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Subjunctive

The subjunctive with MAY or MIGHT (subjunctive in wishes)


Eg. May you have a long life.
The subjunctive without modals.
Eg. Long live the Queen.
Subjunctive with MIGHT after wh-ever words.
Eg. However tired he might be, he went on working. Wherever unusual
you may go, I will join you.
The subjunctive with SHOULD.
Eg. It is improper that people should live under these circumstances. (it is
a command) He gave orders that nothing should be touched.
The subjunctive with SHOULD after the verb suggest, when the subject
of the verb and the subject of the change is different.
Eg. I suggested that he (should) be here. I suggested that he BE here. (I
suggest and you have to follow the orders)
Suggest + ING
Eg. I suggest reading this book. (Both will read the book; you and me)

SUBJUNCTIVES
Subjunctive verb forms are not used very often in English. There are two
basic forms: 1 The subjunctive of most verbs is the same as the base
infinitive with no 3rd person s or past form. In formal contexts, this form
of the subjunctive is used in that clauses after verbs and adjectives
such as the following: advise demand insist propose recommend
require vital urge preferable desirable essential obligatory
suggest
Eg. It is vital (that) every employee attend the meeting. I suggest (that)
large fines be introduced.
The same structure can also be used after related nouns.
Eg. Their suggestion is that the system be reviewed carefully after
trialling.
In less formal contexts, the subjunctive is avoided and clauses such as
the following are used instead.
Eg. It is vital (that) every employee should attend the meeting. (should
+ bare infinitive) It is vital (that) every employee attends the meeting.
(present simple)
This form of the subjunctive is also used in some fixed phrases: eg. Come
what may, we shall achieve our goal. Suffice it to say that I was
disappointed. Be that as it may, your behaviour was unacceptable.
2 Be has a past subjunctive form were. In conditional clauses and after

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wish, the past subjunctive form were is often used instead of was,
although speakers in informal contexts may use was in these
situations. Eg. If I were you, Id go. If I were in charge, I would make
great changes. I wish I were rich. He shouted at her as if she were deaf.
If I was going, Id take her.
However, it is best to use the subjunctive form were.
In conditional sentences using inversion, were must always be used was
is not possible. Eg.Were he to refuse permission, he would be in trouble.

Inversion
Inversion with auxiliaries in Conditional Sentences Type 3.
Eg. If I had arrived earlier, I would have seen you. Had I arrived earlier, I
would have seen you. Were I to do this, I would ask you. (Verb to
be)
First kind of inversion:
Eg. Where do you live? Here comes the bride. There is a book on
the table. (adverb+verb+subject+predicate)
Starting a sentence with a negative adverbial or an adverbial with a
negative implication, are reversing the order of the subject and verb in a
way of adding emphasis or creating a dramatic effect in English. (He was
never in the slightest danger. At no time was he ever in the slightest
danger). These expressions can also be used: on no account, at no time,
not once, not until, never (before), seldom, only by chance,
hardly/scarcely ... when ..., in no circumstances, nowhere, not one.../not a
single ..., not only ... but also ..., rarely, only now, only recently, no sooner
... than

PHRASAL VERBS WITH MADE


Made of: the material can be seen
Made from: the material cant be seen
Made with: you mention the ingredients
Made by: the agent

PHRASAL VERBS WITH THINK


Think of: to have thought of a possible plan; to have as an opinion about;
to take
Think through: to consider carefully and in detail.
Think over: to think seriously.

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Think up: to invent.

PHRASAL VERBS WITH TURN


Turn up: to happen, esp. unexpectedly and fortunately. Eg. Something is
sure to turn up.
Turn out: to happen to be, or be found to be, in the end. Eg. The party
turned out to be a success. It turned out nice and sunny again.
Turn in: return; to give back to the owner.

