz on each band except for glidepath where
interval is 50 kHz). The localizer deviation can be
switched to 0.093,0.155 or 0.200 d.d.m. wlule
Ramp Testing glideslope d.d.m. offers 0.091, 0.175 and 0,400.
Tone deletion can be selected. All three marker tones
A radiating test set must be used with a basic are available, as is 1020 llz for audio check.
capability of simulating oK.glidepath signals. In
addition the test set should onerate on one or more
accurate spot frequencies and provide facilities for
dclclng either of the modulating frequencies.
TIC T-3017 This test set was mentioned it1 Chapter 4
in connection wit11 VOR testing. In addition t o the
VOR test set module we have the T - 2 6 R , T-2RB and
T-29B for testing the marker, localizer and glidcslupe
receivers respectively. '111~T.2hR providcs at least
70 per cent modulation for tlie 400, 1300 and
3000 Hz tones. The T.28R operates on 108-1 MHz
and can simulate 0 d.d.m.. 0.155 d.d.m. left and rirht Fig. 5.14 NAV4OZ AP test srl (rourtcsy TFR Electronics
(switchcd) or 0 t o + 0,194 d.d.111. (variable). The .'
T-29R operates on 334-7 MH7 and can siinulate
0 d.d.m., 0,175 d.d.m. up and down (switched) or Procedure The procedure for a functional check is
0 to ? 0,280 d.d.m. (variable). Either the 9 0 or the straiglitforward if the operation ol' ILS is understood
150 H7 tones rnay he deleted with both the T-28B and full details of the test set are known. In practice,
and the T-29R. the procedure will be listed in the aircralt maintenance
manual. Careful attention must be paid t o test set
01ssor CRM 555 Forty localizer and forty glideslope antenna positioning if receivers with low sensitivity
channels may be selected, all crystal controlled. are not to be passed as serviceable. Self-test facilities
There are seven d.d.m. settings for localizer.simulated on both the test set and the aircraft installation should
deviation and five fur glidepath, the d.d.m. switch be used if available.
General Principles be discussed we use the terms circular 1.o.p. (lines of
position) and hyperbolic 1.o.p.
The need for a co-ordinate system for navigation The patterns considered are not suitable for
purposes is self-evident, the most important being the position fixing since two circular 1.o.p. intersect at
great circle lines of longitude and the lines of latitude two places whilst knowing the difference in range to
parallel to the equator, itself a great circle. Figure 6.1 two points simply places one anywhere on one of two
illustrates two alternative systems suitable for use in hyperbolic 1.0.p. Knowing the starting position and
radio navigation, subsequently the track and ground speed (or heading
and true airspeed) will make it possible to use the
rho-rho system, since a position calculated by dead
reckoning will identify at which of the intersections
the aircraft is. To use the hyperbolic 1.o.p. we must
generate another family of lines by taking a third
fixed point, we then have the co-ordinate system
shown in Fig. 6.2. A fix is given by the unique point
where two hyperbolic 1.o.p. cross. Of course the use
of three fixed points gives the possibility of a
rho-rho-rho system where three range circles
intersect at a unique point.
Extended 0 Extended
T = 2t+d -------- - - - - - -- T=d
base line Master Stave base line
to account for this drift, it becomes: 3. estimate the phase offset throughout flight by
utilizing signals from more than two
transmitters (this is the rho-rho-rho approach).
Thus an equipment continuous~ymonitoring the
change in measured phase in order to calculate change The operation of a rho-rho system is illustrated in
in range will be in error by an amount depending on Fig. 6.8. As the aircraft fhes from 1 to 2 the phase
the reference oscillator drift. changes in the signals received from transmitters A
At the moment of switch-on the reference signal and B are continuously measured; this allows the
on board the aircraft is not phase-locked to the airborne equipment t o count the number of range
ground transmitter's frequency. Further, since there lanes and centilanes traversed with respect to both
is a signal phase shift due to the transmission path, transmitters. Equation (6.1) applies, since reference
there will be a phase or clock offset (4,) between oscillator drift is negligible. Thus if the aircraft
received signal and the local reference. If at position at point 1 is known it can be computed at 2.
switch-on both the transmitter and receiver positions
are known 6, can be calculated, and if at subsequent
aircraft positions this phase offset remains the same
then by measuring phase difference as described
earlier the change in range from the known starting
point may be computed. Reference oscillator drift
can be considered as a change in phase offset.
Errors arising due to a change in phase offset can
be minimized in three ways:
Transmitter 3
,I' \, ,True position
Consideration of this position triangle shows that the probably the least costly since its local oscillator
perpendicular distances from the true position to the stability requirements are less stringent than even the
calculated 1.o.p. are equal to each other and give a rho-rho-rho system.
measure of $,. Sufficient information is available
from the three 1.o.p. to evaluate q),, assuming that
reference oscillator drift is the only source of error. Omega Navigation System (ONS)
Should other errors contribute to the calculated
1.o.p. the perpendicular distances from the true Omega is a very low-frequency, c.w., long-range
position to the calculated 1.o.p. will not necessarily be navigation system. Three time-multiplexed signals of
equal and an approximate solution must be sought. 10.2, 11-33and 13.6 kHz are transmitted
ornnidirectionally from each of eight stations
Comparison of Systems strategically located around the world. Although the
There is no clear-cut best system to employ, and in concept was patented in 1923 it was not until the
fact all are in use as follows: mid 1960s that the US Navy established the first
experimental stations. By 1968 it was established
pulsed hyperbolic Loran C
that ONS was feasible and the setting-up of a
C.W. hyperbolic Decca Navigator, Omega
worldwide network commenced. The USA is
C.W.rho-rho Omega
responsible for the stations in North Dakota, Hawaii,
C.W. rho-rho-rho Omega
Liberia and a temporary station in Trinidad, while
It is interesting to observe that manufacturers of stations in Norway, Japan, Argentina, La Reunion
Omega navigation systems have opted for different and, by 1980, Australia are the responsibility of
methods of calculating position, illustrating that nations which have established bilateral agreements
there is no universally accepted best method. with the USA. Although the responsibility for
The rho-rho method is certainly the simplest of co-ordination was originally allocated to the US Navy
the three, needing only two ground transmitters and it has now been taken over by the US Coast Guard.
employing a relatively simple computer program.
It does, however, have the costly disadvantage of The Omega Stations and Broadcast Patterns
requiring a very stable reference oscillator. Both Each station has a transmitter power of 10 kW with
Table 6.1 Signal format, 0.n.s.
Norway
Liberia
Hawaii
North Dakota
La Reunion
Argentina
Trinidad/ Aust ralia
Japan
3. Geomagnetic Field
The earth's magnetic (H) field alters the motion of
ions and electrons in the lower region of the
ionosphere, thus affecting v.1.f. propagation. Again
the equipment software may be used to apply
corrections.
4. Nunspheroidal Effects
The computation of aircraft position must take into
account that the signal path from transmitting station
to aircraft receiver is not on the surface of a sphere.
Further, pressure differences at various latitudes
effect the height of the ionosphere so compensation
must be made for the effect on phase velocity.
5. Modal Interference
There are various modes of propagation in the
earth-ionosphere waveguide. If one mode is
dominant the phase grid produced will be regular;
Fig. 6.12 Typical usable coverage however in practice a competing mode can be almost
equal to the dominant mode in w h c h case
irregularities appear in the phase pattern. The most
serious case occurs when one mode is dominant at
Factors Affecting Propagation night and a second during the day. It follows that
during sunrise and sunset the two modes will be
1. Diurnal Effect equal. Some Omega receivers automatically deselect
The height of the ionosphere varies by approximately station B (Liberia) at critical times since signah from
20 km from day to night, being highest at night. The this station are particularly susceptible to modal
phase velocity of the propagated wave will be greatest interference at night.
during the day when the dimensions of the 'waveguide'
are least; this leads to phase variations which 6. Solar Effects
fortunately are predictable and cyclic. Corrections t o A solar flare gives rise to a large emission of X-rays
compensate for diurnal effect may be implemented which causes a short-term disturbance in a limited
by means of a software routine, The entry of GMT part of the ionosphere. Such an event is called a
and date at switch-on is required by the routine. sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) or a sudden
phase anomaly (SPA) and may last for 1 h or more;
2. Ground Conductivily 1.o.p. in the affected regions may be shifted by up to
The different attenuating effects of the oceans and say 5 nautical miles. These SIDs occur about 7 to 10
various types of landmass changes the phase velocity times per month, but during the peak of the 1 1-year
of the v.1.f. signal. The greatest loss of signal strength sunspot cycle a major solar flare may product a shift
occurs in the ice-cap regions where the change in in 1.o.p. by u p to 15 nautical miles. This latter event
phase velocity is significant. Water has least effect. is predictable, and warnings may be issued.
The effect of ground conductivity being well known Infrequently large quantities of protons are
released from the sun, producing a so-called polar cap which 3.4 kHz lane the aircraft is flying. Phase
disturbance (p.c.d.). The effect of a p.c.d., which is measurement of the 10.2 kHz signal gives three
to shift 1.o.p. from say 6 to 8 nautical miles, may last possible 1.o.p. while the 13.6 kHz signal gives four
for several days. Only those transmission paths possible 1.o.p. Only one of the possible 1.o.p. from
passing over the poles are affected. Since the p.c.d. is each group is coincident, this being the unique 1.o.p.
of long duration navigation warning messages may be on which the aircraft is positioned.
broadcast.
Rate Aiding
Position Fixing The ONS transmission pattern extends over a period
As previously discussed ONS may use hyperbolic, of 10 s, If the phases of all usable signals are
rho-rho or rho-rho-rho methods, a root mean square measured over this period and then 1.o.p. are
accuracy of 1-2 nautical miles being obtainable withgenerated for position fixing, an error will result,
all methods providing the computer software correctssince some of the phase information will be up to
for predictable errors. 10 s old. Aircraft direction and speed information
Whatever method is used the lane in which the may be used to update the phase information for
1.o.p. calculations, this process being known as rate
aircraft is flying must be established. Lane widths for
the basic frequencies and difference frequencies areaiding. In practice we can generate 1.o.p. at less than
given in Table 6.2. It can be seen that the broadest 10 s intervals, say every 1 s, thus ONS can be
lane for the direct ranging methods is 144 nautical considered as a dead reckoning system with
miles while that for the hyperbolic method is 72 position-fixing updates every second or so.
nautical miles. If it is known which broad lane the Direction and speed information can come from a
aircraft is in then it is possible to resolve lane number of sources, for example compass heading and
ambiguity for the narrower lanes automatically, as true air speed from an Air Data Computer or track
shown in Fig. 6.13. In this example it is known in and ground speed from Doppler or INS. Some Omega
equipments generate track and ground speed
Table 6.2 Frequencies and lane widths, o.n.s, internally from computed position changes.
(lane widths in nm) If for any reason there is a loss of signal dead
- -- -- reckoning, data on direction and speed inputs or
Direct ranging Hyperbolic last-known internally generated track and ground
speed can be used to continuously calculate the
Basic
10.2 kHz 16 8 aircraft's position, so that on receipt of sufficient
frequencies 12-3 HZ 14.4 7.2 usable signals, lane ambiguity is easily resolved.
13.6kHz 12 6 Obviously if the internally generated last-known track
13.6-10-2 = 3-4 k ~ z 48 24 and ground speed are used during dead reckoning
13.6-1 1.3 = 2.3 kHz 72 36
then aircraft manoeuvre during this phase may cause
11.3-10.2 = 1.1 kHz 144 72
laning problems when signals are received again.
-
13.6
---
KHZ lanes Broad lane
.10.2 KHz lanes
---- -----
...............
13.6 KHz
LOP
----
................
- ---
..............
-
*.-
.-.
-
R
.-
.
Unique LOP
-a
-
- - - 3 10.2 KHZ
LOP
In such a case aircraft approximate position would Fig. 6.14. The ONS consists of a receiver processor
have t o be entered by the pilot. unit (RPU), control display unit (CDU) and antenna
coupler unit (ACU). Such a break-down of 'black
Most Probable Position boxes' conforms to ARINC Characteristic 599 but
There is a redundancy in the Omega system in that some manufacturers choose to separate the receiver
normally more signals will be received than are and computer and also the antenna and coupling unit.
necessary to compute the two 1.o.p. needed for a fix. The RFU is fitted in a convenient location, the
In this case, data from all receivable stations, and as most important consideration being cooling-
many frequencies as possible, may be used to generate arrangements, a forced downdraught or integral
a number of 1.o.p. If all frequencies are received from blower being typical. The CDU must of course be
all stations there would be 3 X 8 = 24 phase mounted in view, and in reach, of the pilot;
measurements every 10 s, giving u p to twenty-four normally special cooling arrangements are not
1.o.p. for a single fix. The multiple 1.o.p. will not required.
cross at a point but will define a small polygon The antenna used may be of H field or E field
within which the aircraft is positioned. The computer type, the latter possibly employing a separate coupler
will calculate the aircraft's most probable position unit with a supplied interconnecting cable. An E
within this polygon. field system is sensitive to precipitation static
In practice there will be far fewer than twenty-four discharge, thus good bonding and sufficient
phase measurements available. Automatic deselection strategically spaced static wicks are essential. An H
will take place for reasons of poor signal t o noise field system is sensitive to magnetic (a.c.) noise
ratio, poor geometry, susceptibility to modal sources and a skin mapping should be carried out on
interference or outside usable range (too close or too initial installation to determine the optimum location
far). Manual deselection will be accomplished as a for the antenna which may be on the top or bottom
result of pre-flight or in-flight information received of the fuselage.
concerning station status or unusual ionospheric
activity. Skin Mapping Detailed procedure is given in
manufacturer's literature, but basically the aircraft
Communication Stations, v.1.f. should be parked away from all power lines, both
A worldwide high-power military communications above and below ground, and away from all
network operating in the band 15-25 kHz is obstructions. Ambient signal plus noise is then
maintained by the US Navy. As a secondary purpose initially recorded approximately 100 ft from the
of the network is to provide worldwide aircraft with a spectrum analyser set at 10.2, 11.3 and
synchronization of time standards, the carrier signals 13.6 kHz. Similar measurements are made with an
are precisely timed, and so may be used for navigation ACU secured by tape at various airframe locations.
purposes. Since control of the stations is out of the Comparison of ambient and airframe measurements
hands of those bodies, either national or international, will identify several possible positions. The optimum
responsible for civil aircraft navigation, use of the position(s) can then be found by repeating the
network for navigation can only be considered as measurements under various on and off conditions
supplementary to other forms of navigation. of engines, lighting, electronics and fans. The final
Hyperbolic navigation is not suitable for use with position should be checked out for signal to noise
v.1.f. comms stations since absolute phase differences ratio with engines running at 90 per cent minimum.
between two received signals cannot be determined
due to each station operating on an unrelated Brief Description of Units
frequency. A further disadvantage is that the diurnal The descriptions which follow are based on the Litton
phase shifts are not as predictable for v.1.f. signals as LTN-2 1 1; other systems have similar units which vary
they are for ONS signals. in detail.
Several manufacturers offer equipment with v.1.f.
and Omega capability; in some cases v.1.f. is optional. Receiver Processor Unit The RPU is the major part
In such equipment Omega signals provide the primary of any ONS. Omega broadcast signals from the ACU
navigation information while v.1.f. signals provide are processed together with inputs from other sensors
back-up should insufficient Omega signals be usable. to give present position and guidance parameters as
required. The major parts of a RPU will typically be:
Installation
A typical simplified installation diagram is shown in r.f. circuitry;
Supply +
A.C.U. 4 b C.D.U.
Panel +
I 1 Lighting
Frequency
Standard
Compass
System
Program 1-'
Installation
R.P.U. F.D.1
ADC 1-
I 1
I
. Aircraft
Data Bus
Speed Source
I I Aircraft
Instrumentation
Strut
Airborne)
ann (amber)
Fromlto and
waypoint display
Sync ann
(amber)
Waypoint
selector switch Ambiguity
ann (amber)
Track change
Warn ann
pushbutton
(red)
(green) Manual ann
(amber)
Mode switch
Clear pushbutton
Display selector
switch (green)
Data keyboard
pushbuttons
Phase and Signal-to-NoiseMeasurements The phase All qualifying frequencies are used for position
difference between the received signal and a local determination. If less than minirnum number of
reference is sampled at regular intervals throughout stations are available, the dead reckoning mode is
the burst. Forming sine and cosine sums of the entered.
sampled phase angles will allow a burst phase
Propagation Correction The computer must calculate
measurement (average of samples) and signal-to-noise
measurement to be made. If no signal is beinga propagation correction Op, the value of which will
depend on the path from station to aircraft, the time
received during the sample then no contribution will
of day and the date. Factors affecting propagation
be made to either the sine or cosine sums. We have:
have been discussed earlier and while complete
$ burst = tan-'(C( ) )
sin (h
cos (h
antenna phase shift
understanding and quantification is not available,
fairly accurate models are. The model used is
(6.3) simplified in order to save storage and computation
time. Simplifications include:
R b ~ r s t = ( ( h ) ~ + ( h ) (6.4)
1. increasing integration step size along path to say
1";
where the summations are of the samples over the 2. using coarse memory map, i.e, subdividing earth
burst, @ is the phase angle and R , which lies between into, say, 4" X 4" blocks and assigning a
0 and 1, gives a measure of signal to noise ratio conductivity index to each corresponding to
(s.n.r,). average conductivity in that area;
The values of (h burst and R burst are fed to a 3. simplifying sub-routine which computes bearing
tracking filter in order to give smooth values (h and R . of signal path to earth's magnetic field.
There are a total of twenty-four tracking filters
(three frequencies X eight stations). Rate aiding is Computer comparisons of simplified and more
applied to @ to compensate for known aircraft accurate models have been carried out and show
motion. Each tracking filter is updated after the excellent agreement.
appropriate burst, i.e. every 10 s, rate aiding values
are calculated every 0.1 s. Current Leasf-Squares Error Calculation The
measured phase @ is corrected for propagation shifts,
Antenna Selection Every 10 s the bearing to the (hp, and estimated clock offset, (h, and then compared
eight stations is computed and stored. Every second with the phase, (h, derived from the current calculated
the difference between bearing and heading is range between aircraft and station to give A (h, we
computed and used to select the longitudinal loop, have
lateral loop or combination of loops t o make the
antenna directional, the main lobe being in the
direction of the station to be received. There is one A$ for each station frequency so there
will be at most twenty-four. If there is no error, that
Station Selection For Omega rho-rho-rho navigation is Op, (h, and are all correct, then A@ will be zero.
three stations must be received t o calculate the three In practice errors will exist, so the purpose of the
unknowns (latitude, longitude and clock or phase least-squares error estimation routine is to find
offset). Various criteria are used in the selection of corrections to @,, and the computed position to
stations to be employed: minimize A@for the stations/frequencies in use.
Since the most reliable information comes from the is wind (north and east), latitude and longitude. The
strongest signal each A$ is weighted by its s.n.r. wind is not computed when the aircraft is on the
(smoothed R from equation (6.4) ). The squares of ground, as indicated by the oleo strut switch.
the A@are computed to prevent canceIlation in the
sum. We have: Summary The above notes on system softwave are by
minimize z R (A@)' (6.6) no means complete; some functions of the softwave
have not been mentioned although have been implied
where the sum is taken over all the stations and elsewhere in the chapter. The major navigation tasks
frequencies in use. and their implementation are best summarized by a
The phase difference, A@,can be expressed in flowchart (see Fig. 6.16).
terms of A#,, AN, AE and B where the first three
terms are the corrections in clock offset, north The Program
position and east position respectively while B is the The actual program used in any ONS is proprietary
bearing to the station. If we consider the signal and will vary greatly depending on the type of
received from station I on frequency J, we have: microprocessor used, the method of navigation and
D@(I,J) = A@, - A N . cos B(1) - AE . sin B(1) the ingenuity of the author.
In general there will be a main loop which checks
(6 -7)
for power interrupts, computes propagation
Thus equation (6.7) is used in ( 6 4 , the correction, carries out self-testing, etc. The main loop
minimization of the weighted sum of squares, giving a will be interrupted when 10.2, 11.3 or 13.6 kHz
least-squares estimate of the current error which information is available for processing and also when
enables correction of clock offset and position. the CDU is ready to input or output data.
The correction vector X = (A@,, AN, A E ) ~ is In the LTN-2 1 1 the phase data interrupts for the
smoothed by clock and position filters, rate aiding of three frequencies occur regularly at 6.25 ms intervals.
speed, resolved north and east about aircraft heading, The 1 1.3 and 13.6 kHz interrupt loops simply serve
being applied to these filters. The output of the filters to read the appropriate phase data while the
Clock
Clock
offset
estimator
Least
Propagation +GMT
Rate aid prediction Lat./Long.
P I
Lat./Long.
Position
filter
' Range to
station ' Expected
phase
Rate aid
t
Rate aid
Wind
north east
------------------
PU CHASSIS --I
I
I I OMEGA 8ECIIVLR
OMEGA
CLOCK I
-
RF
+ I
RF AMP
4 I
ACU
TEST 1 . ,ANTENNA AND
PHASE
I SWITCHING FILTER DETECT
1 +
I 4 1 4 4) I
I +
C DU
I I
+ 4b
-- L----
I
1
C-P(XM COMPUTER PROCLSSOR
r
+uTpuT
DISCRETE
1 -. -
- - h
HEADING
I ,*D
' MICRO
4
- I
CONVERT PROCESSOR CDU ARlNC
T X 'RX A N D
STEERING INTERFACE
I INSTRUMENT
SPEED - + c DISCRETE h SYNCHRO 1 , A N D AFCS
I N PUT - I
DATA X T K DEV
- + - 1)
DISCRfTES
I
DIGITAL
MUX
MEMORY
RAM
FUNCTIONS
-4 STEERING - I, ,'
DATA SAVE
4 4) ARlNC R X n X
I 575/561
+ 1, D A T A BUS
I t
I 1 +I POWER SUPPLY
. I
I
I REGULATORS
I UVE R O M
STORAGE
ADDRESS
t CONTROL 4
I MONITOR
1
I AND
CONTROL 1
I PROGRAM MEMORY I
(inner scale) while the green Decorneter reads zone Although the dividing type receiver does not
D, lane 35, lane fraction 0.80. Thus the Decca measure lanes there is still ambiguity within a zone
co-ordinates are I 16.30 and D 35.80, intersecting as caused by the division process, For example dividing
shown. the master signal by six gives rise to an output which
The accuracy obtained by using frequency can start on any of six cycles, only one of which is
multiplication is often not required for air navigation;correct. The ambiguous cycles are known as notches,
furthermore a better s.n.r. can be achieved by The resulting ambiguity is the same as described in the
dividing the received signals down to the fundamental. previous paragraph since, for example, an error of + 1
Since phase comparison is at f the zones are the notch in the master divider output gives an error in
'lanes' for a dividing type receiver. Fractions of a the zone fraction reading of 116 while an error of - 1
zone are measured to a resolution of 111024, i.e. just notch in the red divider output gives an error in the
over 10 m. zone fraction reading of 118. The net error in the red
zone fraction reading would be 116 - 118 = 1/24 zone
Resolving Lane Ambiguities or 1 lane.
Since each lane appears to be the same, in so far as To resolve lane ambiguities most Decca chains
phase difference measurement is concerned, the pilot operate in the MP (multipulse) mode (an older V
should know where he is, to within half a lane, in mode will not be discussed here). Each station in
order to initially set the appropriate Decorneter by turn, starting with the master, transmits all four
hand. Thereafter, since through gearing the lane frequencies (5f, 6f, 8f, 9f ) simultaneously. A
fraction pointer drives the lane pointer and zone read- sequence of transmissions lasts 20 s during which
out, the Decorneter will record the correct co-ordinate time each station transmits the M P signals for 0-45 s.
by an integration process. Any interruption in In the receiver the four frequencies are summed,
reception would require a resetting of the Decometers. producing a composite waveform which has a
predominant spike or pulse occurring at the
5f fundamental rate (Fig. 6.20).
In a receiver employing the multiplying method,
6f with readout on Decometers, lane ambiguity is
rcsolved by feeding a lane identification meter such
8f that one arm of a six-armed vernier pointer, identified
by a rotating sector, indicates the correct lane. The
9f
sector is driven in accordance with the phase
difference between 116 of the master transmission
(remembered during the MP transmission by a
phase-locked oscillator) and the fundamental derived
from an MP transmission. The vernier pointer is
driven in accordance with the phase difference
between the master transmission and six times the
fundamental derived from an MP transmission, the
drive being through 1 : 6 gearing. During the master
1 MP transmission the lane identification meter should
( read zero and may be adjusted to do so if in error.
Fig. 6.20 M ~ n l t i ~ ~transmision
~lsc - rurnmatioll (canrtcsy
the Decca Navigator Co. Ltd)
98
As each MI' transmission occurs the appropriate
Decnmeter lane reading should correspond t o the
lane identification meter readin8 and may be adjusted
ifnecessary. The current lane identification may he
held to assist chccking but will only he valid for a few
seconds due to aircraft movement.
In a receiver employing the dividing method the
MP transmissions provide a reference frequency f
with which the phase of cach divider output can he
compared. The phase comparison and subsequent
correction takes place automatically within the
divider circuits. This process, known as notching,
removes ambiguity from the zone fraction data.
produced having a frequency of J / 5 . The master beat Fig. 6.22 Decca Mk 15iDdnac navi:auun i y s l c i r ii,inlrti:sy
frequency is 'remembered' and compared with each thc i l c c c a Navigatnr Co. Ltd)
slave beat frequency in turn. The resulting hyperbolic
pattern has zero phase differences on lines five Loncs feeder run. The antenna sl~ouldbe mounted as near
apart, giving thc required resolution. to the centre of the aircraft as possible, either above
or below the fuselage. If below a fixed 180" phase
Installation shift is applied in the pre-amplifier.
Different options are available two of which are
sllown in Figs 6.21 and 6.22. The Mk 19 receiver is Mk 15/Danac Block Diagram Operation
capable of driving Decameters (or digital readout) Figure 6.23 shows a simplified block diagram of a
and/or a flight log; tlie multiplying method is used t o Mk 15/Danac installation. A significant feature of
drive the Decometers while the dividing method is the system is the degree of antomatic control
used to drive the flight log through a computer unit. achieved.