PHRASAL VERBS WITH UP AND DOWN


Break down: (1)to destroy, knock to the ground or reduce to pieces. Eg.
The old cars were broken down for their metal parts. The police broke the
door down.; (2)to cause to be defeated or lose effectiveness. Eg. I tried to
break down her opposition to our plan. His resistance broke down. This
agreement will break down the barriers for free trade.; (3)(of
machinery)to stop working; to fail. Eg. The car broke down.; (4)to come to
an unsuccessful end. Eg. The peace talks broke down ; no agreement was
reached.; (5)to lose control of ones feeling; (6)to cause to separate into
different or into types. Eg. Chemicals in the body break our food down
into several categories.
Break up: (1)to cause to become separated into smaller pieces. Eg. The
frost will break up the soil. It broke up on the rocks. We are putting some
illustrations in the book in order to break up the text.; (2)to come or bring
to an end, esp by separating. Eg. Their marriage broke up. The police
broke up the fight. The conference broke up without reaching any
agreement.; (3)to stop being together; separate or go in different
directions. Eg. What will happen to the children if Tom and Mary break
up ?; (4)(of a school or pupil)to begin the holidays. Eg When does your
school break up ? We break up on Tuesday; (5)to amuse greatly. Eg. His
account on the meeting really broke me up.
Do sbdy down: (1)to cheat; (2)to try to make someone, esp someone
who is not present, seem unimportant, worthless, etc.
Do up: (1)to fasten or tie. Eg. Do up your buttons/this knot. (2)do sthg
up: to repair or redecorate. Eg. They did up an old house and sold it for a
big profit. (3)do sbdy up: to make (oneself) more beautiful. Eg. Mary has
done herself up for the party.
End up: to be in the end (in the stated place, condition, etc.). eg. He
ended up as the head of the firm. We set off for Newcastle but ended up
in Scotland. We didnt like it at first, but we ended up cheering. (+V-ing)

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Fall down on: (1)to fail or be ineffective. Eg. Where this plan falls down
is that it doesnt allow enough time for possible delays. (2)to come down
from a standing position, especially suddenly and usually by accident. Eg.
She slipped and fell down.
Get down: (1)to enjoy oneself, esp at a party or with others. Eg. Were
really going to get down on Saturday night; (2)get sthg down: to swallow
with difficulty. Eg. Try to get the medicine down ; (3)to record in writing.
Eg. Get down every word she says; (4)get sbdy down: to cause to feel
nervous, ill or sad; depressed. Eg. This continual bad weather gets me
down ; (5)get down to: to begin to give serious attention to. Eg. Its
hard to get down to work after a nice holiday. I really must get down to
filling my tax form.
Get up: (1)to cause to rise from bed in the morning; (2)to raise on ones
feet; stand up; (3)(of a wind, fire, etc)to start and increase; (4)to arrange
and bring together; organize. Eg. Im getting up a little group to visit a
theatre.; (5) (+ as) (get sbdy up = go sbdy up)to decorate or change the
appearance of, in a stated way. Eg. She got herself up as a Roman soldier
for the school play; (6)(get sthg up) to study or gain knowledge of.
Go down: (1)become lower in price, value, quantity, level, etc. Eg. The
standard of work has gone down. The value of the dollar is going down.
Eggs are going down in price. He has gone down in my opinion since I
discovered his political ideas. This neighbourhood has gone down in the
last few years. (= a lower social level); (2)to sink; disappear from sight or
below a surface. Eg. Three ships went down in the storm. The sun is
going down.; (3)to become less swollen. Eg. My ankle is going down. The
tyres going down; Ill pump it.; (4)(of a computer or machine)to stop
working suddenly; (5)to be accepted; (6)(of food or drink)to pass down
the throat; (7) to happen. Eg. Whats going down ? ; (8)(+ in) to be
recorded. Eg. This day will go down in history. ; (9)(+ to) to reach as far
as. Eg. The mountains go right down to the sea.; (10)(from to)to leave
university after a period of study or a city for a less important place. Eg.
He went down without taking a degree. Were going down to the country
for the weekend.
Go up: (1)to rise; increase. Eg.Prices have gone up again; (2)to be built.
Eg.There are new houses going up everywhere round here.; (3)to explode
or be destroyed in fire. Eg.The whole house went up in flames.; (4)(of the
curtain on stage) to open and start the performance. Eg.What time does
the curtain go up ?; (5)(+ to) to go to a university, esp to begin a course
of study, or to a more important place. Eg. to go up to London; (6)(+
adv/prep, esp to) to reach as far as. Eg.The trees go up to the river bank.
Let down: (1)to cause or allow to go down; lower. Eg. Let down a rope so