The Mk 15 receiver uses the dividing method only The receiver output is fed t o the computer as four
with readout on a flight log. pulse trains representing the received master, red,
Where space is at a premium, a Dectrac position green and purple signals divided down to the
fixing unit (PFU) may he installed in conjunction fundamental frequency f. The masterlslave phase
with either a Mk 15 or Mk 19 receiver. The Dectrac differences at f a r e digitally measured in the computer,
PFU contains one indicator with four scales and a thus giving three hyperbolic lines of position each
single pointer, effectively replacing the Decometers derived as a 10-hit binary nutnher representing 111024
but not allowing the same degree of accuracy in of a zone.
reading, although this may be recovered by the The computer converts the Decca co-ordinates into
addition of another small unit. A zone identity X and Y demand signals for the servos driving the
reading can be taken from the single indicator. laterally moving stylus and the vertically moving chart
A capacitive type antenna is used, comprising a respectively. The n~ajorcomputing effort is carried
copper mesh within a fibreglass plate mounted flush out off-line on a more powerful computer which
with the aircraft skin. The mesh is at least 2 ft2 in calculates constants to be used in the hyperbolic to
area. A pre-amplifier/matching unit allows a long X-Y conversion. These constants arc written on a
--
Zone ident
P/E cells
lamp
Danac controller
non-visible part of the chart, among other data, in the 3, zone fraction computation takes place using
form of a black and white ten-track digital Gray code MP transn~issionsfor notching;
read by a line of ten photoelectric cells. 4. stylus takes up a position within a zone on the
The Y servo position feedback signal is in the form chart corresponding to the aircraft position
of a 9-bit word derived from nine of the digital tracks within the true zone. If the zone is correct the
referred to above. The X servo position feedback OP button is pressed and thereafter the stylus
signal is a 9-bit word derived from printed circuit and chart should move so as to follow the
tracks read by wiper contacts mounted on the stylus aircraft's movements. If the stylus is in the
carriage. The servo drives are, of course, the wrong zone it may be manually set by pressing
differences between the demand and feedback signals. SET and operating the pressure-sensitive
Selection of the correct Decca chain is slewing control.
automatically achieved by including the code
representing the frequency among the constants read The correct zane is known from the zone
by the photoelectric cells. Other data among the identification indicator and the pilot's knowledge of
constants are the zone values for one or two his position to within five zone widths. When the
checkpoints on the chart (to which the stylus goes aircraft 'flies off' the current chart and on to the next
initially) and the chart scale. (on the same chart roll) the stylus goes straight to the
Setting up is largely automatic. If the required aircraft position on the new chart except under
chart is in view the following sequence takes place certain conditions, e.g. chain change, in which case
when the system is switched on: the above initial procedure relating t o zone
identification and slewing is carried out.
1. pushbutton lamps light for checking purposes, The pilot may bring another chart into view by
and the chart constants are read into the pressing LOOK AHEAD and operating the slewing
computer; control. Pressing the LOOK AHEAD button a second
2. the stylus moves to a check point and receiver time causes the new chart t o remain in view, otherwise
locks on t o required signals; the stylus is returned to the aircraft's present position
(still calculated during LOOK AHEAD) on the with it, up to four slave transmitters designated W, X,
previous chart. Y and Z. The master occupies a central position
Pressing the INT button causes the system to go surrounded by the slaves so far as the geography
into the integration only mode where the MP and allows. Base lines are of the order of 500-1000
zone identification facilities are switched off. It may nautical rniles over sea but are reduced over land.
be desirable t o select INT when flying in a fringe area The range of the system is about 1000 nautical
since spurious or imperfect notching signals may miles (from master) using groundwaves and up to
cause the warning lamp to come on, indicating a about 2000 nautical miles using skywaves. The
discrepancy between displayed position and receiver accuracy depends on the geometry of the chain but
output. On some charts covering fringe areas or may be in the order of about 400 ft at 350 nautical
chains without MP transmissions, INT is selected miles range to 1700 ft at 1000 nautical miles range
automatically by a suitable chart constant. provided groundwaves are used. With skywaves the
The LOCK button has several functions, one of accuracy would be in the order of 10 nautical miles
which is to put the receiver phase-locked oscillator at 1500 nautical miles range.
into a fast lock condition, providing the warning lamp
is on. It may also be used t o initiate the automatic The Radiated Signals
setting-up routine when a new chart, brought into Pulses of 100 kHz r.f. are transmitted from all
view by LOOK AHEAD, does not have the same stations. The slave transmissions are synchronized
colours as the previous chart. with those of the master either directly (triggered by
The stylus may be prevented from marking the master groundwave) or by use of atomic clocks. The
chart by selecting WRITE off, otherwise the track of delay between the time of transmission of the master
the aircraft will be traced out on the chart. The and each slave (coding delay) is fixed so that
TEST-DIM-BRIL switch is the only control not wherever the aircraft receiver is located in the area
previously mentioned, it may be used for lamp test covered, the slave signals will always arrive in the same
or to select the brightness level of the lamps. order after the master.
The above description is sketchy to say the least, but Since all chains transmit the same r.f., mutual
I hope it will give the reader an idea of how one Decca interference must be avoided by use of different pulse
Navigator system configuration performs its function. repetition periods (p.r.p.) for each chain. There are a
total of six so-called basic rates, each of which have
eight specific rates as given in Table 6.4. The chains
Loran C are identified by their p.r.p., thus chain SS7 (Eastern
Introduction seaboard of North America) has a basic rate period of
Loran A was proposed in the USA in 1940, had trials 100 000 ps (SS) which is reduced by 700 ps since the
in 1942 and was implemented over much of the north specific rate is 77 hence the period between
and west ~ ~in 1943.l since~then coverage
~ has
~ transmissions
i ~ from the master (and from each slave)
been extended to of the oceanic air routes of is 99 300 ps, i.e. fractionally over 10 transmissions per
the world, but some time in 1980 the last Loran A
transmitter should be switched off. Since the Table 6.4 Basic and specific rates for
implementation of Loran A the family has been Loran C
extended to B yC and D. Loran B was found to be
impractical and Loran D is a short-range, Basic Specific
low-altitude system intended for use where line-of-sight reperition periods
system coverage is inadequate. penod (subtract)
Loran C is a long-range, pulsed hyperbolic {PS)
navigation aid with accuracy approaching that of
Decca under favourable circumstances. It was H 30 000 0 0
introduced in 1960 and now provides a valuable L 4 0 000 1 100
service in many parts of the world, in particular the S 50 000 2 200
north and east Pacific and Atlantic. The system is SH 60 000 3 300
used by many ships and aircraft and would appear to SL 80 000 4 400
have an indefinite future. SS 100 000 5 500
6 600
Chain Layout 7 700
A transmitter, designated the master, has associated 8 800
second. Not all the basic rates are in use and indeed To measure the time difference between master and
some may never be used since 6 X 8 = 48 chains are slave transmissions corresponding 'events' must be
unlikely to be needed. identified in each. Obviously from Fig. 6.24 it is
Groups of eight pulses of r.f. are transmitted from impractical to measure from leading edge to leading
each station once during a repetition period. With edge or even to use the lagging edges, consequently
synchronous detection in the receiver the eight pulses one of the cycles must be chosen in master and slave
are combined to give a much better s.n.r. than one transmissions and the time between them measured.
would obtain with a single pulse. The spacing Such a process is known as cycle matching or
between pulses within a group is I ms. The master indexing.
transmits a ninth pulse in its group, 2 ms after the From the point of view of s.n.r. the eighth cycle is
eighth, for identification. the obvious one for indexing; however it may be
Some types of interference (e.g. skywave subject to skywave contamination and therefore
contamination) can be discriminated against by use of difficult to identify. The minimum difference in
phase coding. The r .f. of certain pulses within a group propagation times between skywave and groundwave
has its phase reversed; unless this is properly decoded is 30 ps, so up to and including the third cycle the
in the receiver synchronous detection will give a loss pulse is clear. For this reason the third cycle is
of signal power. Additionally, since master and slave usually chosen for indexing, particularly in fully
phase coding is different for a particular chain, automatic equipment.
decoding can be used t o separate the received master An automatic receiver would select the third cycle
signals from the slave signals. by looking for the unique change of amplitude
between the second and fourth cycle; in t h s way the
indexing circuits are able to lock on. The transmission
of the first eight pulses must be accurate and
consistent since an error in indexing of one cycle
would give a 10 ps time difference error.
If indexing is carried out manually using a c.r.t. to
display the pulses, on time-bases of decreasing
duration as the process proceeds, use of up to the
eighth cycle may be possible with a skilled operator.
Installation
A Loran C system may consist of up to five units,
namely antenna, antenna coupler, receiver, c.r.t.
indicator and control unit. A c.r.t. display is used
where the indexing procedure is manual or where,
if automatic, it is thought necessary to provide the
v --, operator with monitoring of the procedure. On some
Fig. 6.24 Loran C pulse and pulse format i r. v '
systems indexing is manual but thereafter the third
cycle is tracked automaticaIly.
Figure 6.25 shows the Decca ADL-81 Loran C/D
The pulse duration is approximately 270 ps, i.e. a receiver and control indicator; an aerial and coupler
total of about 27 cycles of r.f. in each pulse. To would be needed to complete the installation. The
radiate a pulse of short rise-time leads to problems in ADL-81 is fully automatic providing digital time
frequency spectrum spreading and transmitting antenna difference readouts with a resolution of 100 ns on the
design at the low carrier frequency involved. In fact control indicator and 50 ns via a computer interface.
99 per cent of the radiated energy must be in the band Synchronization provides third cycle indexing in
90-1 10 kHz, hence the slow rise and decay time groundwave cover and optimum cycle indexing during
illustrated in Fig. 6.24 (in which the signal format, skywave working. Three time-differences are
master and three slaves, is also shown). The maximum computed, two of which may be displayed. Tunable
amplitude occurs by the eighth cycle. automatic notch filters provide rejection of the
strongest interfering signals. Overall system
Principles of Operation performance checks may be performed using built in
The basic principles of a pulsed hyperbolic test equipment (BITE).
navigation aid have been given earlier in the chapter. The antenna is usually a capacitive type, sometimes
Fig. 6.25 ADL~XILuian C/D (courtesy the Decca Navigator
Co. Ltd)
serving both ADF sense and Loran, in which case an carried out by a computer tu which the three
antenna coupler would provide the necessary time-difference readings would he fed.
impedance matching and isolation for the two Gate pulse formers feed the p.l.l.s with a series of
receivers served. A pre-amplifier may be included for eight pulses spaced by 1 ms and of, say, 5 ps duration.
the Loran feed. The object of the p.l.1. is t o provide a signal t o the
appropriate oscillator, driving the corresponding gate
Block Diagram Operation pulse former, so that the phase of the oscillator, and
The received signals are separated into master and hence timing of the gate pulse, is altered such that
slave groups by the phase decode circuits, the groups each gate pulse is coincident with some specific point
being fed to the appropriate master and slave phase on the third cycle in any received pulse. The rate at
lock loops (p.1.l.). In Fig. 6.26 only one slave p.l.1. is which the gate pulse groups are generated is set to
shown but in practice there will be a minimum of two equal the rate of the required chain.
to provide the two hyperbolic 1.o.p. required for a fix. The basic idea o f indexing, as carried out by the
Three slave p.1.l.s would enable an automatic system p.l.l.s, is as follows. In Fig. 6.27 line 1 is a
to select the two which gave the best angle o f cut, representation of the leading edge of a received pulse.
although the calculations involved would probably be Line 2 is a representation oE the leading edge of a
v
--+ -+ Phase
Recerver
decode
4 v
Master Slave
phase - - phase
lock lock
4
4 A
Gate
Osc. + pulse . -
A
Start
former
t A *
Set
rate
b
Time
difference
measurement
+v]
I Gate
v A
Osc. pulse -
a Stop
former
Both beacon and transponder use a single Jitter Deliberate random variation of the time
omnidirectional antenna shared between transmitter interval between successive interrogations. Each
and receiver in each case. This is possible since the interrogator produces a 'jittering pulse (pair)
system is pulsed, and diplexing is simple since the repetition frequency (p.r.f.)' which, over a period of
transmit and receive frequencies are different. several interrogations, describes a unique pattern
Once every 30 s the beacon transmits its identity since the variations are random. With an
which is detected by the pilot as a Morse code burst interrogation rate of, say, 100, the average interval
of three letters at an audio tone of 1350 Hz. It should between interrogations will be 10 ms, with any
be noted that the r.f. radiated from the beacon during particular interval being between say 9 and I 1 ms.
identification is of the same form as when The unique interrogation pattern enables the DME to
transmitting replies, i.e. pulse pairs. The difference recognize replies to its own interrogation by
is that when replying there are random intervals stroboscopic techniques.
between transmissions whereas during identification
the intervals are constant at 111350th of a second. Automatic Standby Often referred to as
signal-activated search. When the aircraft is out of
Further Principles and Terminology range of the beacon to which the airborne DME is
By now the reader may have identified several tuned, n o signals will be received. This state inhibits
problems with the principles of system operation as interrogations until such time as the aircraft is within
described. With DME, many aircraft will be asking range and signals are received.
the beacon 'what is my range?', the beacon will reply The implementation of this feature determines
to all of them, the problem being how each is to whether interrogations commence as a result of mean
identify its own reply. Another problem is how to signal level exceeding some predetermined level or the
prevent the airborne DME interrogating an rate of signals being received exceeds some
out-of-range beacon since this would be wasteful of predetermined rate. The two alternatives are equivalent
equipment life. as the aircraft approaches the beacon from beyond
It is obvious that the DME operation must be in at maximum range, and typically interrogations
least two phases since we cannot expect an commence when the received signal count is in excess
instantaneous readout of the correct range the of 300-400 per second. They are not equivalent when
moment we select a beacon. There must be some the aircraft is close to the beacon since the mean
period when the DME is acquiring the range followed signal level will be raised due t o signal strength;
by a period, hopefully much longer, during which the consequently the required rate is much reduced for
indicator continuously displays the correct reading. the former alternative. T h s is of little consequence
In this latter period we must consider the eventuality when the aircraft is well within range; one would not
of a temporary loss of reply such as occurs during the expect the DME to be on auto standby. When
transmission of the identification (ident) signal by the ground testing, however, an auto standby circuit
beacon, or perhaps during 'manoeuvre' when all which monitors mean signal level can give unexpected,
signals might be 10st. but not unexplainable, results since the test set
We have assumed that the r.f. energy will travel in (beacon simulator) will normally output
a straight line from aircraft to beacon and back. T h s constant-strength signals regardless of range simulated.
of course will be the case unless there are any
obstructions intervening; however, it is possible that Squitter The auto standby circuit will not allow
there may be more than one path to or from the interrogations to commence until it detects signals
from the beacon. When a sufficient number of ShouId more than 2700 interrogations per second be
interrogating aircraft are within range of the beacon received the sensitivity is reduced still further, thus
there is no problem, since another aircraft coming maintaining the service for those aircraft closest to
within range will receive all the replies and thus begin the beacon.
to interrogate. If, however, we consider the beacon In fact the nominal maximum of 100 aircraft is
having just come on line or the first flight, after a exceeded since interrogation rates on track (see
quiet period, approaching the beacon, we have a below) are considerably less than twenty-seven for
chicken-and-egg situation : the beacon will not reply modern equipment, and further the interrogator does
unless interrogated; the interrogator will not not need 100 per cent replies in order to maintain
interrogate unless it receives signals. readout of range. The beacon capability of 100
From the explanation thus far there are in fact aircraft may be reduced if peak traffic is much less
signals available, namely ident, but this means an than this figure.
aircraft may have to wait 30 s, perhaps more in weak
signal areas, before coming out of auto standby. This Search During search the range-measuring circuits of
is unacceptable; consequently the beacon is made to the interrogator have not recognized those pulses
transmit pulse pairs even in the absence of amongst the total received which have the same
interrogations. Such transmissions from the ground jittering pattern as the interrogation. The
beacon are known collectively as 'squitter' t o interrogation rate is hgh so as to decrease search time,
distinguish them from replies. When the random the maximum rate allowed being 150 s-I. The search
squitter pulse pairs are received the airborne time in a modern equipment is typically less than 1 s.
equipment starts to interrogate. A p.r.f. of 135 is avoided since it may cause
A beacon must transmit randomly distributed interference with the bearing measurement function
pulse pairs at a repetition rate of at least 700; this of TACAN. The readout will be obscured by a 'flag'
minimum rate includes distance replies as well as if of the mechanical type, or will be blanked if
squitter. Beacons which supply a full TACAN service, electronic. The counter drums of an electro-
i.e. range and bearing, must maintain a rate of 2700 mechanical indicator can be seen to be rotating when
pulse pairs per second. In order to achieve this during the interrogator is searching; an electronic indicator
ident an equalizing pair of pulses is transmitted may have a lamp or 1.e.d. which illuminates during
100 ps after each identity pair. A range-only DME search.
beacon at a constant duty cycle of 2700 pulse pairs It is an ICAO recommendation that if after 15 000
per second is not ruled out. pairs of pulses have been transmitted without
If we consider the case of a beacon with a constant acquiring indication of distance then the p .r. f. should
duty cycle in a quiet period all transmitted pulse pairs not exceed 6 0 until a change in operating channel is
are squitter, apart from during the dots and dashes of made or a successfuI search is completed. In practice
the ident signal transmission. With one aircraft using use of automatic standby circuits and search p.r.f.s as
the beacon interrogating at a rate of, say, 27 then the low as, say, 40 in modern equipments makes this
number of squitter pulse pairs will be recommendation redundant.
2700 - 27 = 2673 s" while the reply pulse pairs will
number 27 S-'. Two aircraft would lead to a squitter Track During track the range-measuring circuits,
rate of 2646 s-I and a reply rate of 54 s-' and so on having acquired the reply pulses, follow their early or
until we arrive at a condition of beacon saturation late arrival as the aircraft moves towards or away from
with a nominal maximum of 100 aircraft the beacon. Continuous range readout is given with
interrogating. We can see that all the squitter pulse the 'flag' out of view. The p.r.f. is low. In order to
pairs have become synchronized with received optimize beacon capability a maximum average p.r.f.
interrogations. From the interrogator's point of view of 30 is laid down. This assumes that 95 per cent of
dl received pulse pairs appear to be squitter except the time is occupied by tracking, thus:
those identified by the range circuits as being replies 95T + 5S < 3000
to its own interrogations. (7.3)
where: T is the track p.r.f. and S the search p.r.f.
Maintaining a constant duty cycle for the beacon is
achieved by varying the receiver sensitivity. When no In practice modern equipments may have track p.r.f.s
interrogations are received sensitivity is sufficiently of less than 10.
high for noise to trigger the beacon modulator 2700 In some equipments the transition from search to
times per second. As interrogations are received the track, during which the range measuring circuits check
i
I
sensitivity decreases so maintaining the duty cycle. they have in fact acquired the correct signals, is
known as acquisition. It is convenient to identify simulates a range of zero, or near zero, nautical miles.
this event by a separate term since it takes a finite, Thus after self-test the outbound search commences
though short, time and the equipment is neither from at or near zero.
searching nor tracking.
Percentage Reply We can see from the above that not
M e m o r y If replies are lost an interrogator will not all interrogations will give rise to replies even if the
immediately revert to search or auto standby but will aircraft concerned is well within range. It may
enter its memory condition; this may be one of two happen that an interrogation arrives during the
types, either static or velocity. With static memory ground receiver dead time. Other causes of loss of
the readout is maintained steady, whereas with replies are ident transmission from the beacon and
velocity memory the readout continues t o change at suppression of the interrogator receiver by other
its last known rate. Memory time will normally lie airborne L band equipment. Every time an L band
between 4 and 12 s. equipment, i.e. ATC transponder or DME
If, during memory, replies are re-acquired, the interrogator, transmits, a suppression pulse is sent on
equipment will continue tracking; thus the pilot will a common line to all other L band equipment. This
have been spared a false warning. At the end of may well be when a reply would otherwise have been
memory, if there are no signals at all being received, received.
auto standby will ensue; otherwise the equipment will Ignoring, for the moment, ident transmission from
commence searching. the ground and suppression due to ATC transponder
replies we can calculate a worst-case percentage reply
Echo Protection The possibility of the interrogator figure. Assuming a beacon dead time of 60 ps and
tracking replies which have suffered reflection must maximum capability operating conditions of 2700
be guarded against, both on the ground, for the interrogations per second, we have a total dead time
interrogation path, and in the air, for the reply path. of 60 X 2700 = 162 000 ps s" ; i.e. dead time
On the ground, depending on the geography of the constitutes 16.2 per cent of total time. The
terrain, the reflected or echo interrogation will arrive maximum p.r.f. (average) of No. 2 DME is 30 with
a short time after the line-of-si&t interrogation. Thus a suppression pulse width of not greater than 60 ps;
if the ground receiver is suppressed for long enough thus No. 1 DME will be suppressed for at most
after reception of an interrogation the echo will not 30 X 6 0 = 1800 ps s-l; i.e. 0.18 per cent of the time.
trigger a reply. Normally a suppression period, or Thus we are left with 100 - 16.38 = 83.62 per cent
dead time, uf up to 60 ps is sufficient; exceptionally as the reply rate expectation.
up to 150 ps may be necessary. The ident transmission occurs once every 30 s
A similar situation exists in the air but a different when the total key-down time will be less than 4 s.
solution is normally employed. The line-of-sight and The code group transmitted consists of dots and
the echo replies will both exhibit the same jittering dashes of time duration 0-1-0.125 s and 0.3-0.375 s
p.r.f. as the interrogator; however, the line-of-sight respectively. The time between dots and dashes is
reply arrives before the corresponding echo. To available for replies. We have the situation where
achieve echo protection the interrogator is arranged about three replies will be lost during a dot, and
to search outbound. If the search commences at zero about ten during a dash, assuming a track p.r.f. of
nautical miles and moves out, then the first set of about 27. For a modern equipment with a lower
replies satisfying the range circuit's search for the p.r.f., reply losses will be even less. Under these
jitter pattern will be those corresponding t o the true circumstances it is not sensible t o calculate the
range. To guarantee echo protection on changing expected percentage reply since the effect of the
channel or before commencing search after memory ident is possibly to make the interrogator go into
or auto standby, the range circuits should be memory, particularly when a dash is transmitted.
returned to the zero nautical miles condition. This is Since the memory time is at least as long as the
done in some equipments where the reverse total key-down time the momentary switch between
movement towards zero may be known as a reciprocal track and memory and back to track will not be
search, although no interrogation takes place. In noticed by the pilot.
other equipments, where search is outbound from the It should be noted by the maintenance engineer
last reading, echo protection is likely but not that in simulating ident during a ramp test the ident
guaranteed. In this latter situation use of the self-test signal will be continuous, rather than keyed, as long
switch or button will give full echo protection since as the appropriate switch on the test set is held on.
virtualIy all interrogators have a self-test facility which Thus if ident is simulated for longer than the memory
time the interrogator will start t o search. This is circular path centred on the beacon would register a
useful since operation of one switch on the test set ground speed of zero on the DME indicator!
allows the checking of ident tone with its associated If the airborne equipment has calculated ground
volume control, memory time and search p.r.f. speed, it is a simple matter to give time to station
The ATC transponder produces replies, and hence (beacon) since TTS = DSTIKTS where TTS is time to
suppression pulses, only when interrogated. If an station, DST is slant range and KTS (knots) is the
aircraft is within range of one interrogator it will only ground speed. Again this is only a useful indication
be interrogated about tlurty times per sweep. With a when the aircraft is on course to/from the beacon and
sweep rate of say 12 r.p.m. and a beam width of say some distance from it.
5" these thirty interrogations will occur during a time The time constant of the ground speed measuring
interval given by the product of 51360 and 60112, circuit is long but can cope with aircraft acceleration.
i.e. about 0.07 s. For thirty interrogations the p.r.f. In ground testing, however, one must wait some time
would need t o be 30/0.07 a 430 which is close t o the for the ground speed reading to take up the simulated
maximum p.r.f. of 450. We have a similar situation to value of velocity selected on the ramp test set, since
the reply loss during ident transmission, i.e. the in switching-in a velocity one is simulating an infinite
occurrence is relatively infrequent; for example 0.07 acceleration.
in 5 s. If the aircraft is within range of more than one
interrogator the total interrogation time in, say, 5 s is
increased. lnterrogation
Considering the effect on DME only during the
time the ATC transponder is replying we have, The full TACAN interrogation frequency range is
assuming an ATC interrogation rate of 450 and a 1025-1150 MHz with 1 MHz spacing. Thus the
suppression pulse duration of 3 0 ps, percentage interrogation will be one of 126 possible frequencies
suppression time = 450 X 30 X 10011 000 000 = 1-35 depending on the channel selected. The r .f. is keyed
per cent. If we also take into account the worst-case by pulse pairs, The timing, which is dependent on
percentage reply for the DME system of 83.62 per channel selection, X or Y, is illustrated in Fig. 7.3.
cent we have during this short time 83-62 - 1-35,
82 per cent replies. In fact the DME interrogator
should cope with this and remain on track.
The above is not quite the whole story. The
intention is t o allay the fears of students who, on
finding out how many ways replies can be lost, wonder
how on earth DME works at d l . The few simple cal-
culations gven show that the situation is in fact
quite satisfactory. It can, however, be worse than sug-
gested since the lCAO specification only requires that
the DME beacon have a 7 0 per cent reply efficiency;
one of the reasons, not previously mentioned, being Fig. 7.3 Interrogation pulse spacing
that time must be allowed for self-monitoring. Even
so most DME interrogators will cope with percentage The p.r.f. is dependent on the mode of operation of
replies as low as or lower than 50 per cent. the DME:
Search 40- 150 Average
Ground Speed and Time To Station The interrogator Track 10-30 Average
continuously monitors the slant range to the beacon
which, of course, will change as the aircraft flies The actual p.r.f. depends on the equipment design
towards or away from the beacon. Measurement of and may be lower than minimum figures given. There
the rate of change of slant range gives the speed of will be a small variation in the average p.r.f. due to
approach or departure to the beacon. Such jitter. The average p.r.f., assuming that 95 per cent of
measurement is carried out by most airborne DMEs the time is spent on track, must be less than 30. The
and presented as so-called ground speed. It is radiation is omnidirectional with vertical polarization.
important that the pilot realizes that the readout can
only be considered as ground speed when the aircraft
is flying directly towards or away from the beacon
and is some distance from it. An aircraft flying a The r.f. at one of 252 frequencies between 962 and
12 13 MHz is keyed by pulse pairs the timing of which conjunction with VOR and, largely as a future
requirement, ILS. To achieve this, DME beacons are
is similar to that given in Fig. 7.3, the difference being
that Y channel spacing is 30 ps, not 36 ps. The co-located with VOR or ILS beacons, there being
prescribed maximum separation limits (Annex 1 to
radiation is omnidirectional with vertical polarization.
the convention on International Civil Aviation).
Where we have co-location constituting a single
X and Y Channel Arrangements facility the two systems should operate on a standard
frequency pairing (Table 7. t ) and transmit an
There are 126 interrogation and 252 reply frequencies associated identity signal.
in the full TACAN frequency range. The reply
frequency is 63 MHz above or below the interrogating Table 7.1 Frequency pairing
frequency, as shown in Fig. 7.4. The channel spacing
is 1 MHz for both interrogation and reply. The v.h.c nav. fieq. y.h.C all~cation TACAN channel
TACAN channels are numbered lX, 1Y, . . . 126X, ---
126Y. VOR
Using Fig. 7.4 we see that channel 20X, say, VOR
corresponds to an interrogation at 1044 MHz and a ILS
reply at 981 MHz, while channel 116Y, say, ILS
corresponds to an interrogation at 1140 MHz and a VOR
reply at 1077 MHz. ....
ILS
Beacon Aircraft Beacon VOR
reply interrogation reply VOR
Y X VOR
A-I 126X ....
VOR
VOR
..-.
VOR
-9621 IX
With standard frequency pairing the need for
Fig. 7.4 X / Y channel arrangements
separate DME and v.h.f. nav. control units is
eliminated. It is normal practice for a combined
For civil DME beacons the 52 channels 1-16, X controller to be used, the selected frequency
and Y, and 60-69,X and Y, are avoided for two indication being given in terms of the v.h.f. nav.
reasons. Firstly DME is meant to be used in frequency. Thus a selection of 108.05 MHz would
conjunction with VOR and ILS, which occupy 200 tune the v.h.f. nav. receiver to that frequency and the
channels rather than 2 52. Secondly, having fifty-two DME to the paired channel 17 Y.
redundant channels, the gaps are chosen to overlap Some equipments have a hold facility whereby,
the ATC transponder frequencies of 1030 and when engaged, a change in the selected v.h.f. nav.
1090 MHz t o avoid any possible interference, frequency will not cause the DME channel to change.
although different codes and mutual suppression are When using hold, range and bearing information is
also used for this purpose. given but not to a common point. This could lead t o
The use of the fifty-two missing channels is, how- pilot navigation error, to avoid this a warning light is
ever, not precluded by the ICAO; they may be alloc- dluminated when hold is selected ; nevertheless, some
ated on a national basis. The fact that civil aircraft national authorities frown upon the availability of
may wish to use TACAN beacons means that many such a facility.
DME interrogators have the full 252 channels. In Table 7.1 the frequency pairing arrangements
are shown. The frequencies shown as being allocated
to ILS are, of course, localizer frequencies the highest
The Link With v.h.f. Navigation of which is 1 1 1-95 MHz. The glidepathllocalizer
frequency pairing is not affected by DME pairing.
As stated previously DME is meant t o be used in Those TACAN channels not paired with v.h.f. nav.
channels may nevertheless still be required. In this v.11.f. nav. cot~trnllers.T l ~ eRNAV facility (see
case the pairir~gsfor channels 1X to I hY are Chapter 12)may not be available, in which casc slarit
134.40-135-95MH7 and for cliar~rlels60X to 6!)Y are range would he li'd direct in the IISI U I often, a
133-30.134.25 MHz solely fr)r thc purpose of separale UMF indicator i r ~which speed and time is
selectior~on comhined controllers. Sclectiun of one computed. Wilh a DME indicator fitted the IIS1 may
of these charinels wonld only give range information still acl as a repeater lor slant range.
to an aircraft nor cyuipped with fill1 'JACAN.
Associated identity is the term given for
synchronization of the ident signals from co.located
beacons. Each 30 s interval is divided into fonr or
more cqual parts with the L)ME heacon idcnl
transmitted during one period orlly and the associated
vh.f. facility idcnl during the remaining periods.
Associated identity would also he uscd with a Vortac
beacon which provides bcaring and range information
to both civil and military aircraft. A TACAN (ur
DME) beacon not co-located with VOR wo~llduse
independent identity.
Installation
111
Controls and Operation The pulses to are fed to the modulator and thus
decide the time of transmission. The modulator
A drawing of a combined controller is shown in produces pulse pairs of the appropriate spacing which
Chapter 4 (Fig. 4.9). Controls for DME arc minimal. in turn key the transmitter power amplifiers. The r.f.
Frequency selection is usually by rotary click stop is generated by a frequency synthesizer the output of
knobs, the digital readout of frequency on the which serves as receiver local oscillator as well as
controller being the v.h.f. nav. frequency, e.g. transmitter master oscillator. The amplified r.f. is fed
108.00 MHz. The DME onloff switching may to and radiated from an omnidirectional antenna.
incorporate a standby position. Usually 'standby' The peak power output of a modern airline standard
indicates that VORIILS is on, while DME is on DME will be about 700-800 W nominal.
standby i.e. transmitter disabled. Such a switch is Received pulses are fed to the receiver mixer via a
often marked 'off'-v.h.f. nav. and DME off; tuned preselector which gives image rejection and
'receive' - v.h.f. nav, on, DME standby; some protection from the transmitted signal. In
'transmit' - both v.h.f. nav. and DME on. A self-test
addition duplexing action will normally be employed
switch will be provided on the controller or, rarely,
to ensure receiver mixer protection during
be panel-mounted. Further switching takes place on transmission. Since the transmit and received
the indicator for ground speed (KTS or SPD) or frequencies are always 63 MHz apart, the frequency
time-tostation (TTS or MIN). A hold switch may
synthesizer can be used as described above and the i.f.
also be found (see previous note on 'hold').
amplifier is tuned t o 63 MHz. A dual superhet may
Operation is simple: just switch on, tune t o
be employed. The receiver output will be the
required beacon and ensure lock-on after a brief
detected video signal.
search. If the indicator employs a mechanically driven
The decoder gives an output pulse for each
digital readout a flag will obscure the reading during
correctly spaced pair of pulses. The decoder output
search, whereas with an electronic digital readout the
consists of replies to all interrogating aircraft plus
display will be blanked. When tuning to a different squitter or pulses at the identification p.r.f. of
beacon the ident signal should be checked t o ensure 1350 Hz, in which case a band pass filter gives a
the correct channel has been selected. Also if the 1350 Hz tone output to the audio integrating system.
DME is of a type which searches out from its The auto standby circuit counts the pulses coming
last-known reading the self-test must be operated to from the decoder and if the rate exceeds a
return the dials to near zero so that an outbound predetermined figure (say 400 per second) enables the
search will result in lock-on to a line-of-sight reply jitter generator. If the rate is low there will be no
and not an echo. Even with DMEs which modulator trigger and hence no interrogation. A third
automatically search out from zero after a channel decoder output is fed to the range gate.
change the self-test should be operated occasionally. The zero time pulses t o are effectively delayed and
stretched in the variable delay which is controiled
either by the search or track circuits. The output of
Simplified Block Diagram Operation
the variable delay, often termed the range gate
The block diagram of Fig. 7.7 can be used to explain waveform, opens the range gate T ps after every
the operation of virtually all DME interrogators. interrogation. If a reply or squitter pulse is received
Naturally variations will occur when comparing types at a time when the range gate is open, a pulse is fed to
of DME; in particular the range-measuring circuits will the coincidence counter. Assume the DME is
reflect the ingenuity of the designer and further, as searching with an interrogation rate of 100, and
one would expect, have in recent years made the further, assume the range gate waveform gating pulses
transition from analogue to digital techniques. are 20 ps in duration, then on average during a period
A jitter generator divides the p.r.f. of a timing of 1/ 100 = 10 000 ps the range gate will be open for
lator output by a variable divisor. For example only 20 ps, i.e. 11500th or 0-2 per cent of the time.
a basic p.r.f. of 400 a divisor of approximately Now squitter and unwanted replies occur randomly
would provide a track p.r.f. of 20, while a divisor so the chance of full coincidence at the range gate is
proximately 4 would provide a search p.r.f. of roughly 1 in 500 for each of the decoder output
0. Of vital importance to the operation of DME is pulses. Since there are 2700 received pulse pairs per
at the divisor varies randomly, so that if on track second we will have, on average, 2700/500, i.e.
en between, say, 15 and 25 timing pulses may occur 5-6 pulses per second from the range gate.
tween successive output pulses to from the jitter During search the variable delay is continuously
increased at a rate corresponding to anything from
I Rx suppression filter
ldent
Timing gen.
O/P 1 1! 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 ~ ~
Jitter gen.
01f' I
I
I ! I
I
1 7
I
1 I -
I I I
Range gate I I
waveform I
I 1 I
I I I I
I I I I
I I
I
I
Decoder i
I
O/P I I
I
1 . -
I I
Range gate I
113
20 to 400 nautical miles per second, depending o n the zero crossings of the delayed sine wave turn on
vintage of the design. While in search the range gate, (' = 1) a bistable which is turned off (Q = 0)by the
output rate, as detected by the coincidence counter, zero time pulses from the jitter generator. The
is low. When the delay T ps is equal to the round bistable output is connected to the positive-going
trip travel time plus the 50 ps beacon delay the range trigger input of a monostable; in this way the
gate output rate increases by a significant amount. resulting 30 ps pulses occur at a time determined by
Assuming as above a search p.r.f. of 100, and also a those delayed timing pulses which occur T ps after
50 per cent reply rate, then the output of the range transmission. The elapsed time T represents the
gate will jump from say 5 pulses per second to 50 range readout which will be obscured by a flag during
pulses per second. This is the situation shown in search.
Fig. 7.8. When thls easily detected increase in rate In the logic employed in Fig. 7.9 a low rate output
occurs the mode control circuit will: (a) enable the from the range gate will give a logic zero output from
tracking circuit; (b) inhibit the search circuit; the coincidence counter, so enabling the search
(c) send a p.r.f. change signal to the jitter generator; circuit but disabling the early and late gates. When
and (d) lift the indicator blanking or flag as T ps corresponds to the actual slant range of the
appropriate. beacon the range gate output rate is high, hence the
During track the variable delay is controlled by the search circuit is disabled and a logic one is fed to the
tracking circuits so as to keep each wanted reply in early and late gates. The other inputs t o the early and
the centre of the corresponding range gate waveform late gates are the decoded pulses and a ramp
pulse. Should the aircraft be flying towards the waveform symmetrical about zero volts and coincident
beacon, successive replies will appear early within the with a 30 ps range gate waveform pulse. The ramp
gate pulse, so causing the delay to be reduced. The input t o the late gate is inverted so that the late gate
opposite occurs when the aircraft is flying away from is open for almost all of the latter half of the 30 ps
the beacon. The variable delay represents the slant period, while the early gate is open for almost all of
range and so a signal proportional to or representing the first half. The slope of the ramp waveform is
this delay is fed to the indicator and/or RNAV chosen so as there is a period (equal in duration to the
computer. decoder output pulse width) when neither early nor
If wanted replies are lost, the coincidence counter late gate is open. Thus when on track the wanted
output registers a zero rate and hence the mode replies are steered to the decrease or increase range
control switches to memory. With static memory the circuits, depending on whether the replies arrive early
tracking circuits are 'frozen', whereas with velocity or late within the range gate waveform pulse
memory the tracking circuits continue t o change the respectively.
variable delay at the last known rate. The motor drive circuits supply the motor so that
when in search the readout and delay progressively
increases. Wlule in track the motor will turn in a
Range Measuring and Mode Control direction dependent on which of the decrease and
increase circuits gives an output. It can be seen that
Analogue in track we have a servo system which maintains the
Typically in an older analogue DME the variable delay wanted replies in the centre of the range gate
takes the form of a phase shifter resolver, the rotor of waveform pulses.
which is fed from the timing oscillator and is The memory circuit is enabled with the early and
mechanically coupled to a distance measuring shaft. late gates when it clears the flag. Subsequently, should
The tracking circuits in such equipment often employ there be a loss of replies, search will be inhibited and
a ramp generator. Figure 7.9 illustrates a block the motor held (static memory) or made to continue
diagram and waveforms which may be used to explain rotating with the same sense and speed (velocity
the operation of such a DME but is not meant to memory) for the memory time.
represent any particular equipment.
The timing generator output is sinusoidal and so Digital
must be fed to a pulse former (zero crossing detector) What follows is an explanation of the principles of a
before the jitter generator. The timing signal is also first-generation digital DME based on, but not
fed to a phase shift resolver where it is phase-shifted accurately representing, the RCA AVQ 85. Currently
(delayed) by an angle depending o n the position of the trend is t o use a special-purpose 1.s.i. chip to
the distance-measuring shaft which also drives the perform the range measurement and mode control
readout . Pulses coincident with the posi tive-going tasks.
I I
I
To mod. r Jltter F+! I
gen. former 1I Indicator II
I I
I
to I
Delayed - 4 ~ kI I
I
timing
pulses
I I
I I
Bistable
Q
I
-
I
Monostable
Q
Monostable
Q
Ramp gen.
____2_1 Early Late
Decoder O/P
The AVQ 85 has a search p.r.f. of 40, a track p.r.f. is measured. If t , is the time measured after the
of 12 and a maximum range of 400 nautical miles, nth interrogation then t,+ 1 is the time to the first
which corresponds to a two-way travel time of decoded pulse to arrive such that t , + 1 2 t , , where
5000 ps. During this time the number of pulse pairs n = 0, 1 . . . , and t o = 0. When we have equality, i.e.
received from a beacon will be, on average: t,, + 1 = t,, then t, is, subject t o further checlung, the
round trip travel time to the beacon. I t can be seen
5000 X 1 0'6 X 2700 = 13 -5.
that if the aircraft is at inaximum range we shall need,
Of the thirteen or fourteen pulse pairs received one on average, 13-14 successive interrogations to complete
will, hopefully, be a wanted reply. the search time. At a search rate of 40 this will take
During the search mode the elapsed time between say 13-5/40s, i.e. about one-third of a second. The
to and the time arrival of a particular decoded pulse acquisition time of the AVQ 85 is quoted as less than 1 s.
Interrogation
1st measurement
2nd measurement
3rd measurement
4th measurement
5th measurement
6th measurement
7th measurement
Valid
reply
With the above operation only one time which, when detected, signal the end of search.
measurement needs t o be stored in a register. With a In Fig. 7.1 1 we return to the one measurement per
modest amount of memory the wanted reply could interrogation situation. Initially the distance
be identified within two successive interrogations, measuring circuit counters and registers are cleared.
provided that such a reply was received after each of Time measurement from to is carried out by the
the interrogations. If we assume a 50 per cent reply distance counter which counts 809 kHz clock pulses,
rate then four interrogations would be needed. thus giving a range resolution of one-tenth of a mile.
During a 5000 ps interval less than eighty-four pulse The sequence of events following the (n + 1)th
pairs will be received, assuming a minimum spacing of interrogation of a search cycle is as follows:
60 ps between beacon squitter transmissions and
allowing for a 60 ys dead time. Each time 1. to + 20ps
measurement would need 12 bits if a resolution of Distance counter clears.
one-tenth of a nautical mile is required. Thus a faster Blanking counter loaded with contents of
search time could be achieved if a RAM of distance storage register 5 t , .
- 12 X 84 X 4 = 4032 bits were provided. A practical 2. to + 47 ys
circuit would consist of 4 X 1K bit ( l K = 1024) Blanking counter starts t o count down.
RAMS, the pulse arrival times, expressed as distances, 3. to + 50 ps
after each of four interrogations being recorded Distance counter starts to count up towards
successively in each RAM chip. The first chip would maximum range.
thus record the arrival times after the first, fifth, 4. to + tn
ninth, etc. interrogations, similarly for the second, Blanking counter reaches zero and hence
third and fourth chips. Of course only one 4K bit enables blanking gate and triggers range gate
chip is needed, provided it can be organized into four waveform generator.
linear arrays of 12-bit words. With a search p.r.f. of 5. t o + tn+1
40 there is a period of 30 000 ps (= 1/40) less A decoded pulse arrives and passes through
5000 ps in which to check for equal arrival times enabled blanking gate t o stop distance counter
Decoded
pulses
I I
Distance
to Ind S PRF Ind
809 kHz - T 4
0
change enable
A A
P
Distance Max
counter range
Search
track
Clear
5 0 jis - Transfer
memory
switching
to
+
Digital
delay
2 0 jis
20 ,AS - t
Percentage
47 j r s Distance to
storage reply
register check
Range
Blanking gate 1 1
809 kHz + counter waveform Decoded
P
gen. pulses
and trigger transfer of data to distance storage interrogations must give rise to a range gate output;
register; n becomes n+ 1 and circuit waits for failure initiates a switch to memory. Five seconds
next t o . after memory is entered the mode will revert to
search, subject to auto standby, unless the four-from-
The above sequence is repeated after each sixteen check indicates success, in which case track
interrogation. Within, on average, fourteen resumes.
interrogations the time t o a wanted reply will be
counted and the distance storage register will contain
the number of tenths of a nautical mile actual range. Characteristics
After the next interrogation the blanking counter will
enable the blanking gate 3 ps before the arrival of the The following summary is drawn from the ARINC
wanted reply, since the blanking counter start is Characteristic 568-5 for the Mk 3 airborne DME, it is
47 ps after to while the distance counter start is not complete and does not detail all the conditions
50 ps after t o . It therefore follows that the distance under which the following should be met.
counter will record the same distance, subject t o
aircraft movement, thereafter. Channels
The pulse from the range gate waveform generator 252 channels selected by 215 switching.
is of 6 ps duration, its leading edge being X ps after to
where X is the time of arrival of the previously Pulse Spacing
measured decoded pulse less 47 ps. This gating pulse Interrogation 12 + 0.5 ps mode X ; 36 + 0-5 ps mode Y.
is fed to the range gate together with the decoder Decoder output if 12 + 0.5 ps mode X ; 30 + 0-5 ps
output. Coincidence indicates that the two latest mode Y.
pulses to be measured have arrived with the same time Decoder: no output if spacing of received pulse pairs
delay k 3 ps with respect to t o and are thus probably more than k 5 ps from that required.
wanted replies. The percentage reply checking circuit
then checks that two of the next eight interrogations Range
give rise to a decoded pulse within the track gate and 0-200 nautical miles with override to extend t o
if so the mode switches to track. On track the p.r.f. is 300 nautical miles.
reduced and the indicator gives a readout of the range
as measured by the distance counter. After switching Tracking Speed
to track, at least four of any sixteen successive 0-2000 knots.
Acquisition Time Interrogation Rate
1 s or less. Overall less than 30, assuming on track 95 per cent of
time, searching 5 per cent of time.
Memory
4.12 s velocity memory. Auto Standby
At least 650 pulse pairs per second received before
r.f: Power Output interrogations allowed
> 25 dBW into 50 CZ load
Basic Principles
121
4 Timing Tx / b
Rx
a Interrogator Transponder
vl
a
r
b Display Rx 4
Tx Coding
-
Fig. 8.2 Secondary surveillance radar
Reply
A transponder will reply to a valid interrogation, the
form of the reply depending on the mode of
interrogation. A valid interrogation is one received
from the interrogator mainlobe (see below - Side
Lobe Suppression), the time interval between pulses
being equal t o the mode spacing selected by the pilot.
In every repIy two pulses of r.f. 1090 MHz, spaced
20.3 ps apart are transmitted, these are the frame or
bracket pulses, F1 and F2. Between F1 and F2 there
are up to twelve code pulses designated and spaced as
shown in Fig. 8.5; a thirteenth pulse, the X pulse,
may be utilized in a future expanded system.
The presence of a code pulse in a reply is
determined by the setting of code selector switches on
Flashing data
V the pilot's controller when the reply is in response to
(emergency) a mode A (or B) interrogation. If the interrogation is
mode C the code pulses transmitted are automatically
Fig. 8.3 Typical data presentation
determined by an encoding altimeter.
A pulse 4.35 ps after F2 may be transmitted. This
is the special position indicator (SPI) pulse, otl~envise
known as the indicate position (I/P) or simply ident
are coded by the different time intervals, each mode pulse. If the reply is in response to a mode A
corresponding to a different ground-to-air 'question'. interrogation the SPI pulse is selected by a
For example mode A - 'what is your identity'? spring-loaded switch or button on the pilot's controller
Figure 8.4 illustrates the modes of interrogation. A brief depression of the switch will cause the SPI
Many transponders have only mode A and C pulse to be radiated with every reply to a mode A
capability; this is sufficient to respond to an interrogation received within 15-30 s. Some older
interrogator operating on mode interlace whereby transponders will transmit a SPI pulse in reply to a
mode A and C interrogations are transmitted in mode C interrogation when the reply code contains a
sequence, thus demanding identification and altitude D4 pulse; this corresponds to an altitude in excess of
information. Mode D has yet to be utilized. 30 700 ft.
A Identity
I
I I
1 8 /is -.
B Identity
I I
P 1 17 jrs
I
-
C Altitude
I
F1 C1 A1 C2 A2 C4 A4 'X' B1 Dl 82 0 2 84 04 F2 SPI
20.3 11s
Fig. 8.5 Reply train format
Coding: Altitude Fig. 8.6 Examples of pulse trains for particular selected
The flight level of the aircraft referenced t o a pressure codes
of 1013.25 mbar (29.92 inHg) is encoded Table 8.2 100-Foot increment coding
automatically in increments of 100 ft, the code used
being laid down by the ICAO. The maximum encoded Mod,,(A) Cl cz c-4
range is from - 1000 to 126 700 ft inclusive. With
100 ft increments this requires 1278 different code 8 0 0 1
combinations, with 4096 available we see there is 9 0 1 1
considerable redundancy. It is impractical to use more 0 0 1 0
4
of the available codes since the accuracy of 1
barometric altimeters is such that it is not sensible to 2
have, say, 50 ft increments; in any case the objective
is to indicate flight levels which are in hundreds of 3 Reflection
feet . 4 1 1 0
To accommodate the redundancy the D l pulse is 5 0 1 0
not used and. further, at least one C wulse is 6 0 1 1
transmitted but never' C 1 and C4 together in a single
reply. Thus for each eight possible A group
combinations of pulses we have eight B group, five C
group and four D group, giving 8 X 8 X 5 X 4 = 1280 The A, B and D pulses form a Gray code giving a
possible code combinations; two more than necessary. total of 256 increments of 500 ft each, i.e.
The extra two, if assigned, would correspond to 128 000 ft, commencing at - 1000 ft. In order of
-1 100 and -1200 ft. frequency of bit change we have B4, 8 2 , B 1 , A4, A2,
The C pulses form a unit distance reflected binary A l , D4, D2; thus B4 changes every 1000 ft whereas
code giving the 100 ft increments. As shown in D4 does not enter the code until 30 800 ft and D2
Table 8.2 the reflected pattern, starting at until 62 800 ft. Needless to say aircraft in the general
C1 = C2 = 0, C4 = 1, begins when Modlo(A) = 8; aviation category will not need to employ encoding
i.e, when the remainder on dividing the altitude (in altimeters giving D4 and D2 selection.
hundreds of feet) by 10 is 8. Thus to find the C To find the A, B and D pulses we can use
pulses in the code for, say, 25 400 ft we have Table 8.3. Since the entries in the table commence
A = 254, Mod lo(A) = 4, so C1 and C2 are in the reply. with zero, whereas the altitude commences at
PI
__---- - No
_ reply
- - _ P3 --
-.I ----
-
-
Grey region
P2 ------ ---
---
Reply
--
-
~-+ Supply: 115 V, 400 Hz
Transponder and/or 28 V d.c.
No. 1
I
Transponder
No. 2
-4
-
AL Visual
v monitor Illumination
Suppression in/out v
o
AR on
da LoSens On
m ~1
126
other three to be suppressed for a period depending alternative. The code selected appears in a window
on the source; a transponder suppression pulse will be above the switches and will determine the code
about 30 ,us. pulses present in the reply in response to a mode A
The control unit is, of course, panel-mounted in (or B) interrogation. Some transponders have a
the cockpit and provides the pilot with complete facility for remote automatic keying for modes A and
control over the transponders. Only one transponder B; this may be selected by setting the code switches
at a time is in use while the other is on standby. to 8888. In fact the necessary extra equipment has
never been introduced.
I
Visual monitor
From * * *
T T v
mixer
It
A 41
v
To video
stages
---+ + 4
6 11s
Input l nput A -
0.51ts 0.5p s
+ ++ t
Delaved Output
4 /tl0.3p~ v0.3jis
Pulse width
limiter
Output .