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that I can climb up.; (2)to make clothes longer. Eg.Ill let down this old
dress for my daughter.; (3)to fail to do for someone what they could
reasonably expect one to do because one is supposed to be loyal to
them, has made a promise to them, etc. Eg. Im counting on you to
support me; dont let me down. The singer we had engaged let us down
at the last moment, so we had to find a quick replacement.
Let up: (esp of sthg bad)to lessen or stop. Eg.When will the rain let up ?
Pull down: (1)to break in pieces and destroy something built. Eg.They
are pulling down those houses to make room for a new hotel.; (2)to
weaken in health.
Pull up: (1)to cause to come to a stop. Eg.The car pulled up at the traffic
lights.; (2) (+ to/with) to come level with another competitor in a race; (3)
(+ on/for)(pull sbdy up)to stop (someone who is making mistakes) and
express disapproval.
Put down: (1)to bring to an end or to bring under control. Eg. to put
down all opposition/a riot; (2)to make someone feel unimportant, to
humiliate; (3)to kill an animal because it is old or ill; (4)to record in
writing; (5)to allow to leave a vehicle; (6)to pay as part of a cost of
something without promise to pay the rest later.
Put up: (1)to build or raise into position. Eg. to put up a tent or a
building; (2)to fix, esp a notice, in a public place where people can see it.
Eg. put up the exam results; (3)to increase in amount. Eg. Prices put up.;
(4)to provide food and lodging for, or to get food and lodging; stay; (5)to
show or give in a fight competition. Eg. They put up a lot of resistance.;
(6)to offer for sale. Eg. to put up a house for sale; (7)to supply or
lend(money needed). Eg. to put up 50000/money; (8)to suggest as
being a suitable person for a job, etc. Eg. to put Tom up for the tennis
club.
Shoot down: to bring down and destroy a flying aircraft by shooting.
Shoot up: (1)to go upwards, increase or grow quickly. Eg. Flames shot
up into the air. Prices shot up lately. Little Jimmy is shooting up. (2)to
damage or wound by shooting. Eg. His plane had been badly shot up by
enemy fighters.
Speed up: to cause to move, go or happen faster. Eg. Wed better speed
up if we want to get there in time. Production of the new model must be
speeded up. The new system will speed up the process of applying for a
passport.
Spring up/into/to: to appear or come into being or action or from
nothing. Eg. Wind suddenly sprang up. Towers sprang up in what have
been a dry desert. The engine sprang into life. Tears sprang to her eyes.
Where did you spring from ?

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Stand down: (1)to give up ones position or chance of election; (2)to
leave the witness box in court.
Stand up: (1)stand; (2)to stay in a good condition often testing or hard
use; wear or last well; (3)to be accepted as true or proven.
Start up: to cause to begin operation.
The particle up can: (1)suggest increase, or progress to a higher position,
eg turn up (the volume), bring up (children); (2)intensify the meaning of
the verb, adding the idea that the action has been completed, eg cut up,
smash up, sell up. In this case the particle can be omitted.

OTHER PHRASAL VERBS


Build up: cultivate. Eg. He has built up a good business over the years.
The clouds are building up./Traffic going out of the city is building up. To
build up ones strength again after an illness.
Carry out: to perform or complete; to fulfill a promise, a duty, etc. Eg.
They failed to carry out their orders/obligations.
Come across: encounter; to meet, find or discover, esp by chance. Eg.
She came across an old friend whom she had not seen since childhood.
Come down to: to mean or be equal to in fact. Eg. This comes down to
studying or taking the course again.
Come into: be involved. Eg. To come into fashion/to come into
existence/to come into sight or view.
Crack down on: to take strong and severe action to deal with something
bad.
Deal with: solve. Eg. She was not used to deal with that kind of problem.
Find out: discover. Eg. It was found out that he was dating somebody
else.
Get along with: to form or have a friendly relationship. Get on with has
the same meaning.
Get in: to arrive; to be elected to a position of political power; to collect
or buy a supply of; to call to ones help; to deliver to proper place; to be
admitted to a place of education, especially after an examination or test.
Eg. He is studying at university. He got in in 2008.
Get on: succeed. Eg.How is your work getting on?Tom isnt getting on
well at school.
Go away: leave. Eg. He went away late at night.
Go in: (of the sun, moon, etc) to become covered by cloud.
Go in with: to join. Eg. They invited me to go in with them to form a new
company.
Go on: to take place or happen; to advance or develop (get on). Eg. She

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went on working and doing her homework, while she talked.
Go over well with: to impress.
Hit it off (with): to have a good relationship with; become good friends.
Join together: merge. Eg. Carmen de Patagones and Viedma are joined
together by a bridge over the river.
Keep up: to (cause to) continue. Eg. Although she was doing her
homework she could keep up the conversation.
Light upon: find by chance.
Make out: to see, hear or understand with difficulty; to claim or pretend
falsely; to prove by giving good reasons; to succeed or advance in
business or life. Eg. I cant make out what hes saying with such a noise.
I cant make out what he wrote; I cannot understand his handwriting. He
makes out he is the most important person in this place. The firm is
making out better than ever.
Make up: to invent, often in order to deceive; to form as a whole, to
constitute. eg. She made up an excuse so that she would not have to
come. He made up a picture of her with the different things he had heard
of her.
Move in: to take possession of a new home; to prepare to take control,
attack, etc. Eg. They have bought a new house. They moved in a few
days ago.
Start over: to start again as before or as at the beginning. Eg. She had
failed the exam, so she has to start the subject over the following year.
Take place: occur. Eg. It took place last year.
Turn out: to happen to be, or be found to be, in the end.