Spike eliminator
L Mono (1 Diff
C
Spike
eliminator
Pulse
width IL Decoder
t 21 11s 2
limiter
Input
b
30 ~s mono output 30 ,is
4 +
21 11s mono output 3
21 11 S
Differentiator 1 O/P
Differentiator 2 O/P
'A' output
'C' output
-
'T' output
mode is controlled by inputs SO and S l , hold, clear, sequence load, shift, clear, hold. The SO waveform is
load and shift being selected by the input values d s o used to gate a clock generator, period 1.45 ps.
shown in the truth table (Fig. 8.1 5). These two
control waveforms are produced by two monostables, Load The leading edge of T triggers the controlling
one triggered by the positive-going edge of the T monostables so that SO = 1, S l = 0 and the shift
output from the decoder, the other by the register elements will be loaded with the binary
negative-going edge. This arrangement gives us the information present on the input lines. Since F 1 and
T
Mono
30ps
1
'
I 1
Clock
689.655 KHz
d
, . Differentiator
SO S1 CLK
, ,7
v v 7
I 10shj,ft r;ist,er
bit
B1 = A4 C 4 A2 C2 A1 C1 + 5
Input
lines
Clear
Shift
fi
iq' switch
15-20 sec.
timer
Encoding
altimeter
switch
rn
F2 are required in all replies, the appropriate inputs low for the duration of the load mode, the NOR gate
are high (+5 V). The one time-slot between A4 and outputs corresponding to selected codes go high and
B1 and the two time-slots between F2 and SPI are thus set the appropriate shift register element. Similar
never used; consequently their input lines, together action occurs whenever mode C interrogations are
with the two spare after SPI, are low (earth). The received although D 1 selection is not involved. Noise
dynamic input lines C1 to D4 will be high or low filtering is employed (r .c. networks) within the
depending on the code switch selection (mode A transponder for each of the altitude information
interrogation) or the altitude (mode C interrogation). input leads. SPI loading occurs when the A pulse is
Assuming a valid mode A interrogation has been coincident with the 15-30 s output pulse from the
received there will be a pulse present on the 'A' line SPI timer produced on depression of the SPI switch.
from decoder to encoder coincident in time with the
pulse on the 'T' line. After inversion this A pulse is Shift The trailing edge of pulse T triggers the S1
applied in parallel t o one of twelve NOR gates, the monostable thus SO = S l = 1 and the shift registers
other inputs of which are connected iridividually to are in the shift operating mode. Shifting occurs with
the twelve pilot code switches. Those code pulses a high t o low transition of the clock pulses, thus in
selected result in a ground on the appropriate NOR the 1.45 ps after the first transition the shift register
gate input. Since the other input in each case is also output is high (Fl); after the next transition the
I
$1
Hold Shift
Clear + Hold
-1 I* Ic-
I.
. ,
CLK
F1 C1 A1 C2 A 2 C 4 A 4 B1 D l 82 0 2 84 04 F2 SPI
-
SIR out
0000
4
20-3i t s F
SIR out
7777
Differentiator
out I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
AND out
0000
AND out
7777
output will be high or low depending on how the C1 monostable is to provide pulses of the correct
element was loaded, and so on. duration to the modulator.
I L--- readout
I
I
Tach.
gen.
--
-[-"1 display
--
-I
1
1
J I
//---
I
Position-
sensing
+-- -/
/---
/---
Light
-TLd-
I )
Light-
sensitive
device + source --+ devices
t- Encoding
-
disc t
Capsule
p+-, A
Switching
circuits
and those which do not have servo-assisted drives but minimizes the error when the reading line is aligned
do employ a vibrator to give smooth movement of with the junction of two segments.
pointer and encoding disc. In the simplified encoder circuit shown in
Fig. 8.20 with AIR switch ON Zener diode VR2 is
Altitude Encoding shorted and emitter of Q2 returned to earth. When
A transparent disc, usually glass, is divided into tracks light from LED V R l falls on photo transistor Q1, via
and segments. Each concentric track represents one a transparent part of the encoding disc, current is
of the code pulses, the outer track being C4, while a drawn through R switching on Q2. Thus collector of
segment represents a particular altitude. An opaque Q2 falls to a low value, i.e. input 2 to NOR gate is
pattern is formed on the disc so that on a particular low. If input 1 is driven low by an output from the
segment the area of intersection with each track will decoder a high output from the NOR gate is available
be either opaque or transparent depending on the for loading into the encoder shift register.
code assigned to the altitude represented by that If n o light falls on Q1 we have no volts drop across
segment. R, thus Q2 is off and input 2 to NOR gate is high.
The disc rotates between a light source and Under these conditions a 'zero' will be loaded into
photosensitive devices, one for each track, aligned the appropriate shift register element. The circuitry
along the 'reading line'. As the disc is driven by the described is repeated for each track of the disc.
barometric altimeter the appropriate segment is read.
Referring back t o Tables 8.2 and 8.3 we see that Side Lobe Suppression
the code changes by 1 bit for each 100 f t increment. Of the several possible ways of designing an SLS
This use of a 1-bit change or unit distance code circuit one is illustrated in Fig. 8.2 1, with the
Light To
source transponder
ALT \ Light
sensitive
devices
Tracks
Fig. 8.18 Encoding disc I
Segments
Fig. 8.19 Segment for 12 300 ft, code 0 10110100.
Encoding altimeter range - 1000-32 700 ft
+v +v
VRI Mode C
load
To shift
I register
I
I Encoding
I disc.
R
l +
VR2
-
-
-
Transponder
u
30 p s
, Mono MZ
1.8 ,its
1 Mono M3
1 rcs
(1
4b
Characteristics
Junction
C1 R2
The following summary is drawn from ARINC
Characteristic No. 572.1 for the Mk 2 ATC
transponder. It is worth pointing out that several
features on the Mk 1 transponder are not required for
the Mk 2, however the engineer will find many
transponders still in service which have some or all of
Fig. 8.22 Side lobe suppression waveforms the following:
1. two-pulse SLS; Reply Delay
2. SLS countdown - receiver desensitized when 3 +- 0 - 5ps.
the number of SLS pulses exceeds a limiting
figure; Reply Rate Capability
3. low sensitivity selection; 1200 replies per second.
4. receiver video signal output socket;
5. remote automatic keying; Reply Pulse Interval Tolerance
6. external transmitter triggering position; + 0.1 ps for spacing of any pulse, other than SPI, with
7. audio monitor; respect to F1; f. 0.15 ps for spacing of any pulse with
8. transmission of SPI pulse whenever D4 is one respect to any other except F 1 ; k 0-1 ys for spacing
bit of the altitude reporting code. of SPI with respect to F2.
Lei
--
& 3. freo~lencvo f the tra~~suonder rransmitter;
-
5 . invalid altitude code, i.e. no C p ~ ~ l s or
e s C1 and
C4 together;
' -.,,< 6 . ahscncc of code yrrlses in reply to mode C'
* s, I " interrngation
137
Specifications for the two test sets are identical Features of the TIC test sets not available on the
except for the added facility of dire ATC 600A are provision of all military and civil
an encoder which is available on-the T modes of interrogation and change of scale for
The capabilities of these test sets percentage reply meter (0-10 per cent SLS on;
6OOA are similar in so far as ATC tr 0-100 per cent SLS off). There are other minor
testing is concerned, in that they bo differences, and one other major difference, in that
requirements. Differences are largely due the TIC test sets are designed for use in the cockpit
of the ATC 600A as a bench test, although on the ground or in flight, the antenna being
be noted that a particular ATC 6OOA is bes mounted on the test set as opposed to the ATC 600A
either a bench test set or a ramp test set bu where the antenna is mounted on a tripod near the
To detail the differences, the TIC test sets d aircraft antenna. The antenna arrangements for the
have facilities for continuously varying PI-P3 sp TIC test sets necessitate the use of direct connection
or strobing the F2 pulse, and d o not indicate inv to the transponder for receiver sensitivity checks.
or 'no altitude' information or transmitter power.
9 weather avoidance
Origin
frequency for transmit and receive, the antenna Since range resolution and minimum range are not
must be switched to the transmitter for the critical in a weather radar, pulses tend to be longer
duration of the pulse; thus the pulse width than in other radars, say 2-5 ps. A shorter pulse width,
determines minimum range. For a 2 ps pulse say 1 ps, may be switched in when a short displayed
noreturncanappearforthefirst2~softhe rangeisselected.
time-base, giving a minimum range = A technique is available which realizes the
2c X l0'~/2 = one-sixth of a nautical mile. advantages of both long and short pulses. The
2. Range resolution deteriorates with increasing transmitted pulse can be frequency modulated so that
pulse width. A pulse of 2 ps duration occupies the r.f. increases over the duration of the constant
about 2000 ft in space. If two targets are on the amplitude pulse. The frequency modulated return is
same bearing but within 1000 ft of one another passed through a filter designed so that the velocity
'
the echo from the nearest target is still being of propagation increases with frequency. Thus the
received when the leading edge of the echo from higher frequencies at the trailing edge of the echo
the furthest target is received. The result is that 'catch up' with the lower frequencies at the leading
both targets merge on the p.p.i. display. The edge. In this way, the duration of the echo is
range of the targets does not affect the resolution. compressed. It should be noted that the bandwidth
Target 1 Target 2
wavelength
= 1000'
w- Range
No stability
m
28 V d.c 115 V a . c . scanner is, of necessity, by way of waveguide, losses
in co-axial cable being unacceptable at X-band (or
even C-hand).
Indicator While the above is a simplified description of the
Rendix RDK 1200 the units and their contents are
Fig. 9.6 Rrndix RDR 1200 intallation very much the same for all modern digital systems.
A trend in lightweight systems for general aviation
The transmitter receiver (t.1.) contailis all thc r.f. aircraft is to combine the transmitter and scanner in
circuitry and components as well as the modulator, one unit. Thc main advantage of a two unit system,
duplexer, IF slages. analogue to digital (a/d) converter t.r./scanner plus indicator, is Lhat the waveguide runis
and power supply circuits. Unlike older systems, thc eliminated, so reducing capital and installation costs
basic timing circuitry is in tlie indicator rather than w d waveguide losscs. The argurnent against
the 1.1. This tirr~ingcontrols the p.r.S., scanner combining the 1.r. and scanner is that the unit
Magslip
I
1 Bright
UP Deflection
3
-
++
Mod.
I
Tx
Time
base
Bright 1-
UP
Range I I I I I
marks I
S.T.C. 7
Fig. 9.10 All analogue weather radar block diagram and
waveforms
pre-pulse, since the lagging edge is used to trigger the waveform coincide with the start of the run-down.
modulator. The transmitter is a magnetron keyed by If the balancing half-cycle is made larger than
the modulator which determines the pulse width. necessary we have an open centre whereby zero range
The burst of r.f. energy (main bang) is fed from the is represented by an arc, of non-zero radius, on the
transmitter to the scanner via a duplexer and p.p.i. display.
waveguide run. The duplexer allows common aerial The gate waveform is fed t o the marker and
working in that it is an electronic switch which bright-up circuits which provide the necessary feeds
automatically connects the scanner to the transmitter to the c.r.t. for the duration of the time-base. Range
for the duration of the transmitted pulse, thus marks are produced at equally spaced intervals during
protecting the receiver. the gate, and are used t o intensity modulate the c.r.t.
A sample of the transmitted frequency is fed to the electron beam. The bright-up waveform provides a
a.f.c. (automatic frequency control) mixer along with bias which prevents the velocity of the beam being
an output from the 1.0. (local oscillator). If the sufficient to excite the phosphor coating on the
difference frequency is not equal to the required i.f. screen, except during the time-base rundown.
the a.f.c. circuit applies a control signal t o the l.o., so Pitch and roll stabilization is provided by a
adjusting its frequency until we have equality. If the gyro-controlled servomechanism.
difference frequency is outside the bandwidth of the
a.f.c. circuit, the control signal is made t o sweep until Digital Weather Radar - Rho-Theta Display
such time as the a.f.c. loop can operate normally. The radio and intermediate frequency part of the
The main receiver mixer is balanced to reduce 1.0. block diagram is much the same for analogue and
noise. The i.f. amplifier chain is broad band digital systems, so here only the video, timing and
(bandwidth > 2 X reciprocal of pulse width) with gain control blocks will be considered. The following is
controlled by the a.g.c./s.t .c. circuits or the manual based on the RCA Prirnus 40.
gain control. The video envelope is detected and after Analogue video data from the receiver is
further anlplification is used to intensity modulate digitized in an analogue t o digital (a/d) converter.
(Z-modulation) the c .r .t . The range selected is divided into 128 equal range
With contour on, the video signal is sampled, and if cells, for example, with 300 nautical miles selected
above a preset inversion level the video fed t o the each cell is 300,' 128 = 2 ~344nautical miles, or, in
c.r.t. is effectively removed. terms of time, 3607 ps is divided into 128 time-slots
The pre-pulse is fed t o the a.g.c. gate which thus of 28.96 ps. During each time-slot the video level is
allows the video output through to the a,g.c. circuit first integrated then encoded as a 2-bit word, thus
only for the duration of the pre-pulse (say 10 ps). In giving four discrete representations from zero t o
this way the gain control line voltage level is made a maximum signal. In the Primus 40 a complemented
function of receiver noise. The lagging edge of the Gray code is used for the conversion but is then
pre-pulse triggers the s.t .c. circuit which reduces i.f. changed to standard binary.
gain at zero range and returns it t o normal after, The scanner is driven by a stepper motor such that
typically, 30 nautical miles (about 370 ps). 1024 steps are taken for 120" of scan. The
The lagging edge of the pre-pulse also initiates the transmitter fires on every other step so providing 5 12
start of the time-base and gate waveforms, the azimuth directions from which echoes may be
duration of which depend on the range selected. The received. Thus on each of 5 12 azimuth angles data is
time-base waveform I ( t ) is fed to a magslip (synchro acquired in 128 range increments.
resolver) in the scanner; since the rotor of the magslip The averaging/smoothing circuits reduce the
is driven in synchronism with the scanner azimuth number of lines (azimuth directions) by a factor of
movement the outputs are I ( t ) sin 6 and I ( t ) cos 0 4 t o 128 (= 5 12/4) and apply a correction to the
where 8 is the azimuth angle measured with reference gradient of the signal in range and azimuth. The 4 to
to the aircraft heading. Using the cosine output for 1 line reduction is achreved by averaging the sum of
vertical deflection and the sine output for horizontal four adjacent azimuth time cells as shown in
deflection provides the necessary rotating time-base. Fig. 9.13 and Table 9.1. After averaging we have 128
The start of the time-base run-down must lines with 128 range cells per line giving
correspond t o zero deflection of the c.r.t. spot. Since 128 X 128 = 16 384 data cells. The data is then
the magslip, being basically a transformer, removes corrected first in range then in azimuth as follows:
any d.c. level a balancing half-cycle is required if in a series of three adjacent cells the outer two cells
immediately after the time-base flyback to make the are the same but the inner is different, then the inner
average (zero) value of the composite time-base is corrected so as all three are the same; for example,
End
Noise
After correction
K'i Corrected
7I clock
Range
Averaging
* smoothing
circuits
-* Memory -*
t~lock
Line
doubling
t
+ Markers
t1
+ Contour
1
I
Tx
trigger 4
r-'--- -- control -
I ANTENNA I
t
Range
I I select Frame retrace
INDICATOR
Freeze
Fig. 9.15 Video processing and rho-theta display block
diagram
New data
load
32768 bit
b I
b Data out
shift register
New data
three adjacent stored lines, illustrates the process: mile is represented by 128125 = 5.12 cells, so the first
stored line . . . 3 1 ... mark is located at cell 26 (- 5 X 5.1 2) with subsequent
middle line . . . 3 I... marks at cells 51, 77, 102 and 128.
stored line . . . 3 o... Azimuth marks are obtained by raising all 128
middle line . . , 2 o... cells of the appropriate lines by 1 in a similar way to
stored line . . . 0 that described above. The sweep is 120', so for 15"
o...
azimuth markers we require 1 + 120115 = 9 lines to
Range marks are obtained by raising the appropriate be enhanced in intensity. With 256 Lines those
range cell level for each of the 256 lines by 1 , i.e. 0 chosen are line 2 and line 256 N/8 = 32N where
becomes 1, 1 becomes 2 , 2 becomes 3 while 3 remains N = 1-8. Line 2 is used for the -60" marker since
at 3. Thus range marks appear sIightly brighter than blanking is applied to the first trace line, thus the
target returns except for level 3 targets. Identification leftmost azimuth marker is in fact at -59.0625'.
of the appropriate range cell in each line is achieved The contour circuit converts a video 3 level to a
by a counter. For example on the 25 nautical mile video 0 level. If we had a range sequence of cells
range there are five range marks 5 nautical miles apart. 0 2 3 0 0, say, then the contoured cell of level 3
Since there are 128 range cells per line each nautical would not be bordered, the sequence being
0 2 0 0 0. To avoid this, the range cell adjacent to a The rho-theta raster is generated by the deflection
contoured level 3 cell is raised t o level 2 if necessary,circuits which are triggered by the frame and X- Y
thus in our example 0 2 3 0 0 would become retrace waveforms. A linear ramp current waveform
0 2 0 2 0 after contouring. Bordering is guaranteed needs to be generated for both the Y (vertical)
in azimuth as a result of the line-doubling process deflection coils and the X (horizontal) deflection
since, for example, if we have adjacent azimuth cells coils w h c h form the yoke. The duration of the ramp
with video levels 1 3 0 from memory, then is 53-89 ps with a 10.46 ps retrace (flyback) giving a
he-doubling will give 1 2 3 2 0 and after total line time (time-base period) of 64.35 ps. The
contouring 1 2 0 2 0 as required. This bordering amplitudes of the ramp waveforms determine the
feature is necessary where the video gradient is steep, amount of deflection in the X and Y directions and
such as when we receive returns from mountains or thus the particular line which is traced on the screen;
distant weather targets. line 1 is at -60, line 256 is at +60. In practice,
since on the completion of one frame at line 256 on
VIDEO LEVELS 0 0 1 1 2 3 2 1 0 the right we start the next frame on the left after
frame retrace, line 1 is blanked in order to allow the
deflection circuits to settle down. The frame rate is
BINARY CODE
60.7 Hz.
The X and Y ramp waveforms are initiated by the
X-Y retrace pulses. The amplitude of the Y ramp
must be a minimum at the beginning and end of the
frame and a maximum half-way through the frame;
its polarity is constant throughout. The amplitude of
the X ramp must be a maximum at the beginning and
end of the frame and zero half-way through the
frame, when the polarity reverses. To achieve the
amplitude variations described the X and Y ramp
Fig. 9.1 7 Digital to analogue conve~sion(uncontoured) waveforms are amplitude-modulated by appropriately
(courtesy RCA Ltd) shaped waveforms triggered by the frame retrace
pulse.
The c.r.t. is intensity modulated by one of four It should be evident that timing and synchronization
d.c. levels applied to its control grid. Since the output are all-important. We see from the simplified block
from the contour circuit is digital we must employ a diagram that the timing and control circuits are
digital to analogue (DIA) conversion circuit. connected to virtually all parts to ensure the
Frame
retrace
/
'
/
I
/'
I
I
I
I
''\
'.
'\
X
Mod.
\ .'
,',J .C ---.
\
X-Y retrace - j l L1 h i
Y X
Ramp Ramp
TOP OF D I S P L A Y
-- -
- --
-- - F I R S T FIELD RASTER L I h E . ONE OF 1 2 8 L I h E S WRITTEN AT RATE OF 107 5 Hz'
F l RST FIELD BLAhK RETRACE L I N E . WE OF 128 GENERATED AT RATE OF 107 5 HZ'
. . BLANK FLYBACK LINE FRCW E h D O f F I R S T FIELD TO BEGINNING OF SECOND FiELO AT RATE Of 1 0 7 . 5 Hz
-. .- . -. -. -.----
-----I----------
SECOhD FlELD RASTER LINE. ONE OF 128 LINES WRITTEN AT RATE OF 107 5 HZ
SECOND FIELD BLAhK RETRACE L I N E , ONE OF 128 GEFiERATED AT RATE OF 107 5 Hz'
BLAhK FLYBACK L I N E F R O V END OF SECOND FIELD TO BEGINNING OF F I R S T FIELD AT RATE OF 107.5 HZ
'13760 LINES PER SEC
Scanner Stabilization
taking into account the azimuth angle of the scanner, The above paragraph is the basis for line-of-sight
the composite signal being used to control the beam stabilization. Pitch and roll signals from the VRG are
tilt angle. Since the platform system requires combined in an azimuth resolver, the rotor of which
rotating waveguide joints for azimuth, pitch and roll is driven by the azimuth motor. The stators of the
movement plus pitch and roll motors, the line-of-sight resolver are connected to the pitch (P) and roll (R)
system is preferred in most modern weather radars. outputs of the VRG, in such a way that the rotor
Only the line-of-sight system will be explained below. output is P cos 0 + R sin 8, where 8 is the azimuth
While the scanner is pointing dead ahead, aircraft angle.
movement in roll will have no effect on the beam The composite demand signal is fed to a servo
direction since the axis about which the aircraft is amplifier which also has position and velocity
rotating is in line with the beam axis. With the feedback inputs. If the sum of the inputs is non-zero,
scanner pointing 90' port or starboard pitch an error signal from the servo amplifier will drive the
movement will have a negligible effect since the axis motor so as to reduce the error to zero. The position
about which the aircraft is rotating is parallel and close feedback from the tilt synchro is modified by the tilt
to the beam axis. Conversely with the scanner dead control so that the angle of the beam above or below
ahead, aircraft pitch must be corrected in full while the horizontal may be set by the pilot. Velocity
the scanner at k 90" aircraft roll must be corrected in feedback is provided by a tachogenerator t o prevent
full by pitching or tilting the scanner. excessive overshoot.
Antenna
Elevation Azimuth
rotary joint rotary joint
Receiver -
transmitter
Indicator w
L, C----- sweep sense I
-1 I resolver I VRG
I 1
t B 301
b
Azimuth motor I I
control logic I
from indicator I I
b
8302
Azimuth motor
control
amplifiers
F cos
+
e
R. sin 0
scan () Azimuth
5301
AI
'
stepper motor
B303
1 Velocity
I feedback
I
Position
I t t
feedback
I Elevation
L---------
synchro Stabilizatio~
4
8304 Tilt
control
lndicator
The components used in the stabilization system restricted t o say k 45', as on various general aviation
can vary. The position feedback transducer and tilt systems.
control may be two- or three-wire synchros or indeed Unless an azimuth stepper motor is used the
potentiometers. Some equipments use a d.c. rather azimuth angular velocity of the scanner is not constant.
than a.c. motor although a x . is normal for demand Reversal of direction at the extremities means that
and feedback signals. On some systems no roll the scanner accelerates towards the dead ahead
correction is employed if the scanner azimuth angle is position and slows down going away from dead ahead.
It follows that less time is available to make Grid vanes
stabilization corrections at the dead ahead position. Weather /", Mapping
If the servo loop response is fast enough to cope with
the most rapid movement in azimuth it will be too
fast at the extremities. In order to vary response time
the velocity feedback may be modified so that it is
greatest in amplitude when the azimuth angle is a
maximum.
With a flat plate aerial the beam is tilted by
pitching the plate, thus a pitch-rotating waveguide
joint is needed. There is a choice when the system Horizontally
uses a parabolic reflector, either the reflector and polarized feed
feed move in pitch or the reflector only. In the latter
case no pitch-rotating joint is used but the beam shape Fig. 9.24 Weather-mapping facility using a parabolic
deteriorates since the feed point is displaced from the reflector
focus with tilt applied.
reflector is rotated through 90" (as in Fig. 9.24) or
the direction of polarization is rotated by using a
Other Applications for Weather Radar waveguide rotating joint or a ferrite polarization
twister.
Although the primary function of a weather radar is The cosec2 beam is difficult to achieve with a flat
to detect conditions likely t o give rise to turbulence, plate array designed specifically for a pencil beam.
various other uses for the system or part of the system However, a fan-shaped beam can be obtained by
have been, and continue t o be, found. These will be reversing the phase of the r .f. energy fed to the slots
briefly described. in the top half of the plate.
When selected to mapping, rivers, lakes and
Mapping coastlines are clearly identified, so allowing
Virtually all weather radars offer a mapping facility. confirmation of position. Built-up areas and
At its most crude, selection of mapping merely mountains will give strong returns. An interesting
removes s.t.c., whereupon the pilot can tilt the beam phenomenon may be noticed over the plains of the
down to view a limited region of the ground. At its United States: since fences, buildings and power lines
best the beam is changed to a fan-shaped beam, tend to be laid out with a north-south or east-west
whereby received echo energy is constant from all orientation, re turns from the cardinal points are
parts of the illuminated ground region. In the strongest, thus giving noticeable bright lines on the
Appendix it is shown that the received power is radar corresponding to north, south, east o r west.
inversely proportional to the square of the range for a
beam-filling target (A9.9), also if the beam is Drift Indication
depressed at an angle @ to the horizontal the range With downward tilt the returned echo is subject to a
R = h cosec @ where h is the aircraft height. So for Doppler s h f t due t o the relative velocity of the
equal returns from ground targets at different aircraft along the beam. The spectrum of Doppler
depression angles (hence range) the transmitted power shift frequencies is narrowest when the beam is
needs to be distributed on a cosec2 4 basis, since we aligned with the aircraft track. The Doppler signal
will then have (Pr) ~ ( P ~ / R a(cosec2
*) @ / h 2cosec2 @)= can be displayed on a suitable indicator (A-type
(1/h2),i.e. Pr is independent of range. display) where, due to the spectrum, it appears as
With a parabolic reflector an approximate cosec2 noise elevated onto the top of the return pulse. With
beam can be obtained by use of a polarization- manual control of the azimuth position of the scanner
sensitive grid ahead of the reflector surface. In the the pilot can adjust until the Doppler 'noise'
weather mode the grid is transparent to the beam (spectrum) is at a minimum, when the drift angle can
since the E field is perpendicular to the conducting be read off the control. This option is rarely found.
vanes of the grid while in the mapping mode the grid
reflects part of the beam energy downward since the Beacon Interrogation
E field is parallel to the vanes and therefore does not The transmitted pulse from the weather radar can be
satisfy the boundary conditions. To achieve remote used to trigger a suitably tuned beacon (transponder)
switching between weather and mapping, either the on the ground. The beacon replies on 93 10 MHz,
so a weather radar with a local oscillator frequency of short-range capability: for cxample, the Primus 50
9375 MHLand a transmit frequency of 9345 Mliz will offers 2 nailtical mile range using a 0.6 ps pulse, thus
produce a different Gequency of 30 MHz for normal dvirlg good range resolotion.
returns and a difference frequency of 65 MH7 for the
beacon reply. Two differently tuned i.f. amplifiers Multifunction Display
can be used t o separate the signals. As an alternative The weather radar indicator is increasingly used for
two local oscillators may he used. purposes other than the display of weatlrer or
On some systems the selection of beacon eliminates mapping information. X.Y rasters in particular make
the normal returns fro111 the display; on others it is the display of alphanumeric data stmightfonvard,
possible to show weather and the beacon response. hence all the major manufacturers now offcr a
The ease with which this facility can he used t o 'page-printer' option with one or more of the radars
find offshore oil rigs makes radars offering beacon in their range. Similarly display o f navigation data is
operation an attractive proposition fur helicopters available as an option with the latest colour weather
supplying the rigs. Such radars usually have a radars.
~ a k o l n t a n dtrackllne by preislng the cancel button rent Wavoalnt will be disolaved in vellow wlth all ~-~other data
the DataNav control panel in g r e G . x t l the ~ a y p o i n t s c a nbebisplayed in groups of
three by moving the "Waypoint Offset Control'' left or right
Fig. 10.4 Airborne Doppler singIe-beam geometry in the Fig. 10.6 The resolved velocity vector
vertical plane
considering the actual targets which produce Fig. 10.7 Drift angle and ground speed
backscattering of the energy. These targets are
irregularly shaped scattering objects such as pebbles One conceptually simple solution is to stabilize
and there is, of course, relative n ~ o t i o nbetween the the antenna in-pitch and roll, in w h c h case the earth
aircraft and individual targets - hence a Doppler co-ordinate-related velocities V H ,VA and VV are
shift. If the illuminated area were perfectly smooth equal to v;, ~1 and V ; respectively. If the lateral
no reflected energy would be received at the aircraft. velocity VA is non-zero it means that the movement
The other false argument concerns sloping terrain. of the aircraft is not in the direction of the heading
If the aircraft is flying horizontally above a slope then and a non-zero drift angle, 6 , exists as in Fig. 10.7.
its range to the ground along the beam is changing The resultant of VH and VA is the velocity vector
and therefore the Doppler shift will be affected. with magnitude equal t o ground speed s, and
Again this falsehood is exposed by the fact that the direction that o f the aircraft's track. It is convenient
actual targets are individual objects whose 'slope' with for navigation purposes to present the pilot with
respecs to the aircraft is random and hence is not ground speed and drift angle information rather than
related to the slope of the ground. VH and VA.
With moving antenna systems, the antenna is
stabilized in pitch and roll and also aligned in
Antenna Mechanization azimuth with the track of the aircraft, that is to say
track-stabilized. The drift angle is given by the angle
The aircraft velocity has three orthogonal between the antenna and aircraft longitudinal axes
cornponen ts: measured in the horizontal plane. Some Dopplers use
pitch but not roll stabilization since error due to roll
V& the heading velocity component; is small for small drift angles and furthermore tends
vatthe lateral velocity component; and to average out over the flight.
Fixed antenna systems must compute the With A? typically 0.07 radians (4') and 7 typically
velocities V', VA and VV each being a function of 70' we have A fD lfo typically 0-2.
vi, v;, v;, R and P, where R and P are roll and Since backscattering from the illuminated target
pitch angles appearing in the expressions as area is not constant over the whole area there is a
trigonometric functions. The relationships are derived random fluctuation of the instantaneous mean
in the Appendix. frequency f~ . To determine the aircraft's velocity
accurately the time constant of the
velocity-measuring circuits must be sufficiently long
Doppler Spectru m to smooth this fluctuation, but not so long as to be
unable t o follow the normal accelerations of the
The beams are of finite width, hence energy will aircraft.
strike the ground along directions of different relative
velocities. As a consequence a spectrum of Doppler
shift frequencies is received as shown in Fig. 10.8 Beam Geometry
where the effects of side lobes are ignored.
Since there are three unknowns V d , ~1and v;, a
minimum of three beams are required t o measure
them. In practice three or four beams are used in a
configuration involving fore and aft beams; as such it
a
is known as a Janus configuration after the Roman
god who could see both behind and in front.
The beams radiated can be either pencil, as in
Fig. 10.10 or narrow in elevation (LO)but wide in
1/2 power azimuth (Aa)as in Fig. 10.9. The hyperbolic lines
- 3 dbs fa, fb , f4 , f-b are lines of constant Doppler shifts
called isodops and are drawn assuming a flat earth.
When wide azimuth beams are used a fixed antenna
system would lead t o the beam crossing a wide
range of isodops under conditions of drift, resultingin
an excessively wide Doppler spectrum. Consequently
1 I * such beams virtually dictate a track-stabilized antenna.
fd Doppler shift A wide azimuth beam has advantages in that smaller
Fig. 10.8 The Doppler spectrum antenna areas are required and roll performance is
improved in the case where no roll stabilization is
Such a phenomenon is undesirable but providing employed.
the spectrum is reasonably 'peaky' the mean Doppler Figure 10.9 shows that for a fully stabilized system
shift is easily measured. If 7 is the angle between the the Doppler shift on all four beams is the same.
beam centroid and the aircraft velocity vector then Without roll stabilization small errors are introduced
equation (10.3) becomes: which tend to average out. Stabilization can be
achieved by servo loops which drive the antenna so as
to equalize the Doppler shifts. Alternatively pitch
information (and possibly roll) can be fed to the
Differentiation with respect t o Y gives a first Doppler from a vertical reference such as a gyro or
approximation to the half-power bandwidth of the even a mercury switch leaving azimuth stabilization to
spectrum: be achieved by equalization of Doppler shifts.
Typically in such radars ground speed and drift angle
Afo = - ;- A? . sin 7
2Vf (10.6) are the only outputs where ground speed is given by
equation (10.4) and drift angle by the amount of
where AT is the half-power beam width. The ratio of azimuth rotation of the antenna. Heading
A ~ Dto f~ is thus given by dividing equation (10.6) information is usually added to the drift angle to give
by (1 0.5). aircraft track.
Figure 10.10 shows that for a fixed aerial system
the Doppler shifts on all four beams are, in general,
not equal. It is shown in tht: Appendix to this
Fig. 10.9 Moving aerial system - typical beam geometry
indistinguishable except where the s .n .r. is sufficiently With modern radars f.m.c.w. is the most common
; high at low altitudes. type of transmission. The spectrum of the transmitted
t To overcome the above problems both pulsed and signal consists of a large number of sidebands as well
177
as the carrier. Theoretical analysis of f.m.c.w. reveals aircraft relative to the surface below them. When
an infinite number of sidebands spaced by the flying over water that surface itself may be moving
modulation frequency f, amplitude of individual due to sea currents or wind-blown water particles.
sidebands being determined by Bessel functions of the Random sea currents are of speeds usually a good
first kind of order n and argument rn where n is the bit less than half a knot, and this small effect
sideband concerned (first, second, third, etc.) and rn averages out since the currents are in random
is the modulation index, i.e. ratio of deviation to directions. Major sea currents d o not exceed, say,
f,. By using the Doppler shift of a particular 3 knots and since direction and approximate speed
sideband, and choosing an appropriate value of rn to are known they can be compensated for.
give sufficient amplitude of the sideband concerned, Wind-blown droplets would give an error less than
suppression of noise due to returns from the radome the wind speed, about 3 knots error for 10 knots
and other nearby objects is achieved. wind with the error varying as the third root of the
A problem common to both pulsed and f.m.c.w. wind. On long flights such an error will be reduced
Doppler radars is that of altitude holes. In a pulsed by averaging.
system if the echo arrives back at the receiver when
a subsequent pulse is being transmitted then it is
gated out by the diplexer and n o Doppler shift can Overwater
be detected. Similarly with f.m.c.w., if the
-+I+ calibration
I I shift error
round-trip travel time is nearly equal to the
modulation period a dead beat will occur when
mixing transmitted and received signals, and again
no Doppler shift will be detected.
If a low modulating frequency is used the first
altitude hole may appear above the operating
ceiling. However low p.r.f. in pulse system leads to
Frequency
low efficiency and the possibility of interference if
the p.r.f. is in the range of Doppler frequencies Fig. 10.12 Over-water calibration shift
expected (audio). For f.rn.c.w. given a choice of
sideband used, typically third or fourth, and When flying over land the beams illuminate an
modulation index, typically 2; or 3, such as to area containing many scattering particles. Generally
avoid radome noise, the modulating frequency must the backscattering coefficients over the whole
be fairly high to allow a reasonable deviation. A illuminated area will be of the same order giving rise
fairly high modulating frequency is usually varied to the Doppler spectrum shown in Fig. 10.8. Over
either continuously (wobble) or in discrete steps to smooth sea the situation is different; a larger
avoid altitude holes at fixed heights. fraction of the incident energy will be returned on
the steepest part of the beam since the surface
backscattering coefficient will depend on the angle
Over-Water Errors
of incidence. The net result is to shift the Doppler
Doppler navigators measure the velocity of the spectrum as shown in Fig. 10.12, so that the mean
Doppler shift is less than it should be for the
aircraft velocity.
The error introduced, which could be up t o 5 per
cent, is known as over-water calibration shift error.
The narrower the beam width the less significant the
I I l l I I I I error, so some Dopplers are designed to produce
I I I I I I I I I beams narrow enough to keep the error within
I I l l I I
I
I
I
I
I
I p
I
I
I
I
1
I l
I l
Frequency
I-
acceptable limits. Other Dopplers have a manual
land-sea or sea bias switch which, when in the sea or
I I I I I / I l l
I I 1 1 - 1
on position respectively, causes a calibration shift in
the opposite sense by weighting the response of the
Doppler shift frequency processing in favour of the
higher frequencies. For a carefully chosen
Fig. 10.1 1 Frequency modulated continuous wave compensation shift the error can be reduced by a
transmitted signal and received ground echo spectrum factor of about ten.
Antenna axis
1 1 Ground track
!Lobe
iswitched
;beams
Beam
cross
over
T = H+6 ( I 0.8)
Navigation Calculations E = T-Td (1 0.9)
The ground speed and drift angle information is
normally presented to the pilot but in addition is
used, together with heading information, to give the
aircraft position relative to a destination or where t is the time of flight, and the sense of the
forthcoming waypoint. To achieve this the pilot across distance is positive to the right.
must set desired track and distance to fly before
take off. In Fig. 10.14 the pilot wishes t o fly from
A to B, a distanceof 50 nautical miles, with desired
Block Diagram Operation
track 090. The aircraft has flown for 6 min at a
speed of 500 knots on a heading of 1 0 0 with a drift Moving Antenna System
of 27" starboard, thus the total distance is 50 Figure 10.15 illustrates a block diagram based on the
nautical miles and the aircraft is at point C. The
Marconi AD 560, a system introduced in the
track error is 37", the along distance to go is mid-1960s and used o n a variety of civil aircraft. It is
X = 10 nautical miles; the across distance is still t o be found in service.
Y = 30 nautical miles. The sensor is an f.m.c.w. type employing
In order to see how the Doppler navigator arrives wobbulation of the modulating frequency f, to
at the along and across distances indicated to the pilot avoid altitude holes and using the Nth sideband
we must consider the information available: (N = 3 in the AD 560) t o avoid unwanted interference
Ground speed (s) and due to radome vibrations. For the choice of the third
drift angle (6) - Doppler radar sideband a suitable modulation index is 2.5, obtained
Heading ( H ) - gyromagnetic compass by using a deviation of + 1 MHz on the 8800 MHz
Desired track (Td) and carrier and a modulating frequency of 400 kHz.
Distance (D) - pilot Two mixer stages give the Doppler shift frequency
Fig. 10.15 Moving aerial Doppler block diagram based on
the Marconi AD 560
f'. The first mixes the received signal with a sample important where pitch and azimuth drive of the aerial
of the transmitted signal, the required sideband is concerned; the AD 560 sequence is port forward,
(1200 kHz in the AD 560) being selected by the starboard aft, starboard forward, port aft, a complete
intermediate frequency amplifiers. The second mixes cycle taking 1 second.
N times f, with the selected sideband to extract fD The Doppler spectrum is fed to two loops: one
by means of a low pass filter with a cut-off frequency coarse and one fine. The search loop provides for
of about 20 kHz. coarse adjustment of a ground-speed measuring shaft
There are two transmit and two receive linear which determines the frequency of a voltage controlled
slotted arrays. Anti-phase and in-phase arrays are oscillator (V.C.O.)in the tracking loop through a
used for transmit and receive, an arrangement which feedback potentiometer. With the search loop nulled
can be shown to compensate for changes in the v.c.0. frequency is approximately equal to the
wavelength. The arrays are connected t o appropriate mean Doppler shift frequency, a discriminator within
inletsloutlets by an r.f. switch (varacter diodes in the the tracking loop is then able to apply an error signal
AD 560). Fore and aft beams are obtained by to the speed drive so as to position the ground-speed
providing for connection to either end of each array, shaft accurately, The Doppler can then be said to be
while port and starboard deflection is achieved by use locked on, and any change in ground speed will be
of side reflectors. The beam-switching sequence is tracked by the fine tracking loop.
drift angle (azimuth drive) and so give track to
Starboard another differential synchro in the display unit. The
drift rotor of the second differential synchro is set by the
operator at the desired track angle, hence the output
is the difference between track and desired track,
i.e. track angle error E.
Nose up The resolver in the computer unit resolves ground
speed S into its along and across speed components
S cos E and S sin E respectively. In the AD 560 a ball
1 second resolver is used, thus giving mechanical analogue
Fig. 10.16 Change in Doppler shift with aerial misalignment computing. The ball is driven by a tracking
oscillator-fed stepper motor, hence the rate of
rotation is proportional to ground speed. The axis of
If the antenna axis is not aligned with the track of rotation depends on the angle of the drive wheel
the aircraft, either in pitch or in azimuth, the Doppler which is set by a servo position control system to be
shift will change with beam-switching. With equal t o the track error angle. Two pick-off wheels
misalignment in azimuth the change in Doppler occurs mounted with their axes at right angles rotate at a
at a rate of 1 Hz, while if the misalignment is in pitch rate depending on the along and across speeds. These
the rate is 2 Hz. This follows from the beam-switching rotations are repeated in the display unit by means of
sequence and rate (see Fig. 10.1 6). Reference servo drives and cause the counters to rotate. The
waveforms of 2 and 1 Hz are fed to the pitch and along distance counter is arranged to count down from
azimuth drive circuits respectively; any misalignment the initial distance to the waypoint until it reaches
of the antenna will be detected by the drive circuits, zero when the aircraft will be on a line perpendicular
resulting in the antenna rotating so as to align itself to the desired track and passing through the waypoint.
with the aircraft track. At this stage the Doppler shift If both along and across distances read zero
is the same on all four beams and accurately simultaneously the aircraft is aver the waypoint.
represents ground speed, also the angle between the
aircraft and antenna longitudinal axes is equal t o the Fixed Antenna System
drift angle. Figure 10.17 may be used t o explain the principles of
The s.n.r. is measured in both the search and a fixed antenna system t o block diagram level. The
tracking loops. If the search loop check is not antenna consists of planar arrays of slotted waveguide
satisfactory for three out of the four beams the three or printed circuit, separate arrays being used for
servodrive circuits are disabled. The signal to noise transmission and reception. Beam-switchng is
check in the tracking loop causes the system to go to achieved using varactor diode or ferrite switches to
memory if it is not satisfactory. In memory the couple the transmitter and receiver to the
antenna and ground-speed shaft are fixed and a appropriate port.
memory flag appears in a ground-speed and drift The received signal is mixed with a sample of the
angle indicator. The sensor continues t o give the f.m.c.w, transmitted signal and the wanted sideband
last-measured ground-speed and drift angle for as filtered out and amplified. If only ground speed and
long as the poor s.n.r. continues. drift angle are required further mixing may take place
Ground-speed output from the sensor is in two to extract the Doppler frequencies as in the moving
forms. A synchro rotor is mechanically coupled to antenna case; however the sense of the shift (positive
the ground-speed shaft giving a three-wire feed. The or negative) is lost. If the three velocity vectors in the
traclung v.c.0. frequency, which is proportional t o direction of the aircraft co-ordinates are required, an
ground speed, is fed t o a sine-cosine resolver in the intermediate frequency f,,is retained which will be
computer and also t o a frequency divider which scales reduced or increased by an amount depending on
and shapes the signal so that one pulse per nautical whlch beam is being radiated.
mile is fed to a distance flown indicator (integrating The time-multiplexed Doppler shifted f, signals
counter). are separated by a demultiplexer driven by the
A synchro transmitter in the antenna unit gives a beam-switching control and feeding four tracking
drift angle output since the body is bolted t o the loops. Voltage-controlled oscillators become locked
fixed part of the antenna and the rotor is driven by to the incoming frequencies f0 + fo by sweeping
the azimuth motor. A differential synchro through their range until they lock on. The four
transmitter is used to add heading (from compass) to tracker outputs are then summed and differenced, as
I F!r a
Heading Attitude
Transmitter
receiver
e Tracker 2
Air weed
I 1
Variation
initial position
and waypoints
appropriate, in a combining network to provide ground-speed and drift-angle outputs and, with a
signals f,, fy and f, proportional to aircraft compass input, will provide navigation data to a CDU
co-ordinate velocities (see Appendix, A10.3). giving a twtl-unit Doppler navigation system. Digital
Within the coniputcr/display unit (CDU) the outputs are provided in accordance with ARINC 429
aircraft referenced velocity components are (DITS) and ARINC 582, there is also an optional
transformed into track-orientated earth-referenced synchro output for drift angle. This unit, introduced
components using attitude signals (pitch and roll) in 1979, may herald a comeback for Doppler in
from a vertical reference gyro (SEE Appendix, A10.4). airline service since it has been ordered by Roeing for
With a heading input and waypoints, in terms o f installation in their 727s and 737s, to be used in
desired track and distance, set in by the pilot the conjuriction with Lear Siegler's perfor~nanceand
computer can integrate tlie along arid across navigation computer system (PNCS).
velocities to give distance t o go and across-track
error (distance) respcctivcly.
The CDU may offer latitude and longitude
rcaduut of position hy transforming the aircraft
velocities into north-orientated horizontal components.
T n ~ north,
e as opposed to magnetic north, may be
used as thc reverence if tlie pilot is able t o enter the
variation. With attitude, heading arid true air speed
inputs the output [rum an airspeed transformation
circuit or routine may he compared with thc velocity
transforn~ationt o give wirid speed and direction.
Installation
183
Across-track error and track-angle error are usually
available as outputs from a CDU for use by an
autopilot. Ohviously warning signals must also be
provided to indicate the integrity of the steering
signals to the user equipment.
P.B.D.I.
Indicator, controller and general purpose processor
with programme capacity of 1500 16-bit words.
Battery-protected memory.
Switches
1. DOP TEST: ground checking of sensor;
ST BY: inputs inhibited. display flashes;
LANDISEA: allows correction for overwater
Vkg. 10.21 Olllll,Irl 71 yri~ianii-spccdnrld drit: lnctcr
(courtesy Llle I)ecca Nav~s:it<,rCu. L t d ) calibration shift error to be switched in.
2. LMP TEST: check of display and lamps;
HDCIVAR: display of heading input and insertion
of magnetic variations;
FIX: position displayed is fixed; Doppler
incrcrnental distances are stored; warning lamp
tlashes; slew switches operable;
POS: aircraft latitude or longitude displayed;
GSIDFT: ground speed and drift angle displayed;
BKC DIST: hearing and distance to next waypoint
displayed;
WP: selected waypnint latitude or longitude.
3. WAYPOINT I to 10: allowsf~lrwaypoint
selection. Waypoints can he inserted or changed
at any time.
4. LAT LONG: Lhrcc-position latitude, longitode or
buth (alternately) displayed.
5. SLF.W: twu switches used for inscrting variation,
present position, waypoint co-ordinates and
rcsctting the tlumeric displays as required.
D1sp1u.v~
Fig. 10.21 l ) < ~ ~ >'11~ ,l l~rt ,~ v e r ~ ~ , c ~ v r , t c ~ t(I!,,
> ~ il>ccca
r~!
- .
1. Nurneiic: two rrouos of three qeven-scmlcnt
~~~~~~~~
Decca Doppler 7 1
Power: 100 mW
Frequency: 13.325 and 13.314 GHz. End
Intermediate frequency: 10.7 MHz.
Beam width: 5" in depression plane, 1 l o in broadside
plane.
Depression angle: 67'.
Modulation: none, c.w.
Number of beams: three continuous.
Along-heading velocity range to computer: -50 to
t300 knots.
Across-heading velocity range to computer : k 100
knots.
Supply: 1 15 V, 400 Hz, single-phase.
Altitude range: 0-20 000 ft over land or over water
when surface wind 2 5 knots.
Accuracy of sensor - less than 0.3%or 0-25 knots
(whichever is the greater (overland)).
Acquisition time: within 20 s.
Indicated accuracy, ground speed and drift meter:
3.5 at 100 knots; 5 at 300 knots, drift f 0-5".
Indicated accuracy, hover meter: along and across
velocities 5 1 knot, vertical velocity + 40 ft min-'.
Marconi AD 660
Power: 200 mW.
Frequency: 13.325 GHz.
Start
Modulation: f.m.c.w.
Number of beams: four, sequential. Fig. 10.23 Test conditions for simulated flight to check
Velocity range: 10-800 knots. computer (see text)
can be eliminated by slewing in the opposite direction Appendix
by the same amount t o produce a cancelling error.
To check the c o m ~ u t e r I d i s ~part
' a ~ of a Relationships Bemeen Aircraft and Earth
navigator a course must be simulated by setting
compass heading (d.g., directional gyro, selected), Co-Ordinates
drift angle, ground speed and waypoint course and
distance using appropriate slewing controls. Having As in Fig. A10.1 let i ',j', k ' be orthogonal unit
set everything up the computer is switched on for a vectors defining a right-handed co-ordinate system
timed run, at the end of which the displayed readings with the positive direction of the axis spanned by i '
should be as independently calculated. Usually a being forward along the aircraft's longitudinal axis
written procedure will give the necessary figures for and the positive direction of the axis spanned by j '
such a check but in any case they are reasonably easy being starboard along the aircraft's lateral axis.
to work out. As an example, starting with the
following:
Waypoint 1 track 335' distance 15 nautical
miles
Waypoint 2 track 065" distance 15 nautical
miles
Heading 010"
Drift 1 0" starboard
Ground speed 600 knots
at the end of the simulated two-leg flight the across Fig. A 10.1 Aircraft co-ordinates
distance should be zero, the distance flown 42
nautical miles and the time taken 4 min 14.5 s, all to As in Fig. A10.2 let i, j, k be orthogonal unit
within the tolerance laid down for the system. vectors defining a right-handed co-ordinate system
Ramp test sets have been produced for Doppler with the positive direction of the axis spanned by i
systems, usually purpose-built by the manufacturer of being forward along the aircraft's longitudinal axis
the radar and not general-purpose as are, for example,
projected on t o a plane parallel to the ground and the
VOR, DME, ILS, etc. test sets. Sometimes one will
positive direction of the axis spanned by j being
find meters with associated switches which can be
starboard along the aircraft's lateral axis projected on
used to monitor various internal voltages andlor
to a plane parallel to the ground.
currents but this is more likely on older multi-unit
equipment .
It is important for accuracy to ensure the antenna
is aligned with the aircraft's longitudinal axis. The
Doppler will interpret any slight misalignment as a
drift-angle error. Initial alignment of all antennas is
important but with a fixed antenna system once the
hole is cut in the airframe, correctly aligned, the only
cause for concern afterwards is that the antenna is
fitted the correct way round. With moving-antenna Fig. A 10.2 Earth co-ordinates
systems an alignment procedure for the antenna
mounting is carried out initially by using sighting rods Further let positive pitch be nose-up and positive
on the mounting and the aircraft. Viewing the rods roll be starboard wing-down, then from Figs. A10.3
from a distance to ensure they are in line, and then and A10.4 we have:
tightening the securing bolts through the slotted
holes in the mounting plate, will ensure that the
antenna can be subsequently changed without a need
for an alignment check - although one should be j' = j c o s R t k s i n R
carried out on major inspections. k' = -]sin R + k c o s R
since Vis the vector sum o f V i , vA1
and v;. Thus:
VR = h l / d + a ~ ; + v ~ +
where h , a and v are the magnitudes of the projection
of u on to each axis of the co-ordinate system
i.e. u = hi + aj t vk
From Figs A10.5, A10.6 and A10.7 we see that for:
beam1 h=-H a= A v= V
beam2 h= H a= A v= V
Fig. A10.3 Aircraft pitch
beam3 h= N a=-A v= V
beam 4 h = -H a = -A v= V
where H = cos 8 cos ar; A = cos 8 sin a; V = sin 8.
[en ,
sin P sin R
ii s: : -
sin P cos R
i]
Fig. A1O.S Velocities in longitudinal/lateral plane
=[yP
-sin P
cos.
cos P sin R
-sin I?
cos P cos R
If the aircraft velocity vector V has co-ordinates VH,
V A , V V with respect to i, j , k and v;, VA1,V; with
respect to i j
I, I, k r we have:
Fig. A10.6 Velocities in plane normal to longitudinal/lateral
plane
i.e. VH = VA cos P + vi
sin P sin R + V$ sin P cos R
VA = vA1cosR -v;sinR
vv = sin P + vA1cos P sin R + vp!cos P cos R
-vi
The magnitude of the relative velocity vector VR , in Now the Doppler shifts are given by f~ = 2VR flc,
the direction of any beam is the inner product of the therefore:
aircraft velocity vector V and the unit vector along
the beam centroid, u. Thus:
The Aircraft Velocity in Earth Co-Ordinates
Expressed in Terms of Doppler Shifts
Basic Principles
Radio height is measured using the basic idea of radio Thus the measurement of the beat frequency
ranging, i.e. measuring the elapsed time between determines the height since 4 . A f . f,/c is a known
transmission of an e.m. wave and its reception after constant for any particular system.
reflection from the ground. The height is given by The beat frequency is constant, for triangular
half the product of the elapsed time and the speed of modulation, except at the turn-around region twice
light: h = 492 t (fbeing the elapsed time in per cycle. Since turn-around takes place in T ps we
microseconds). have that the average beat frequency for 2 T p s is
Energy is radiated at a frequency in the band f h / 2 for the rest of the modulating cycle; the beat
4200-4400 MHz. Modulation of the carrier is frequency is constant at fh . If the average beat
Transmitted Received This will result in a vertical displacement of the graph
of the received signal in Fig. 1 1.1. The effect for a
descending aircraft (positive shift) is shown in
Fig. 11.2. As can be seen the beat frequency is
fh - fd and fh + fd for equal periods. If we take the
average over half a modulation period we get
(fh + fd + fh - fd)/2 = fh as required. This assumes
fh >fd which will be the case with a radio altimeter.
Received
A
frequency over one modulating cycle is detected we
> fh + f~
will have a measured frequency fh given by: c fh - f~
3 .
0 . t
fh = (((llfm)--2T)fh +Tfh/2)fm ?!
LC
Time
= f,,,(1 - 3Tf,,,/2) (1 1.2) $
m
With the aircraft at about 2000 ft and f, = 200 Hz
we have:
Fig. 11.2 The effect of Doppler shift on beat frequency
fh = fjl ( 1 -0.0012)
191
Multipath
Time (pulsed).
Freq. (f.rn.c.w.)
as well as the leakage signal referred t o above. In pulsed systems and lowest frequency tracking
both constant-difference frequency and pulse (spectrum filtering) in f.m.c.w . systems is used to
altimeters a tracking loop is employed to follow the retain accuracy.
changes in altitude. initially, the altitude will be The altimeter can be designed with a response time
unknown so a search mode is entered which, while in the order of a few milliseconds; however one does
seeking the correct altitude, will vary receiver gain. not normally wish to follow the smallest variations of
As previously discussed, at low altitudes the gain will the ground below. The output is usually filtered with
be low, thus while searching in the frequency a time constant of say a few tenths of a second.
(f.m.c.w.) or time (pulsed) region of the unwanted
signals the large gain reduction ensures they are weak.
The ground return is relatively strong ensuring lock-on Block Diagram Operation
to the correct signal and hence indication of the
actual radio altitude. As already mentioned there are three main approaches
Multipath signals arise since the first-time-around t o radio altimeters. Most altimeters are of the f.m.c.w.
echo will be reflected from the airframe back down type, the majority of these being conventional for the
to the ground and return as a second-tin-le-around sake of simplicity. Although tracking f.m.c.w. and
echo. While this multipath signal will be considerably pulsed systems are more complex they d o have
weaker than the required signal the height-controlled advantages over conventional f.m.c.w. as will be
gain will in part nullify this favourable situation. In appreciated from the previous paragraphs. Simplified
tracking altimeters the initial o r subsequent search block diagrams for the three types will be considered.
can be in the direction of increasing altitude so
locking on t o the correct signal first, a similar Conventional f .m.c.w.Altimeters
approach t o outbound search in DME. The transmitter in a modern equipment comprises a
Aircraft pitch and roll will mean that the beam solid-state oscillator frequency modulated at typically
centre is no longer vertical; however if the beam is 100-150 Hz rate. While most of the power
fairly broad, at least part of the transmitted energy (0-5-1 W) is radiated from a broadly directional
will take the shortest route t o the ground. Provided antenna a small portion is fed t o the mixer t o beat
receiver sensitivity is adequate there will be sufficient with the received signal.
energy received from the nearest point for accurate The echo is mixed with the transmitter sample in a
measurement. strip-line balanced mixer to produce the beat
A consequence of broad beams is that in flying frequency. Use of a balanced mixer helps in reduction
over rough terrain, reflections will be received from of transmitter noise in the receiver. The gain of the
angles other than the vertical, Since the non-vertical wide band beat frequency amplifier increases with
paths have a longer two-way travel time the spectrum frequency t o compensate for the low signal level of
of the difference frequency will be spread (ground the high frequencies (high altitude). Signal limiting
diffusion). The spectrum shape will be steep at the removes unwanted amplitude variations and gives a
low frequency end corresponding t o the correct suitable signal form for the counter.
altitude much the same as the pulse shape in a pulsed A cycle-counting frequency-measuring circuit
system will have a steep leading edgel(see Fig. 1 1.3b provides a d.c. signal t o the indicator. Basically
and c). This spectrum widening is increased by suitable switching circuits control the charging of a
aircraft roll and pitch. Leading edge tracking in capacitor so that a fixed amount of charge is
Transmitter Modulator
Gain
I
Mixer Amplifier b Discriminator h LOOP control
t I
Reference frequency
lndicator
generated for each cycle (or half-cycle) of the consequent loop action t o bring fb back to the
unknown beat frequency. With the simplest type of required rate; in doing so the indicator feed will
indicator the total charge per second (current) is change. If fb and f, are far removed, search action is
indicated on a milliammeter calibrated in feet. instigated whereby the modulator frequency (or A f )
is made to sweep through its range from low to high
Constant Difference Frequency f.m.c.w. Altimeters until lock on is achieved.
This approach is similar to a conventional f.m.c.w .
altimeter at the r.f. end. The beat frequency Pulsed Altimeters
amplifier is a narrow band with gain controlled by A simplified block diagram of a typical pulsed
the loop so that it increases with altitude. A tracking altimeter is shown in Fig. 11.6. Such altimeters are
discriminator compares the beat frequency, fb , with manufactured by, among others, Honeywell; the
an internal reference, f,;if the two are not the same, figures mentioned in the description of operation
an error signal is fed to the loop control. which follow are for the Honeywell 7500BC series.
The outputs of the loop control circuit are used to A p.r.f. generator operating at 8 kHz keys the
1 at the modulator frequency, f, (or amplitude if
deviation, A f,is controlled), t o set the gain of the
transmitter which feeds the antenna with pulse of r.f.
of 60 ns duration and frequency 4300 MHz. The
amplifier and to drive the indicator. The change in radiated peak power is about 100 W. A time reference
f, (or A f ) is such as t o make fb = f,. Obviously any signal, t o ,is fed from the transmitter to initiate a
change in height will lead t o a change in fb and precision ramp generator.
B
L /
+
-
Receiver
I v 1 *
t 7 - Reference
4- Track gate gen. Search gen. Rate circuit
S.T.C. A.G.C. A current
4
f
2
[output
PR.F. gen.
v-k-
which is compared with a reference (offset) current.
to I!
L
A Where the two currents are equal, the output of the
vR a
rate circuit (integrator) is zero, otherwise positive or
negative voltage is fed t o the range circuit. The range
I circuit (integrator) adjusts its output voltage, VR, if
Ramp its input is non-zero. Since VR determines the timing
I
I
I
I of the track gate pulse any change in VR will cause -
I the previously mentioned overlap to alter until such
Track gate I
pulse I I time as the loop is nulled, i.e. overlap current =
"idea return I I
l I
L reference current. Any change in height will
therefore result in a change in VR to bring the loop
back t o the null condition.
Automatic gain control (a.g.c.) and sensitivity time
Fig. 11.6 Pulse altimeter block d i a g ~ a m control (s.t.c.) are fed to the receiver where they
control the gain of the i.f. amps. During search-the
The ramp voltage is compared with the range a.g.c. circuits monitor the noise output of the receiver
voltage, V R , which is proportional t o the indicated and adjust its gain so as t o keep noise output constant.
height. When the ramp voltage reaches VR a track The s.t.c. reduces the gain of the receiver f o r a short
gate pulse is generated and fed t o gate B and an time, equivalent to say 50 ft after transmission, and
elongated gate pulse is fed to gate A. The detected then its control decreases linearly until a time
video pulse is also fed t o gates A and B. A further equivalent t o say 200 ft. This action prevents
gate pulse is fed t o the a.g,c. circuits. acquisition of unwanted signals, such as leakage,
Unless a reliable signal is detected within the during the search mode.
elongated gate pulse the tracklsearch circuit will During track the a.g.c. maintains the video signal in
signal the commencement of a search cycle and break the a.g.c. gate at a constant level. This is important to
the track loop by removing its reference current feed. ensure precise tracking of the received signal since any
During search the search generator drive to the range variation in amplitude would cause the area of overlap
circuit ensures that V R ,starting from a voltage to track gate and video signals t o change. At low
representing zero feet, runs out to a voltage heights on track the a.g.c. reduces the receiver gain,
representing 2500 ft. The search cycle repeats until a so helping to avoid the effects of leakage. When the
height increases the leakage signal is, of course, gated height reading of the radio altimeter it is likely that
out, giving time discrimination. there will be a signal failure detected. Since this is
due to attenuation because of excessive range, and
not a failure or degradation of the altimeter, it is
Monitoring and Self-Test desirable that no warning of failure is given and that
the pointer on the indicator is parked out of view.
The integrity of the radio altimeter output is vital, A cruise-monitoring circuit may be incorporated
particularly in automatic landing applications. Circuit which, using a delayed and attenuated feed between
redundancy and comparison is an effective way of transmitter and receiver, checks continuing
dealing with the problem. For example two separate satisfactory operation in the absence of a detectable
altitude-measuring circuits may accept a feed from received signal. Any warning to the autopilot must
the mixer and independently arrive at the aircraft's not be affected by cruise monitoring; it should be
height. Should the two heights be different by more active whenever there is a loss of r.f. or when any
than an acceptable amount, a warning signal is sent t o other failure is detected. Contrary to the above,
the indicator and any other systems to which the many radio altimeters react to a loss of signal by
height information is fed. A disadvantage of using parking the pointer and displaying the flag.
redundancy and comparison only is that no attempt is The antenna and feeder, if not properly matched
made to eliminate the cause of failure, so information to the transmitter, will give rise to a reflection which
is lost. may cause problems since it will be delayed with
Self-calibration is an approach which is able to respect to the transmitted signal. A directional
compensate for small errors. If a part of the coupling circuit may be used to monitor the reflected
transmitter output is passed through a precision delay signal and so give a warning of excessive v.s.w.r.
line the resulting signal can be used to provide a The monitoring and self-calibration circuits vary
'check height'. For example in a conventional f.m.c,w. greatly in detail and in how comprehensive a check is
system the delayed transmitter sample may be mixed carried out. All, however, on detecting a failure will
with an undelayed transmitter sample to give a beat provide a warning signal to operate a flag in the
frequency which may be compared with a suitable indicator and a similar, but usually separate, warning
reference frequency. If the two frequencies are signal to other systems, dependent on radio altitude
different the modulating signal is adjusted to bring information. In particular if a tie-in with autopilot
them in line; for example, if the beat frequency is too has been established, the warning signal will control
low, equation (1 1.1) tells us that increasing A f by an interlock circuit within the autopilot system which
increasing the modulating signal amplitude will, in prevents erroneous information dictating the flight
turn, increase the beat frequency as required. Similar path. Some manufacturers provide latched indicator
ideas may be applied t o constant-difference frequency lights on the front panel of the transmitter-receiver
f.m.c.w. and pulsed altimeters where suitable which give an indication of the area of failure.
parameters are adjusted as necessary. A self-test facility is usually provided whereby a
A self-calibration loop such as described above delay line, ideally between antennas, is switched in,
may operate continuously using what is essentially thus giving a predetermined reading on the indicator.
redundant circuitry. However in equipment where A disadvantage of such a facility is that it introduces
the altitude is measured by means of a loop, such as a electromechanical devices such as co-axial cable relays
servoed slope (controlled f,) f.m.c.w. system, we which are, of course, something else to go wrong. It
may have sequential self-calibration where the may be argued that checking that the reading on the
measuring loop is switched, perhaps three times per ground before take-off is some specified figure near
second, into self-calibrate mode. zero is adequate, but nevertheless, some form of
Checking received signal quality is a feature of in-flight test facility is usually required,
most altimeters. In a pulsed system the presence of On pushing the self-test button, providing the
detected received pulses in a gate pulse is feasible; in a equipment is operating correctly, the failure warning
constant-difference frequency altimeter the presence output should be active so causing the warning flag to
ofa spectrum centred on the required beat is checked. appear on the indicator and, more important,
With a conventional f.m.s.w. altimeter one cannot preventing the autopilot utilizing radio altimeter
check a particular part of the time or frequency information. As an extra safeguard, an interlock
domain but signal plus noise to noise ratio may be should be provided so as to prevent self-test once the
monitored. autopilot or any other system has begun to make use
When the aircraft is flying above the maximum of the radio altimeter height output.
lndicator used particularly laterally to avoid roll error in which
case leading-edge tracking (pulsed) or spectrum-filtering
As mentioned previously, a milliammeter may be used (servoed slope f.rn.c.w .) must perform adequately.
to indicate height but an alternative is a servo-driven The antennas must be mounted sufficiently far apart
pointer. A decision height (DH) facility is also to avoid excessive leakage but not so far apart as to
provided. The pilot sets the DH bug to the required produce a large parallax error at touchdown, a spacing
height reading and in doing so determines the voltage between 20 in. and 8 f t may be required.
V d , fed to a comparator. The other comparator input If the spacing between antennas, mounted
is a d .c. analogue altitude signal which if less than Vd longitudinally, is 8 ft and the midpoint of the line
will cause the DH lamp to light, so warning the pilot joining the antennas is, say, 7 ft above the ground on
that the aircraft is flying below the DH setting. A touchdown, then half the shortest distance between
block diagram of an indicator is shown in Fig. 1 1.7, the antennas via the ground will be (4' t 72)0'5 8 ft
where isolation amplifiers have been omitted for giving a parallax error of 1 ft on landing. This may be
simplicity. taken into account when calculating the residual
Ref.
Flag -
Self test t--
I
Installation
4+
flight
director
known so the correct reading on self-test may be
calculated and entered in the pilot check list and I ~ w i t c h k (i,"il:y Jt(Switch1
functional test procedure.
The antennas are broadly directional, flush-mounted
horns often being employed giving a beam width
between about 20" and 40". Broader beams may be Fig. 11.8 Radio altimeter installation
between transmit and receive when the aircraft is at interchangeability of transmitter-receivers between
touchdown, and is due to the delay in the feeders and hfferent installations.
the height of the antennas above the ground. In order In practice on a new installation, having determined
that the indicator will read zero feet o n landing the suitable positions for the antennas, a minimum cable
installation must be calibrated. Various methods have length for feasible t.r. location will be found.
been used, by far the most common being that laid Equation (1 1.4) can now be used to decide the AID
down in ARINC 552A; AID is defined by the formula: and t o calculate the cable lengths. ARINC 552A and,
usually, manufacturers' installation manuals provide a
AID = P + K (Ct + Cr) (1 1.4)
graph from which cable length can be read off. As an
where : example consider P = 10 ft, minimum total cable
P is total minimum path length between transmit length = 10 ft and K = 1-5. We have
and receive antennas via the ground when the P + K (Ct + Cr) = 25 ft so the 2 0 ft AID cannot be
aircraft is in the touchdown position (minimum used. If we choose 40 then total cable length is
path length is specified t o avoid parallax error); (40 - 10)/1.5 = 20 ft, whereas with 57 we have
K is the ratio of the speed of light to the speed of 31.3 ft. One should be careful, when using a graph,
propagation of the co-axial cable (typically 1.5); to ensure that it corresponds t o the type of cable
Ct is the transmitter feeder length; being used (RG - 9/U in ARINC 552A) and further
C, is the receiver feeder length. check the axes which may be total cable length or
(AID is not in fact aircraft installation delay each cable and total path or antenna height (each
since AID is an elapsed time whereas the cable vs. antenna height in ARINC 552A).
right-hand side of (1 1.4) is in feet. A more
accurate term would be residual altitude.)
Calibration is achieved by cutting the cables to a lnterf ace
length which gives an AID of 2 0 , 4 0 or 57 ft (figures
of 40, 57 and 8 0 ft are quoted in draft proposals from Were it not for the use which is made of radio altitude
ARINC in 1978). The transmitter-receiver is bench information by other systems, it is doubtful whether
calibrated for the 57 ft AID standard. Grounding one many civil aircraft would carry radio altimeters. The
of three pins on the t.r. plug by means of a jumper outputs available are height, rate of change of height,
external to the unit selects the appropriate zero-bias trip signals and validity (flag or warning) signal. Some
adjustment to give the 2 0 , 4 0 or 57 ft AID as of these will be fed to the autoland/autopilot system,
required. The result of choosing this method is the g.p.w.s. and a flight director.
Most frequently used are a d.c, analogue of aircraft
height wherever a system needs to continuously
A monitor radio height and, essential, a switched,
fail-safe validity signal (invalid low). The rate signal,
40 - i.e. rate of change of height, may be derived in the
system utilizing the height signal, but if provided will
take the form of a phase-reversing a.c. analogue signal
(ARINC 552A). The trips are switchable d.c. voltages,
switching taking place when the aircraft transits
through a pre-set height, the DH bug is sometimes
called a pilot set trip. Again trip signals may be
generated in those systems using the height analogue
signal.
Autoland or blind-landing systems must have radio
height information which will be used t o progressively
reduce the gain of the glideslope signal amplifier (not
radio) in the pitch channel after the aircraft passes
over the outer marker, and will also be used to
generate trip signals within the autoflare computer.
The following is a brief summary of events with radio
heights:
Fig. 11.12 An AID calibration chart (k = 1.5) 140 ft (a) radio altimeter interlock switched in;
Fig. 11.9 ALA-SlA (coortery nendix Avionics 1)ivisiun)
DH ind.
Indicator
,~eeale
A I ~dlsplay
tape
Flag
AIC ref.
symbol
DH adjust
and self
test button
Multiple Installations
All-weather landings will only be safe if information
fed to the autoland system is re!iable. To achieve Fig. 11.14 Dual-installation modulation frequencies
reliability of radio height a multiple installation is (100 and 105 Hz)
Control and
Flight data 4 - display unit Conventional
storage unit instrumentation
Navigation
Automatic data computer unit Electronic, moving
entry unit
Map display
Possible
sensor inputs
The computer, using stored data and inputs from a No at tempt has been made here to give a definitive list
variety of sensors, calculates the aircraft position of displayed data since there is considerable variation.
absolutely in terms of latitude and longitude and also The data required for the computer to perform its
relatively in terms of deviation from the desired flight function are of three types and can be input to the
path. A variety of display formats may be used as system in three different ways. For regularly flown
follows. routes 'hard' data such as location, elevation and
frequency of VORTAC beacons and airports,
Digital readout on display and control unit: standard departure and arrival routes (SIDS and
I present position, latitude/longitude or STARS) etc. will be stored in a flight data storage
unit (FDSU), typically on magnetic tape. Waypoint (1979) but here space will only allow a brief
position, 'soft' data, may be entered or amended in discussion of VORIDME-based RNAV, with
flight by means of a keyboard and 'scratchpad' examples, and ARINC Characteristic 583-1. Future
display on the control and display unit (CDU). developments depend on use of microcomputers and
Real-time data from navigation and air data sensors utilization of flexible c .r .t .-based display systems (see
are continuously available for input from a variety of Chapter 13).
sources.
The data relating to waypoints are 'soft' in the
sense that they can be amended but they may be VOR/DME-Based RNAV Principle
stored as 'hard' data on a magnetic or punched card
and input via an automatic data entry unit (ADEU). The basic idea is simple; signals from existing VOR
This facility is useful since an operator could have the and DME co-located beacons are used to give range
waypoint data for all regularly flown routes recorded and bearing, not to the station but to a waypoint
on cards, the correct one being chosen for a particular specified by its range and bearing from the station.
flight. To achieve this the RNAV triangle (Fig. 12.2) has to
Since the information from the sensors is in be continuously solved.
analogue form analogue to digit a1 conversation We have:
(AID) is necessary before the computer can handle it;
AID circuits may be in the area navigation system p l : distance between beacon and aircraft;
itself or in the systems which feed it. 0 : magnetic bearing from beacon to aircraft;
The form of area navigation systems is by no p,: distance between beacon and waypoint;
means finalized, and with the variety of inputs and 02: magnetic bearing from beacon to waypoint;
outputs possible it seems unlikely that functional p,: distance between aircraft and waypoint;
standardization will be achieved to the same extent as 6 3 : magnetic bearing from aircraft to waypoint.
it has with other systems such as ILS, VOR, ADF, The quantities p and 6 are known from normal
etc. One could write a book o n those RNAV and VOR/DME operation, the quantities p2 and 62 are
VNAV (vertical navigation) equipments available now entered by the pilot, hence two sides and an included
DME
/
&
/ "2 \
+ -------+-----
Waypoint 4'3
'7~
k = 1,2
Yk = Pk cos Ok
If ( y 2- y l ) / ( x 2- x l ) > 0 , e 3 is in either the
/
1 \
north-east or south-west quadrant; if
1'3'3 (or
0yor
2south-east
- 1y80,
1 ) / (while ) <-0ifx, yel 23=is
x 2quadrant,
-xif, x2 - y, 8l either
0 in e3
=is0,either 90
theisnorth-west
either
or
270'. The ambiguity can be resolved by observing
that O3 will only change by a small amount for
P I ~ I successive calculations. An example is given by
1
2'b2
Figure 12.5 where we have:
Fig. 12.3 Vector solution of KNAV. triangle 8 , = 9 0 , 0 2 = 180, p , = 40, p2 = 30; so:
xl = 40 sin 90 = 40, y , = 40 cos 90 = 0
The solution of the triangle can be found by x2 = 30sin 1 8 0 = 0 , y 2= 30cos 1 8 0 = - 3 0
p 3 = ( ( - 4 0 ) ~t ( - 3 0 ) ~ ) =~ 50
'~
analogue methods as in one of the earliest RNAV
8 , = tan-' (-301-40) = 36-87 or
computers for the general aviation market, the
k n g KN74. The vectors PI/& and ~ 2 / 0 2are 180 t 36-87 = 216.87.
represented by square waves whose amplitudes are If the previously calculated 8 was 2 16 then the new
proportional t o p and p2 and whose phases represent O 3 is 216.87.
to 0 and O 2 respectively. From Fig. 12.3 we see
that:
Y axis (N)
= /J COS 0
Fig. 12.5 RNAV. triangle example
X axis (E)
A
Tune
I
V
RNAV. RNAV.
dist. brg .
Encoding altimeter Comm. / Nav.
Although here we are concerned mainly with the KTS/TTS: displays ground speed (BRGIKTS window)
RNAV computer, a brief description of the other and time t o station in minutes (DSTITTS window)
units will be given. The CN-2011A (Fig. 2.2) is a to waypoint in RNAV or APR mode or to
panel-mounted unit containing two v.h.f. VOR/DME station in VOR/LOC mode.
communications transmitter-receivers, two The SBY and ACT windows display the number
VOR/LOC receivers, an audio selection panel, (0-9) of the standby and active waypoint. The
glideslope receiver (optional), marker receiver 'IN' legend is illuminated if course shown (CRS
(optional) and various system controls (a less window) is inbound while 'OUT' legend (below
comprehensive CN-2012A may be used with the 'IN' legend) is illuminated if course shown is
NP-2041A). The IN-2014A indicator is discussed and out bound.
illustrated in Chapters 4 and 5 (Figs 4.7 and 5.3).
The Mode selector controls the mode of operation
The 1U-2016A remote-mounted interface unit
converts VOR/LOC and glideslope outputs to levels as follows:
that satisfy HSI and/or RMI requirements and OFF: self-explanatory.
performs other functions not of interest in this VORILOC : conventional navigation, the waypoints
context. The DME, encoding altimeter, HSI and are the stations.
RMI require no comment here, having been dealt RNAV: waypoints are remote from the associated
with elsewhere. The calculators are simply modified stations. LRft/Right course deviation is linear
to attach a plug-in connector. within 100 nautical miles, full-scale deflection
(f.s.d.) being 5 nautical miles, from 100 nautical
Display and Control miles out deviation is angular.
Figure 12.9 illustrates the front panel of the APR: as RNAV but linear deviation up to 25 nautical
NP-204 1A. There are seven separate digital displays miles, f,s.d. being 1.25 nautical miles.
each employing gas-discharge seven-segmen t indicators. 'TEST': specified display for satisfactory operation.
The quantity displayed in each of the windows
depends on the position of the Display Selector Data is entered by means of the keyboard or by
magnetic card reader. Of the 16 keys 11 are dual
switch and, for some of the displays, the Mode
Selector switch. With the Display Selector set to: function e.g. FREQ.11, NAV.21. (decimal point), etc.
Data entry must always be in the correct sequence
SBY: standby waypoint parameters shown in FREQ., as follows:
t
BRGIKTS., DSTITTS, EL XlOO and CRS
windows. 1. press SBY WPT, FREQ., COM.l, COM.2,
ACT: active waypoint parameters shown as for SBY. BRG, DST, EL, CRS, NAV.1, NAV.2, ADF
BRGIDST: displays bearing (BRG/KTS window) and or XPR (transponder) key as required to select
distance (DSTITTS window) to active waypoint in appropriate address for data;
RNAV or APR mode or t o VOR/DME station in 2. press number keys to enter data;
VOR/LOC mode. 3. check data in appropriate window and if correct
Fig. 12.9 NI'~ZiI4lh ( c < ~ u r t cIsl m
~ d i \ .\uliilrici L>na~on)
1 ELLAY1
CONTROL
SERIAL
ECDI
DATA
Rtf
I1
PARALlEL
TUNING
DATA
IAR
I
W A Y POINT
BEAR LNG
111RI
-
KEY BOARD
A l l ITUDC- ALTITUDE INTERFACE DISPLAY
INPUT INTERFACE SELFCTDR
INTERFACE
I
1 , I
POWER
SUPPLY
SYSTEM POWER
from the keyboard, selection switch, card reader, nav. long as a memory hold voltage (external) is
receiver, DME receiver and altimeter. The input data maintained. In addition there is 2K bits of store in
is subjected to arithmetic and logical operations and volatile RAM w h c h provides a temporary storage for
then output in a suitable form to the ECDI, DME, data from the CPU, distance to waypoint, bearing to
comm.]nav. and Interface units. The operations on waypoint, etc. Volatile memory is lost (dumped)
data are performed by the CPU which obtains when the equipment is switched off.
instructions and/or data from ROM, RAM or I/O
ports. The list of instructions (program) is in ROM, Inputs Waypoint parameters enter the microcomputer
the CPU storing the address of the current and next via the keyboard or card-reader interface. When a key
instruction in internal registers. An instruction may is pressed the keyboard interface sets latches in an
be to carry out an arithmetic operation as part of the IJO port which remain set until serviced by the
solution of one of the triangles or to read data out of, microprocessor during an appropriate service loop.
or write data into, an 1/0 port. A key can be pressed 60 ms after the previous one.
The ROM provides a total non-volatile (permanent) The card-reader interface raises the signal level to that
memory of 96K bits (96 X 1024 = 98 304 bits). This suitable for TTL operation and generates an Interrupt
storage space is used for the programs for the four signal which causes the microprocessor to break the
basic service loops VORILOC, 'TEST', RNAV. and service loop in progress while it reads data into RAM.
APR. The total non-volatile RAM is 2K bits Data from the VOR receiver is in the form of two
providing storage for the parameters for 10 waypoints. constant amplitude square waves, reference (ref.)
The data in the non-volatile RAM in only retained as phase and variable (var .) phase. The phase difference
between the ref. phase and var. phase signals waypoint are serially shifted out to the ECDI for
representing the bearing t o the VOR station. A display in the course and distance window.
voltage controIled oscillator (v.c.0.) is phase-locked to Comm./nav. frequency management is achieved by
the ref. phase using an exclusive -OR type phase parallel b.c.d. address and data outputs for tuning
comparator. (If two square waves, of equal frequency purposes.
and phase, switching between '0' and '1' are applied The bearing t o the waypoint is fed to the ECDI
to an exclusive -OR gate the output will be zero since and also the interface unit in the form of the RNAV
0 0 0 = 0 and 1 0 1 = 0 ; if not in phase the mean level 30 Hz ref. phase and RNAV 30 Ilz var. phase derived
of the output will be non-zero). The ref. phase-locked from the waypoint bearing output LSI and waypoint
signal is fed t o the var. phase-lock loop where it is variable d/a converter. The feed to the waypoint
phase-compared with the var. phase, the difference bearing LSI from the I/O ports is in digital format.
controlling the repetition rate of pulses from a second The ECDI processes the RNAV 30 Hz ref. and 30 Hz
v.c.0. The VOR LSI (large-scale integrated circuit) var. phases to produce leftlright deviation signals to
counts the pulses from the variable rate v.c.0. to drive the 'bar'. The interface unit similarly provides
obtain the bearing which is fed to the I/O ports as a leftlright deviation signals for the HSI (and possibly
four-digit b.c.d. number two digits at a time (since autopilot).
data bus is only 8 bits wide). The display intensity control sets the intensity
The DME distance data input is in the form of a level of the seven segment indicators and front panel
pulse pair where the time interval between pulses annunciators in accordance with the setting of the
represents the distance (12.36 ps per nautical mile). 'DIM' control on the comm./nav. unit. A common
The DME LSI converts this time-interval into a 'DIM' control is used for all units of the EX 2000
four-digit b.c.d. number which, as in the case of the system to ensure uniform intensity of lighting.
VOR LSI output, requires two readings to transfer
the data through 110 ports.
An encoding altimeter feeds data via buffers King KDE 566
(interface) to set latches in the 110 ports. The data
changes in 500 ft increments since the C 1, C2 and C4 Introduction
lines from the encoding altimeter are not connected The KDE 566 is an automatic data input/output
(see Chapter 8). system (ADIOS) used with the KCU 565A control
The flag signals of external equipment (e.g. nav. unit (Fig. 12.12) forming part of the KNR 665
and DME) are monitored by the flag interface. If an digital RNAV system illustrated in Fig. 12.1 1. The
invalid signal is detected the flag interface output is complete system, which may have more units than
transferred through I/O ports to the computer. those shown, will not be described since a system with
Finally, the mode and display selector interface similar capabilities has already been discussed.
translate the information relating t o the position of We have not considered an ADEU in any detail so
the appropriate switches into logic levels that are a brief description of the KDE 566 follows. In fact
applied to the I/O ports. the unit is called an ADIOS rather than an ADEU
since the magnetic cards may be recorded by the
Outputs Data to be displayed on the front panel is unit using data from the KCU 565A memory as well
transferred through the 1 / 0 ports to the display data as providing the data entry or input function from
control. The data consists of b.c.d. address, b.c.d. pre-recorded cards.
data and decimal point. The display data control The magnetic cards are about the size of a business
decodes the data and provides the necessary cathode card and can store the waypoint parameters (frequency,
and anode drives for the gas discharge displays. course inbound, course outbound, and waypoint
The appropriate data will not be displayed but will distance and bearing from the beacon) for up to ten
be replaced by dashes if a flag signal is detected. For waypoints. A number of cards can be prepared for
example the BRG/DST flag in RNAV mode will show frequently travelled routes. The route (from-to) can
for any of the following: nav. flag, DME search, DME be noted on each card and the top right corner
test, DME not frequency paired with nav, 1, loss of clipped off to fix the data so that they cannot be
nav. or DME input signals or ILS frequency selected. changed.
The RNAV flag signal generated by the computer
must also be fed to appropriate external equipment. Block Diagram Operation
The selected inbound or outbound course of the The KDE 566 operation is best explained in terms of
active waypoint and the computer distance t o the its modes of operation which are monitor, record,
I
I Pwr
Memorv
Record Fnter
' I
Serial t data
7
KCU 565A
memorvlcontrolldisplay
DME dist.
VOAIILS Rx's
computer
bgita1
distance
j r idist. spdltts
indicator
KN 581 RMI
Nav, ind.
Power supply
lamp to shine through onto a photoresistor in the belt by magnetizing the ferromagnetic oxide in one of two
position detector input. directions, depending on whether 0 or a 1 is to be
When the card has built up speed the mode control recorded. A system counter is advanced one count
is notified by the position detector that all is ready each time the memory is clocked. Between writing 4
for recording. The data is clocked out of the four bits (at a time) the card advances and previously
shift registers to four magnetic heads which record recorded data is erased. After 256 counts the data
the digital data a t the appropriate points o n the card has all been recorded and the system returns t o the
monitor mode.
ENTER which by this stage was n o longer 'simple', and the
A card, on which a set of data are recorded, is pushed Mark 3 system should be combined, hence the
fully home in the slot closing a microswitch so publication in 1974 of the ARINC Characteristic
positioned that it will close even though the corner of 583-1 Mark 13 area navigation system. The remainder
the card is clipped. When the enter button switch, in of this section will be used to briefly describe the
series with the microswitch, is pressed, the motor Mark 13 system.
drive system is started and the card travels outward. The Mark 13 is a three-dimensional system designed
When the card reaches a position slightly before where for use in all types of commercial transport aircraft.
data recording began the belt position detector The basic information required for lateral and vertical
notifies the mode control when then enables all enter navigation is derived from a mix of VOR/DME and
circuitry. INS data plus altitude from an air data computer or
The magnetic heads read data from the cards since similar source. If INS data are not available
the changing magnetic field, as the card passes over a VORIDME fixing with air datatmagnetic heading
magnetized part, will cause a current t o flow in the smoothing is used in which case loss of VOR/DME
coil wrapped around the head core. Because of the data leads t o an air data based dead reckoning mode.
way in which the data were recorded this current The parameters of at least twenty waypoints are
occurs in pulses, positive or negative depending o n provided for using manual or automatic entry. Two
whether 1 or 0 was recorded. Each of the four heads successive waypoints define a great circle leg with
feeds an amplifier and thence the threshold detectors respect to which navigation and steering command
which provide digital data outputs. The digital data or deviation signals are fed t o conventional indicators
are fed t o the data decoders which enter the data into to give lateral and vertical commands and in addition
the correct memory channel sequentially. The are produced for use by the AFCS. Both parallel
four-channel count multiplexer gathers the counts track and vertical positioning at any point on the
from all four channels producing one count output track are capabilities provided by the system; in the
for the counter and decoder. latter case visual and aural altitude alert signals are
When the card has travelled past the end of the generated.
data tracks the belt position detector initiates the The Mark 13 system comprises two units, a
error check phase via the mode control. The counter navigation computer and a control and display unit,
and decoder output is examined to determine if with the possible addition of a flight data storage
4 X 256 = 1024 bits have been counted. If the count unit. Processing of the inputs and generating the
is correct the mode control gates the master clock to outputs should be performed by the NCU while the
memory, actuates the readlwrite line to the KCU CDU provides the pilot/system interface including
565A and enters the contents of memory into the control of the INS when used as an RNAV source.
KCU 565A memory. After data transfer is complete The system inputs are as follows:
the KDE 566 returns to the monitor mode.
VOR ornni-bearing: analogue or digital;
DME slant range: pulse pair, variable spacing;
ERROR
If the count from the counter and decoder is not
INS: present position latitude and longitude;
1024 the mode control initiates a flashing red error
INS: true heading and velocity (N/S and E/W);
light and returns to the monitor mode. No attempt is altitude: analogue or digital;
made to enter data into the KCU 56SA. barometric correction: only if analogue altitude
uncorrected;
TAS: synchro, a.c. analogue or digital for data
smoothing and d/r;
Standardization magnetic heading: synchro;
VOR warning: discrete high or low level;
The first meetings of the AEEC area navigation DME warning: discrete ;
sub-committee were held in 1969 t o discuss an ATA
altitude warning: discrete ;
statement previously prepared. Three possible TAS warning: discrete ;
systems for airline use were proposed: a simple Mark magnetic heading warning: discrete;
1, a sophisticated Mark 2 and a Mark 3 which involved program control: pins wired t o choose input
an expansion of INS. The ARINC characteristics for options;
the Mark 1 and 2 systems were published in 1970; a.c. reference phase: 26 V 400 Hz;
however, before publication of the Mark 3 go-around: discrete from AFCS;
characteristic it was decided that the Mark 1 system,
altitude alert cancel: discrete; omni-bearing t o waypoint: sin/cos from four-wire
Mach number: synchro or digital; resolver;
IAS: synchro; relative bearing t o waypoint: synchro;
ILS localizer/glideslope deviation: d.c . analogue; crosstrack deviation: high- or low-level d.c. analogue;
localizer failure: discrete; vertical track deviation: as crosstrack;
glideslope failure: discrete; lateral track angle error: synchro or digital (b.c.d.);
AFCS engaged: discrete; drift angle: synchro or digital (b.c.d.);
autothrottle engaged: discrete; lateral track change alert: 28 V d.c.;
digital clock input: ARlNC 585. vertical track change alert: 28 V d.c.:
lateral steering (roll command): a.c. or d.c.
The system outputs are as follows: analogue;
the syrr~bolicrunway and by digital readout. Decision pointers on a partial scale near the top of the display.
height sclcctcd and operating modes arc also Gnlund speed (from INS), a three-segment trend
displayed. The i'acility cxisls, with an EADI, Tor vector (projected path), wind direction and speed,
blanking of scales not in use. planned flifht hetween narncd waypoi~lts,vertical
The flexihility of a compulcr.driven c.r.l. display is deviation, range scale, operating mode and weather
fully utili7,ed in ;lie EHSI hy providing for operatiin radar data are all shown. A variety of colours arc
in three moties: man disnlav.
, ., , full comnass disnlav
, , or used 10 avoid cur~l'usiol~in the internretatinn of the
VORIILS rr~odcwiih a full or partial cornpass rose. large amount o f data in a 4-7 X 5.7 in, display. A
Weather mdar data can also be displayed making a conventional RMI provides hack-up.
dedicated weather radar display an optional extra. The FMCS will mix stored data and data from
When p~,escntirl.gdata in niap form the display is several radio and non-radio sensors to provide
orientated track up; a vertical track line with range position fixing, oplirnized fliglitpath and speed
marks joins a synibolic aircraft at bottom centre tn a guidance, drive fnr llic LAD1 and EHSI and also
boxed digital readout u f t h c track at top ccntrc. hardwale and software monitoring to assist in
Heading and preset course are given by distinctive trouble-sl~ooting. A four-million.11it disk rrlelllory
system will be employed to provide storage o f data easier and safer interpretation. Work has been done
such as location of airports and VOR stations, by NASA usirig a Boeing 737 in which the EADI
selected company routes, standard departure and display .format is such as to give the pilot the next
arrival routes (SIDS and STARS) and aircrafvengine best thing to the VFR view when landing (Flight,
parameters. Communication with the system is 11 September 1976).
provided by a 14-line c.r.t. display with 24 characters As conventional electromechanical instruments
per line, for display of navigation and performance give way t o c.r.t.s so c.r.t.s will one day give way to
data, and also a full alphanumeric keyboard plus solid-state devices. Litton Systems of Toronto have
dedicated keys. recently announced ( 1979) a 3 X 4 in. display made
up of nearly 50 000 LEDs. The matrix is
cornput er-driven to provide the required display.
British Aerospace Advanced Flight Deck
Work by the British h r c r a f t Corporation and Hawker The advantages over the c.r.t. are reduced size and
Siddeley Aviation on the evolution of flight decks into longer life 'b'f')'
a form which would include integrated electronic dis- A display technique particularly suitable for ILS
plays began back in the early 1970s. The results were approaches is that of a head-up display. Such
sufficiently encouraging to commence, jointly, an displays are commonplace on modern military
advanced flight deck program in January 1975. Elec- aircraft. When landing using panel-mounted
tronic displays and controls have been studied with instruments the pilot must look up to establish visual
regard to engineering feasibility and human factors. contact. If such contact is not possible looking down
again to return t o instruments could create problems
The program has come up with an exciting view
of fast assimilation of the data on instruments. With
of the deck of the future' The main
a head-up display the approach guidance symbols are
consists of seven 9 in. c.r.t.s split into two discrete
projected by some arrangement of optical devices so
sub*s~stems.Three 3 ' ' (S2 and S3)
that they can be viewed through the windscreen.
located on the instrument panel present aircraft
Civil airliners will be fitted with such displays (e.g.
systems and engine information while four displays
Airbus A300) although it should be noted that with
(F1 9 F2, F3 and F4) two each side of the pane', two pilots one could be eyes-up and one eyes-down
present flight information. In addition, two further
during approach to avoid an abortive attempt to
c.r.t .s (Dl and D2) are provided, one each side of the
acquire visual contact.
main instrument panel, for documentation, e.g.
checklist, performance data, etc.
The flight information displays are an EADI and
an EHSI. Presentation of information is in a Multi-System Packages
conventional format, the EADI being similar to an
AD1 but with information in both analogue and With the advent of micro-electronics and the
digital form surrounding the AD1 earth/ground circle. consequent small unit size, it is possible to bring
The EHSl can present a conventional HSI type various systems together in one package. In the days
display with full compass rose and lateral deviation of valves we had one system - many boxes, whereas
bar or a rnap-like display complete with route and now it is possible to think in terms bf one box - many
weather radar data. Like the EADI the EHSI has systems. In fact we have already discussed examples
flight information either side of the main display but of multi-s~stempackages in Chapter 12- As a further,
in this case in digital form only. A facility to switch and ~et-to-be-im~lemented, example, consider a
the display from one c.r.t. t o the other will help DoppIer radar antenna. There is n o reason why the
should a malfunction occur. In addition there are electronics for the Doppler radar, an inertial sensor,
conventional back-up instruments. a radio-navigation sensor, such as Loran or Omega or
VORIDME, and a navigation computer should not all
AIternative Instrumentation be mounted on top of the fixed Doppler antenna
The Boeing and British Aerospace developments forming a single package. Control, display and radio
discussed above do not depart from the conventional sensor antennas would all need to be remote in such an
display format for the main part of the EADI and the
EHSI display. Obviously in using electronic displays
showing computer-generated symbols a wide range of
possibilities for display formats exist; however, any Data Link
departure from convention would require pilot
retraining and would have to be justified in terms of A two-way digitally encoded automatic information
link has heen the suhject of periodic discussion by project paper 5x6 provides detailed information on a
various working groups for over 30 years. If and possible system wirh an entertaining appendix un the
when the systcm will bc implemented arid what r.f. history of a u t ~ ~ r n a lcurru~~u~lications
ic for aircraft hy
channcls will he uscd if any arc still ur~knuwn.AKINC the then Chainnan of the AliEC, W.T. Carnes.
In fact an ATC automatic data link does exist in system will provide for a transfer of more
the form of the secondary radar surveillance radar information than is possible with current SSR, enable
system (Chapter 8) which will probably be extended more accurate and reliable trachng by ATC and so
some time in the future (see ADSELlDABS below). help in the development of automated approach
Here we are only concerned with a two-way control systems (CAAS - computer assisted approach
-
automatic data link utilizing v.h.f., h.f. or Satcom sequencing) and further, form an indispensable part
for universal use. of a proposed beacon-based collision avoidance
system (BCAS).
Participating aircraft
A memorandum of understanding was signed by
the FAA (for the USA) and the CAA (for the UK)
early in 1975 to allow for future development of
selectively addressed SSR systems on a co-operative
basis. We are still some way off an ICAO standard
system, but whenever it comes it will be compatible
with SSR so that existing airborne equipment may
continue t o be used.
ARINC Characteristic 7 18 (November 1978 -
draft) lays down a specification for a transponder
rf = 1030 MHz
I
I
I
Phase reversal Phase reversal
position bit = 1 position bit = 0
before the sync. phase reversal. For an aircraft fitted leading edge of the first preamble pulse and uses pulse
with a DABS transponder the received f5 amplitude position modulation (p.p.m.) at a data rate of 1 M
will exceed the amplitude of the data block hence the bit/s. In the 1 ys interval allotted to each data bit a
transponder will not decode the d.p.s.k. modulated 0.5 ys pulse is transmitted in the first half if the data
signal. An ICAO transponder equipped aircraft will bit is a '1' and in the second half if a '0'. The data
not reply t o a DABS interrogation since the P2 pulse block is thus 56 or 112 ys long. The r.f. is 1090 MHz
will trigger the SLS suppression circuit. as for the ICAO SSR.
A DABS transponder will generate ICAO replies There are four types of interrogation from an
(12 information pulses) in response to ICAO ADSEL/DABS interrogator all of which have the
interrogations and DABS replies in response to all-call same preamble. The all-call data block contains a
and DABS interrogations; DABS transponders also sequence of 28 ones in a 56-bit block, the all-call reply
generate squitter at random intervals to allow contains the aircraft address, details of data
acquisition without interrogation (similar t o DME interchange equipment on board and parity bits for
auto-standby, Chapter 7). error-checking purposes. A surveillance interrogation
A DABS reply is only similar to an interrogation in of 56 bits contains address and parity bits and also a
so far as it contains a preamble followed b y a data repeat of the height information received on the
block of 56 or 112 bits. The preamble consists of four ground. An aircraft recognizing the address in a
0-5 ps pulses with the spacing between the first pulse surveillance interrogation will reply with a 56-bit data
and the second, third and fourth pulses being 1-0,3-5 block containing the altitude or identity. The
and 4.5 ps respectively, measured from leading edge remaining interchanges of data are in 112-bit blocks
to leading edge. The data block begins 8 ps after the both ways, a comm.-A interrogation giving rise to a
8 crs 56 or 112 p s
4
Preamble
k
A
1
Data Block
+
- -
0.5
-
4-4
0.5
-
*--+ I I 1
Bit 1
r-T-ri-7-1
Bit 2 1 :itl
-r-ri-T-i
/Bit N I
11 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 I0I 1 1I 1I0 1I1 1I 0 1l
- - . - I I I I I I ,
1 I I II
,
I
0 1 3.5 4.5
I I I I ! i
P.P.M. example
101 ..... 011
comm.-B reply and a comm.-C interrogation giving simplex system employing frequency modulation
rise to a comm.-D reply. The A-B interchange involves would be used with uplink and downlink frequencies
altitude or identity as well as other data, and can be separated by between 4 and 10 MHz. Aircraft
used for tracking purposes while the C-D interchange Satcom. antennas would be broadly directional,
contains an extended-length message segment of 80 possibly with switchable lobes.
bits in both directions. One thing not yet decided is The accuracy of any Satnav. system will depend on
the method by which data will be transferred into the knowledge of satellite position and so a number of
and out of the transponder from various sensors and tracking stations are required on the ground. Since
to various displays via a suitable processor. Two the airborne equipment must have the data relating to
methods are proposed for the interface, firstly using the satellite position a link must be established
ARINC 429 digital information transfer system between the tracking station and the aircraft, most
(DITS) format, secondly a synchronous 1 M bitlsec probably via the satellite. Knowing the position of
interface which would allow data requested in an the satellite the airborne equipment must establish the
uplink to be contained in the next downlink. aircraft's position relative t o the satellite in order to
The system has only been briefly described; the obtain a fix.
reader is referred t o ARINC 7 18 for further details. The various methods by which a fix can be
obtained involve some combination of measurement
of angular elevation of a satellite, range of a satellite
Satcom. and Satnav. and rate of change of range of a satellite (Doppler
shift). Direction of arrival of a signal at the satellite
There are many satellites in orbit around the earth may be found using interferometer methods whereby
being used for relaying telephone and television the satellite antennas are mounted on long booms
signals, weather sensing, observation and military (say 50 ft) and the phase difference in signals arriving
navigation and communication. (For a comprehensive at the antennas is measured. Range measurement
review see Flight, 28 October 1978.) Unfortunately may be obtained in a similar way to that employed in
none so far are used by civil aircraft and it is not DME. In a range-rate system the Doppler shift of a
known (by the author) when such use will occur. signal from the satellite is recorded over a period of
However, brief comments can be made on the say 10 min, then the aircraft position can be computed
principles involved. from the time of zero Doppler shift and the slope of
A possible v.h.f. Satcom. system is described in the frequencyltime graph at zero shift.
ARINC Characteristic 566. The satellite is simply a The range-rate method can provide an accurate fix
repeater for voice and data communications between about once every 13 h , using a satellite in a 500-mile
air and ground. If the satellite is at synchronous circular orbit, obviously for aircraft a large number of
altitude (22 000 nautical miles) the service area would satellites must be used to reduce the time-interval
be 41 per cent of the earth's surface. A double-channel between fixes. The aircraft velocity and altitude
must be accurately known during the time taken to simulations showed that both systems would d o the
job and the choice must have been difficult. One
obtain a fix as the satellite makes a pass over the line
of closest approach to the aircraft. The US Navy use factor w h c h helped swing the vote must have been a
such a system for surface ship navigation. reduction in cost of the TRSB system brought about
Angle-only , range -only or angle-range methods by the development of cost-minimized phased-array
may be used. In these systems, by using a two-way techniques (COMPACT) by Hazeltine. A conventional
link between the aircraft and a ground station via the electronic beam scanning array consists of many
satellite, the computation of aircraft position can be radiating elements each of which is fed by an
carried out on the ground, the data being sent to both electronic phase shifter. Changing the phase of the
aircraft and ATC. A range-only system which should r.f. energy radiated by each element causes the far
come on line in the 1980s is the Global Navigation field beam to scan. With COMPACT there is nearly a
System (NAVSTAR.) using 24 satellites; however use 4: 1 reduction in the number of phase shifters each
may be restricted to military aircraft and ground of which feeds all radiating elements through a
personnel. patented passive network. The result is accurate
The frequencies involved for Satnav. are likely to beam scanning with low side lobes at a reduced cost.
be v.h.f. or around 1+6GHz. It will obviously be The principles of TRSB are quite simple. Consider
advantageous if a group of satellites could be used for a radio beam scanned rapidly to and fro; an
both communication and navigation. appropriately tuned receiver on an aircraft within
range of the beam source would receive two pulses in
one complete scan, as the beam swept past twice.
Microwave Landing System (MLS) The pulse spacing is related t o the angle made
between the centroid of the scanned sector and the
The long, controversial and heated argument about line joining aircraft to beam source. Note that the
which system will be adopted as the successor to ILS system as described is ambiguous since the computed
ended in 1978 with the choice of a time-referenced angle could be either side of the centroid of the
scanning beam (TRSB) system. The requirement was scanned sector. Ambiguity may be removed by
for a landing system that would allow for a variety of knowing which is the 'to' and which is the 'fro' scan,
curved or straight-line approaches within a large or by knowing the scan cycle start time, i.e. the
volume of airspace and that would not suffer to the commencement of the 'to' half cycle. For accuracy
same extent as ILS from multipath effects. precision timing circuits must be used.
The main contenders by the time the final decision For lateral and vertical guidance azimuth scanning
was made were the USA with TRSB and the UK with and elevation scanning beams are required. Preamble
a conlmutated Doppler. Demonstrations and instructions must be used to identify the beams which
Scan cycle A
Signal I I
strength I
I
I
I
I 1
1
I
A t related to 0 I
Interferometry
A basic interferometer consists of two antennas
feeding receivers, the outputs of which are compared
in phase. If the radiated wave arrives from a direction
other than normal to the plane of the two-antenna
array then the energy arriving at one antenna will
Pig. 13.7 Two antenna interferometer
have travelled further than that arriving at the other
by a distanced. The phase difference between the normal, given by sin 0 = O,X/Q, 2X/P, etc. Thus with
antenna signals will depend on d which, in turn, P = 100 cm, say, and h = 6 cm, then for zero phase
depends on the direction of arrival. difference 0 could be 0,3.44,6.89, etc. degrees.
A two-antenna interferonleter is of little use since To resolve the ambiguity several antennas must be
an ambiguous measure of the direction o f arrival is used in a linear array. Phase difference measurements
obtained. For example consider the antennas spaced can be made between any two antenna signals to give
Y cm apart and a wavelength of the radiated wave collectively an unambiguous direction of arrival.
equal to h cm. l f d = 0, A. Zh, etc. the measured With the spacing of the antennas chosen to be in the
phase difference will be 7ero corresponding to ratio 2 : 4 : 8 : 16 : 32 the derived angle word can be
directions of arrival 0 , measured with respect to the coded directly in binary.
226
Controls and Instrumentation The length and message content of the interrogation
A Mode AB controller has the following controls: word, which is assembled in the logic unit, depends
on the mode of operation. For A channel (Mode AB)
1 . 'OFFISTANDBYION'. When in standby the
a 25-bit word requesting guidance information is
input t o the modulator is inhibited with a
transmitted at a jittering mean rate of 50 Hz.
3-min warm-up delay for the transmitter is
B channel, containing range and other data in a 60-bit
initiated.
word, can be interlaced with A channel interrogations
2. GROUNDIAIR control. Four thumbwheel
at a factory set rate of 2.5, 5 , 10 or 50 Hz. C modes
switches which select the ground and air
use only one interrogation word 60 bits long at a
address and the frequency of operation.
jittering mean rate of 100 Hz. Both C1 and C2
3. Angle offsets. Three rotary switches which
interrogations contain guidance interrogation data
allow the pilot to select one of a variety of
and range, but in addition mode C1 transmits radio
elevation and azimuth angles for approach.
altitude information. Appropriate air and ground
For overshoot azimuth offset only is provided.
address codes, as selected on the controller, form
4. 'TEST'. A push switch which activates the
part of the guidance interrogation.
built-in test equipment (b.i.t.e.).
The interrogation word pulse train, suitably
In addition, if the controller is dual mode i.e. Mode processed in a line receiver and pulse modulator,
AB and C an 'ANGLE OFFSETS'/'SECTOR GCM' controls the grid voltage of a travelling-wave-tube
five-position switch is provided to allow the pilot to w h c h amplifies the ref. from a solid-state source
select which of the four approach sectors he desires phase-locked to 56 times a reference oscillator
for Mode C (GCM) operation or, if using a Mode AB crystal. A 4-bit parallel code, determined by the
station, the angle offset controls may be enabled by frequency selection at the controller, selects which of
selecting 'ANGLE OFFSET'. four crystals is t o be used as a reference. The pulse
The PRAM and crossed-pointer deviation indicator code amplitude modulated frequency of between
have been mentioned previously. In addition three 5.1825 and 5.2005 GHz is fed via a low-pass filter
optional indicators may be fitted: and circulator in the microwave assembly t o one of
two antennas selected by a switch which is
1. Overshoot warning. Only active during Mode controlled by the logic unit.
AB operation. There are two active states of
Received signals are amplified and detected in a
this magnetic indicator, in one of which double-superhet receiver, then passed to the logic
indication of the serviceability of the ground
unit. Incoming noise pulses are combated by
overshoot interferometer is given; the other reducing the receiver sensitivity as the rate of received
giving overshoot warning. 'Off' is displayed
pulses increases. Interference from multipath echoes
when the indicator is not active.
is avoided by setting a threshold level in accordance
2. Low-fly warning. Similar to (1) above except with the amplitude of the first pulse of the incoming
that the active states show either that the
word. The weaker multipath echoes will be unlikely
elevation failure warning flag is pulled in
to exceed this threshold which returns to zero at the
(elevation safe) or that the aircraft is low.
end of each received word.
3. Excess azimuth deviation. Only used in The reply is clocked into a shift register and then
Mode C. A lamp which flashes when the checked for validity and parity. Validity is
aircraft is more than 60 metres from the
determined by comparing air and ground address
approach path and within 1 nautical mile of
codes received with those selected. A range clock,
the landing site. which was started when the interrogation took place,
is stopped on completion of a successful validity and
parity check.
Block Diagram Operation The system functions in either search or track.
The installation comprises an interrogator set (logic Until the rate of validated replies is acceptable the
unit), an interrogator set (transmitter-receiver), a logic unit causes the t/r output to switch between
controller, an antenna selector, two antennas and u p forward and rear antennas at a 0.5 Hz rate. Having
to five different indicators, possibly duplicated, as acquired a reliable range value, a tracking gate is
described previously. All electronic circuitry is generated so that only those replies within 1 ps
contained within the logic unit and transmitter-receib before, and 2 ps after, the expected time of arrival
(t/r) with the exception of that contained in the are accepted. With replies regularly falling within the
PRAM. tracking gate the range of change of range is
---
Iriosator
I
set, (logic unit) 1I
Angle offsets
. To
display
As the reader is probably aware there is a dearth of A very good book but the emphasis is on
books on avionics; those that exist and concern operational use so the theory given is brief.
themselves with aircraft radio are perhaps a little Com~lementarvto this book.
dated. In contrast the number of books available on
electronics, computers and radio is staggering.
8- S.E.T. Taylor Parmer, Ground
for Pilots, Volume 1 ,Radio Aids. Granada
I have chosen to list most books available on (3rd edition, 1979).
avionics which I think are worthy of the reader's
Covers the needs of prospective commercial
attention. For sources of background material on
pilots in so far as the use of radio aids is
basic theory of electronics and radio the reader is
concerned.
perhaps best advised to visit a suitable library or
9. J.L. McKinley and R.D. Brent, Electricity and
bookshop and pick out those which seem to suit him
E/ectronics for Aerospace Vehicles. McGraw-Hilj
or her best. Since this is a formidable task, I have
(2nd edition, 1971).
listed some books which I think may be useful.
Covers fundamental theory and briefly
A brief note is given as a guide to content and level
describes avionics systems. Basic.
of each. 10. D.C. Green, Transmission Sys terns, 11. Pitman
1. M. Kayton and W.R. Fried (Editors), Avionics (1978).
Navigation Systems. John Wiley and Sons (1969). 11. D.C. Green, Radio Systems, 11. Pitman (1978).
Authoritative book whch is still of 12. D.C. Green, Radio Systems, 111. Pitman (1979).
considerable interest. Covers radio and 13. D.C. Green, Electronics, 11. Pitman (1 978).
non-radio aids. Postgraduate engineer level. 14. D.C. Green, Electronics, 111. Pitman (1 978).
2. G.E. Beck (Editor), Navigatiun Systems. Van All of Green's books are well written and
Nostrand Reinhold (1 97 1). illustrated. Technician level.
Similar to Kayton and Fried, also considers 15, J.E. Fisher and H.B. Gatland, Electronics from
marine navigation systems. Equally worthy Theory into Practice. Pergamon (2nd edition,
but not, perhaps, as comprehensive since it has 1976).
almost 300 fewer pages. Mainly concerned with design of circuits.
3. 0. Kendal, Manual of Avionics. Granada (1 979). Undergraduate and practising engineers.
Biased towards air traffic control aspects of 16. G.A. Streitmatter and V. Fiore, Microprocessors
aircraft operations. Complementary t o this Theory and Applications. Reston (1 979).
book. One of the best of a recent number of books
4. E.H.J. Pallett, Aircraft Electrical Systems. on microprocessors.
Pitman (2nd edition, 1979). 17. A.J. Baden Fuller, Microwaves. Pergamon
5. E.H.J. Pallett ,Aircraft Instruments. Pitman (2nd edition, 1979).
(2nd edition, 1981). Undergraduate level. Useful descriptions of
6. E.H.J. Palle tt, Automatic Flight Control. cornponen ts and devices.
Granada ( 1979). 18. Telecommunications Systems Units, 1-6. Course
All of Pallett's books are well writ ten with Chairman: G. Smol. The Open University Press
good illustrations. Very useful t o avionics (1976).
engineers. May be considered as companion 19. Electromagnetics and Electronics. Course
volumes to this book. Chairman: J. J. Sparkes. The Open University
7. N.H. Birch and A.E. Bramson, Flight Briefing for Press (1972).
Pilots, Volume 3 , Radio Aids to Air Navigation. Both 15 and 16 are highly recommended as
Pitman (4th edition, 1979). course material.
I am sure I have omitted many books which are useful source for those requiring applied mathematics
equal in merit t o those listed. The editions referred at undergraduate level.
to (1st unless otherwise indicated) are those with A huge source of material on avionics comes from
which 1 am familiar; the reader is advised t o check organizations which are not publishing houses. The
that these are the latest editions. reader is advised to consult the publications lists of
1 have not mentioned any mathematics textbooks, national aviation authorities, such as the CAA and
but for those who wish t o study aircraft radio FAA, and also ARINC and ICAO. Aircraft and
systems in depth, considerable mathematic maturity equipment manufacturers produce comprehensive
is needed. Many books have titles which are variations manuals of varying standards which will be consulted
on the theme 'Mathematics for Technicians' most of by the reader, as a matter of course, in the execution
which will be useful. The Open University is again a of his duties in the aircraft industry.
Glossary
The following exercises are given to test the reader's 2. Draw a block diagram of an f.m. transmitter.
knowledge and understanding of the content of this 3. Draw a block diagram of a superhet receiver.
volume; this aim will be best achieved if the questions 4. Describe four different ways in w h c h binary
are not read until one is ready t o attempt them. digits may be represented in electronic circuits.
Having worked through each chapter the exercises 5. Describe two codes commonly used for airborne
associated with that chapter should be attempted. radio frequency selection.
Six test papers are given which should be attempted 6 Compare analogue and digital .representation of
only after the whole book has been read. It is data.
recommended that one hour be devoted to each test 7. Discuss briefly the following; 1.C.A.O ., ARINC,
paper; the answers are not given but are t o be found ATA 100, national aviation authorities.
within the relevant chapters. Ideally the test papers
should be marked independently, however, the reader
should be able t o give an assessment, albeit subjective,
of his attempt at the written answer-type papers. Chapter 2
An accurate assessment can be achieved from test
paper 6 by giving one mark for each correctly 1. Describe typical antenna tuning arrangements in
attempted question, deducting half a mark for each a general aviation 20 channel h.f. cornms system.
incorrectly at tempted question, leaving the score 2. List and state the function of typical audio
unchanged for each question not attempted, then systems on a large passenger aircraft.
multiplying the result by 1016 to give a percentage. 3. Describe what happens when a crew member
Some of the questions can be used t o generate transmits on v.h.f. comms.
others, for example, those concerned with drawing 4. Draw the block diagram of a CVR showing
block diagrams, ramp tests, listing controls, etc. could clearly the sources of the inputs.
apply to any of the systems described herein. Even 5. Discuss typical v.h.f. comms antennas.
with an extended set of questions, as suggested, it is 6. Tel, t o mic. feedback in an AIS leads to a howl;
unlikely that the syllabus for any course will be how would you isolate the fault?
completely covered. For example, prospective
aircraft radio maintenance engineers will be required
to satisfy examining bodies and/or employers in the
following areas: Chapter 3
basic electrical and electronic principles
legislation 1. List the sources of errors affecting ADF
ramp, hangar and workshop practices operation.
reading wiring and schematic diagrams 2. Describe quadrantal error and explain how it
fault finding skills, etc. may be corrected.
3. Describe how an ADF ground loop swing is
In addition they must show evidence of having had carried out.
sufficient experience to assume the responsibilities of 4. Draw a situation diagram and a dual pointer RMI
an engineer. presentation for an aircraft on a heading of 2 0 0 " ( ~ )
with an NDB due north of the aircraft and another at
Chapter 1 300" relative to which numbers 1 and 2 ADFs are
tuned respectively.
1. Comment on the significance of bandwidth in an 5. Explain the basic principles of ADF.
information link. 6. Draw an ADF block installation diagram.
Chapter 4 a DME interrogator (assume switched on and any
warm up time expired).
1. Describe the differences between the radiated 2. Explain how echo protection can be achieved in
signals from Doppler and conventional VOR stations DME .
and explain why airborne equipment operation is not 3. Why might a DME interrogator receive less than
affected. 100% replies?
2. Explain the terms automatic and manual VOR. 4. Describe the arrangements for co-located
3. Draw a situation diagram for an aircraft on a beacons.
heading of 0 9 0 ( ~ with
) a selected radial of 280' and 5 . Describe, in general terms, how you would carry
with a fly right demand and from flag showing on the out a ramp test of DME.
flight director. 6. Draw a simplified DME block schematic diagram.
4. Draw a dual VOR block installation diagram.
5. Describe how information derived from a VOR
receiver is presented to the crew. Chapter 8
6. Discuss typical VOR antennas.
1, Explain the need for and the implementation of
SLS in SSR.
Chapter 5
2. Explain the terms fruit and garbling as applied to
SSR.
1 . Explain why a marker sensitivity switch is 3. What is successive detection and why is it
required. necessary in an ATC transponder?
2. Describe the need for and a typical implementa- 4. Draw a block schematic diagram and explain the
tion of loading compensation for an ILS installation. action of a decoder in an ATC transponder.
3. Draw a block diagram of a glideslope receiver. 5. Describe how barometric altitude may be
4. Describe the outputs from ILS to the aircraft's encoded into a form suitable for selecting the reply to
instrumentation and to other systems. a mode C interrogation.
5. Describe ILS and marker channelling 6. Draw a typical ATC transponder controller,
arrangements stating how selection is made. stating the purpose of each control.
6 . Describe, in general terms, how you would carry
out a ramp test of an ILS.
Chapter 9
Chapter 6
1. Compare platform and line of sight stabilization.
2. Describe, briefly, video signal processing in a
1. Explain how, in distance related phase measuring digital weather radar. '
navigation systems, errors due t o changes in clock 3. Describe how a p.p.i. display can be used to
offset can be minimized. present information relating to weather ahead of the
2. List the factors affecting propagation of Omega aircraft.
signals stating for each, how, if at all, compensation is 4. How does a weather radar flat plate antenna
made. achieve a narrow directional beam?
3. Describe briefly the general procedure for skin 5. Describe the safety precautions t o be observed
mapping prior t o deciding the position of an Omega when operating weather radar, stating the possible
antenna. consequences of not doing so.
4. Describe how Decca chains are designated. 6 Describe how you would check a waveguide run
5. Explain how lane ambiguities in Decca may be for condition.
resolved by using the MP mode. 7. Discusscontour,STCandAGCinaweather
6. Describe the characteristics of the radiated signals radar.
from a Loran C chain. 8. Describe how range and bearing resolution may
be improved in a weather radar stating the
disadvantages of taking such measures to give
Chapter 7 improvement.
9. Explain the basic principles of operation of a
1. Describe the four possible modes of operation of Ryan St ormscope.
Chapter 10 the airliner of the 1980s and beyond, paying particular
attention t o the presentation of information from
1. Describe the Doppler effect as utilized in an radio sensors.
airborne Doppler radar. 2. Explain the basic principles of how an automatic
2. Explain how a moving antenna Doppler radar data link using h.f. and/or v.h.f. comms could be set
measures drift angle. UP.
3. Discuss factors leading to a choice of f.m.c.w. 3. Compare ADSELIDABS with current SSR.
for Doppler radars. 4. Explain one way in which satellites could be
4. Explain the need for a landlsea switch. used for navigation purposes.
5 . Draw a simplified block diagram of a Doppler 5. Describe, briefly, a TRSB MLS.
navigation system. 6. Explain how a collision risk measure may be
6. Describe, in general terms, how you would carry arrived at.
out a ramp test of a Doppler navigator. 7. Compare DITS with current methods of
information transfer.
8. Explain the principles of interferometry.
Chapter 11
Test Paper 2
Chapter 12
1 . Describe two ways of modulating a C.W. carrier.
1. Draw the block diagram of a general area
2. Discuss navigation using radio aids under the
navigation system.
headings, dead reckoning, rho-theta, rho-rho-rho,
2. Explain the basic principles of RNAV based on theta-theta and hyperbolic.
VORIDME beacons.
3. Draw a simplified block diagram and explain the
3. Draw and label typical RNAV, deviation and
action of a frequency synthesizer paying particular
slant range triangles.
attention to selection.
4. Describe the functions performed by a typical
4. Draw a block diagram of a VOR receiver.
digital navigation computer being part of a VOR/DME
based RNAV system.
5. Define the terms jitter and squitter.
5. Explain the action of a typical data entrylrecord 6. Describe, in general terms, how you would carry
unit. out a ramp test of a line of sight scanner
6 . Describe, in general terms, how you would carry stabilization system.
out a ramp test of a VOR/DME based RNAV system.
Test Paper 3
Chapter 13
1. Describe the modes of propagation used with
1. Describe in general terms, the instrumentation of airborne radio equipment.
2. Define the terms hardware and software. Test Paper 6
3. Describe, with the aid of a sketch, a typical h.f.
wire antenna installation paying particular attention 1 . An e m . wave of frequency 3 0 MHz will have a
to safety features. wavelength of (a) 10m, (b) lOcm, (c) 10 ft.
4. Sketch a typical error curve for ADF stating QE, 2. A loop antenna is used for (a) VOR and ADF,
loop and field alignment errors for your curve. (b) ADF and Omega, (c) Omega and VOR.
5. Draw and explain a simplified ATC transponder 3. Above 30 MHz propagation is by (a) space
block diagram. wave, (b) sky wave, (c) ground wave.
6. Draw a typical weather radar control panel 4. Fading at 1.f. and m.f. may be due to (a) poor
stating purpose of each control. receiver sensitivity, (b) atmospheric attenuation,
(c) simultaneous reception of sky and ground wave.
5 . A carrier of amplitude 5 V is amplitude
Test Paper 4 modulated by a signal of amplitude 3 V, the percentage
modulation is (a) IS%, (b) 16.7%, (c) 60%.
1. Describe how a capacitive type antenna operates; 6. A constant amplitude modulating frequency of
list systems which might use such an antenna. 500 kHz causes a carrier t o vary between 8798.5 MHz
2. Explain how an interrupt signal might be used to and 8801.5 MHz, the modulation index is (a) 113,
achieve a data transfer from a radio sensor to a (b) 3 , ( 4 6 .
navigation computer. 7. Which of the following is not equivalent to
3. Describe briefly the basic principles of ILS. 2310? (a) 10111,,(b) 278, (c) 15,,.
4. List the facilities provided by a typical general 8. The b.c.d. equivalent of 3CI6 is (a) 01 10 0000,
aviation AIS. (b) 11 1100, (c) 0011 1100.
5. Draw a simple interlock arrangement for a dual 9. Which of the following, where the 1.s.b. is an
h.f. installation. odd parity bit, represents 6 8 ,*? (a) 10001001,
6. Describe how the possibility of interference is (b) 1 1000 100, (c) 1000 1000.
minimized in a multiple radio altimeter installation. 10. An address bus usually consists of (a) 16
bidirectional lines, (b) 16 uni-directional lines,
(c) both bi- and uni-directional lines.
11. Rho-theta navigation is the basis of
Test Paper 5 (a) VORIDME, (b) Omega, (c) ADF.
12. To avoid earth loops in audio systems cable
1. Describe, briefly, the fetch-decode-increment- screens should be (a) earthed at both ends,
execute cycle of a computer. (b) not earthed at either end, (c) earthed at one end
2. List sources of interference to aircraft radio only.
systems and state methods used to minimize the 13, An aircraft v.h.f. communications transceiver
effects of such sources. will provide (a) 720 channels at 50 kHz spacing,
3. Discuss the term squelch. (b) 360 channels at 25 kHz spacing, (c) 720 channels
4. Explain the principles of lane ambiguity at 25 kHz spacing.
resolution in ONS. 14. An aircraft at flight level 100 will be able to
5. Describe, in general terms, how you would carry communicate with a v.h.f. ground station at 100 ft
out a ramp test of a VOR. above m.s.l. at an approximate maximum range of
6 At a point in a 180 n.m. leg of a flight the (a) 123 n.m., (b) 12.3 a m . , (c) 135 n.m.
following situation exists: 15. The minimum 1000 Hz, 30% modulated signal
heading 090"(~) level to achieve an output s.n.r. of 6 dB from an
drift I 0" port airline standard v.h.f. receiver is (a) 1 pV, (b) 3 pW,
distance to go 8 0 n.m. (c) 0.18 x ~ O - ' ~ W .
desired track 0 8 5"(M) 1 6 A typical a.f. response of a v.h.f. transceiver is
Draw the situation diagram and calculate the across (a) 500 to 2000 Hz, (b) 300 to 2500 Hz,
distance reading if the wind and heading have (c) 300 to 4000 Hz.
remained unchanged for the leg so far. (Assume 17. Typical radiated power from an airline
0.0 17 radiansldegree and that sin 0 = 8 if 8 < 0.2 standard v.h.f. comms transmitter would be
radians). (a) 1 0 W,(b) 30 W, (c) 50 W.
18. In an airline standard h.f. installation the ATU
would reduce the v.s.w.r. of the antenna and ATU
combined to better than (a) 1.1 : 1, (b) 1.3: 1, 37. TACAN beacons transmit in the range (a) 962
(c) 1.5:1, to 1213 MHz, (b) 1030 to 1090 MHz, (c) 978 to
19. An ARINC standard h.f. comms system has a 12 13 MHz.
typical power output of (a) 400 W p.e.p., (b) 700 W 38. DME gives (a) range, (b) slant range, (c) ground
p.e.p., (c) 1000 W p.e.p. speed.
20. A Selcal transmission is coded by (a) the 39. If a DME is in track subsequent loss of signal
number of r.f. bursts, (b) the pulse spacing, will cause the equipment to (a) search,
(c) the modulating tones used. (b) automatically standby, (c) go into memory.
2 1. An anti-crosstalk network (a) reduces radiated 40. Mode A and C pulse spacing are, respectively
interference, (b) reduces conducted interference, (a) 8 and 21 ps, (b) 12 and 36 ps, (c) 8 and 17 ps.
(c) prevents transmission on both h.f. systems 41. Selection of 5237 on an ATC transponder will
simultaneously. give the following pulses, in order of transmission
22. Airline standard ADFs will, after QE correction, (a) F1 A1 A4 B2 C1 C2 D l D2 D4 F2,
have an error bound of (a) 3', (b) 5", (c) 8'. (b)Fl C1 A1 C2 A4 D l B2 D2 D4 F2,
23, The average of the absolute values of the peaks (c) F1 C1 C2 A1 A4 B2 D l D2 D4 F2.
of an ADF error curve give (a) field alignment error, 42. The output of an encoding altimeter for an
(b) loop alignment error, (c) QE correction. altitude of 7362 ft would give the code
24, If the variable phase Ieads the reference phase (a) A1 A2 A4 B1 B2 C2 C4 D2, (b) A1 A2 A4 B4,
by30"themagneticbearingtotheV0Rstationwi1l (c)A2A4ClC2.
be (a) 304 (b) 2 lo0, (c) 15 0 O . 43. The -3dB bandwidth of an ATC transponder
25. With a selected omni-bearing of 090" and the receiver is (a) 6 MHz, (b) 3 MHz, (c) 12 MHz.
variable phase lagging the reference phase by 280" 44. An ATC transponder should not reply if
the flight director will show (a) fly right; from, (a) P1 2 P2 + 9 dBs, (b) PI 2 P2 + 4.5 dBs,
(b) fly right; to, (c) fly left; to. (c) P1 < P2.
26. The frequency range of a VOR receiver is 45. An X-band weather radar will operate at
(a) 108 to 117.95 MHz, (b) 108 to 11 1.95 MHz, (a) 9375 MHz, (b) 5400 MHz, (c) 8800 MHz.
(c) 118 to 135.95 MHz. . Second trace echoes are avoided by
27. The VOR audio identification tone is at (a) choosing a p.r.f. greater than some minimum,
(a) 1350 Hz, (b) 1000 Hz, (c) 1020 Hz. (b) choosing a p.r .p. greater than some minimum,
28. Which of the following is a localizer frequency? (c) increasing either or both of the receiver
(a) 110.20 MHz, (b) 109.15 MHz, (c) 1 12.10 MHz. sensitivity and transmitter power.
29. In whch of the following bands does glideslope 47. The pilot reports pronounced ground returns to
operate? (a) h.f., (b) v.h.f., (c) u.h.f. one side of the display, the most likely cause is
30. If the 90 Hz tone predominates in a localizer (a) system permanently in the mapping mode,
receiver the deviation indicator will show (a) on (b) scanner tilt faulty, (c) gyro toppled.
course, (b) fly left, (c) fly right. 48, Broken radial lines are observed on the weather
31. The v.s.w.r. of a localizer antenna should be no radar indicator, the most likely cause is (a) a.f.c.
more than (a) 5:l,(b) 3:l,(c) 1.5:l. circuit sweeping, (b) dirt in the magslip,
32. An ONS, using software correction for (c) interference from another radar.
predictable errors, will give aircraft position to an 49. A weather radar with a p.r.f. of 200 and a duty
accuracy (r.m.s.) of (a) 1-2 nm, (b) 0-1 nm, cycle of 10 x would have a bandwidth of
(c) 2-5 nm. approximately (a) 1 MHz, (b) 500 kHz, (c) 3 MHz.
33. Omega gives worldwide navigation facilities 50. A typical memory size for a digital weather
using (a) five stations transmitting on 10.2, 11.33 and radar employing an X-Y display is (a) 4 kbit,
13.6 kHz, (b) eight stations transmitting on 10.2, (b) 8 kbit, (c) 32 kbit.
11.33 and 13.6 kHz, (c) strategically placed stations 5 1. If P and R are the VRG pitch and roll signals
transmitting frequency multiplexed signals. respectively and 8 is the azimuth angle then the
34. A Decca chain usually consists of (a) a master demand signal for a line of sight stabilization
and three slaves, (b) a master-slave pair, (c) independent system is (a) PsinO + RcosO, (b) PcosO + RsinB,
stations. (c) Pcose x R s i d .
35. The usable night range of Decca is about 52. An X-band Doppler radar shows a ground
(a) 120 nm, (b) 240 nrn, (c) 360 nm. speed of 400 knots, a reasonable estimate of the
36. Loran C radiates (a) pulsed r.f. at 100 kHz, Doppler shift would be (a) 5 kHz, (b) 500 Hz,
(b) pulsed r.f. at 14 kHz, (c) C.W.at 100 kHz. (c) 12 kHz.
53. An f.m.c.w. Doppler radar operating at a leads to a minimum total feeder length of 9 ft and an
frequency of 8800 MHz, modulated at 500 kHz with antenna-ground-antenna path length of 8 ft; what
a depression angle of 60" will have altitude holes at would be a suitable AID setting? (a) 20 ft, (b) 40 ft,
multiples of approximately (a) 500 ft, (b) 2000 ft, (c) 57 ft.
(c) 8000 ft. 58. A phantom beacon is (a) a co-located
54. Wobbulation in a Doppler radar is used to VOR/DME beacon with no identity transmission,
overcome the effects of (a) reflections from the (b) a TACAN beacon, (c) related to a VOR/DME
dielectric panel, (b) overwater calibration shift errors, beacon by pilot set distance and bearing.
(c) altitude holes. 59. An aircraft is 20 n.m. and 0 4 5 ' ( ~ ) from a
55. A radio altimeter would not be connected to VORIDME beacon; the range of the current waypoint,
(a) MADGE, (b) a flight director, (c) an ATC which is due east of the beacon, is shown as 20 nm;
transponder. approximately how far is the waypoint from the
56. The DH lamp comes on when the aircraft is beacon? (a) 20 nm, (b) 30 nm, (c) 40 nm.
(a) over the outer marker, (b) below a pilot set 60. MADGE mode C l derives elevation information
barometric altitude, (c) below a pilot set radio by using (a) radio altitude and slant range,
altitude. (b) interferometry, (c) a directional beam narrow in
57. It is found that the most suitable positions for a elevation.
radio altimeter transmitter-receiver and antennas
Index