VERBS WITH WAY


Find the way: to discover, esp by searching. Eg. Do you think you can
find your way home ?
Force the way: to use physical force. Eg. to force our way through the
crowd/into the house
Inch the way: to cause to move slowly and with difficulty. Eg. I inched
my way through the narrow space between the cars .
Worm the way: to move gradually by twisting or effort. Eg. We wormed
our way through the crack in the wall.
Make way: to get out of someones path; provide the necessary space.
Eg. The old houses were knocked down to make way for a new office
development.
Make ones way: to go. Eg. I made my way home/towards the
harbour/along the road / up the stairs

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CONDITIONALS
PRESENT + PRESENT = FACT
If you want to get a job you must finish your studies.
PRESENT SIMPLE + PRESENT = CONSEQUENCE
I will have to work during the weekend unless I get my work finished
tonight.
SIMPLE PAST + WOULD + CONDITIONAL
I would buy a car if I had that job (hypothetical)
PAST PERFECT + CONDITIONAL PERFECT
I would have gone there if I had the money (hypothesis in the past)
SIMPLE PAST + PAST PERFECT
My parents used to let me go as long as I had finished my homework.
(real past situation)
MIGHT CONDITIONAL + SIMPLE PAST
We might find it easier if we had the time to practise it.

WISH IF ONLY
Wish is used to express regret that something is not the case
Eg. I wish I knew his name. (referring to the present) I wish we werent
having the exam tomorrow! (referring to the future); I wish Id learnt to
drive earlier. (referring to the past).
Sentences with wish (that) refer to unlikely or hypothetical situations. If
only can replace I wish, giving the sentence the force of exclamation. If
the wish is in the past, the tense in the following verb stays the same.
We use wish when we would like things to be different from the way they
are in reality. We use hope to refer to things we would like to happen.

These sentences can be followed by a past tense or an infinitive:


Its time
Its (high) time + clause with the verb in the past tense (referring to
present or future time) eg: Its high time that child was in bed its
nearly midnight!
Its time + infinitive, eg: Its time to go its almost eight oclock.
High time is more emphatic, suggesting that the event is overdue. It is
not generally followed by the infinitive. When the infinitive is used to refer
to a specific person who is not the speaker or the person being spoken to;
the expression must be: Its time for x to eg Its time for him to
decide what he wants to do with his life.

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Id rather
Id rather + clause, eg: Id rather you didnt tell him hed be upset.
(referring to future time) Id rather you hadnt told him he was upset.
(referring to past time).
Id rather + infinitive (without to) eg: Id rather tell him myself (referring
to the future); Id rather be anywhere than here! (referring to the
present); I didnt enjoy the holiday at all - Id rather have stayed at home
(referring to the past)
Id prefer Id prefer it if
Id prefer it + if clause, eg: Id prefer they were left on their own (future
time); Id have preferred it if I could have studied maths. (past time).
Id prefer + infinitive (present or perfect) Id prefer to be left on my own.

Simple past
It describes a state, an event or an action (single repeated or habitual) at
a point in the past or within a completed past time period. Its often used
to tell a story or describe a sequence of events. A time reference or other
specific detail is given to anchor the events to a specific time or situation.

Past Continuous
It describes something which was already in progress at a point in the
past, and which continued after that point. Eg: I was still working at eight
oclock. The plane was just taking off when I found I didnt have my bag
with me.
It also describes something which was interrupted by another event. Eg:
I was reading a book when the phone rang.
It describes two events happening simultaneously over a period of time.
Eg: Stephen was producing these amazing drawings when other children
his age were drawing stick figures.

Past perfect simple


It makes clear that something happened before another event in the past.
We usually need to use it if the events are not described in chronological
order. We may also use it to make the order of events clear when
conjunctions such as when and because are used.

Past perfect continuous

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It describes a continuing or repeated activity or event leading up to a
particular time or event in the past. The event or activity may stop just
before or at this point, or it may continue.

Used to / would
Both describe past habits (often long ago rather than the recent past).
Used to can describe habitual action, repeated actions and states.
Would is used for habitual or repeated actions (but not for states) when a
specific period is being referred to.

Linking the past to the present

Present perfect simple


We use it with since, for or How long ... ? to describe a state beginning
in the past and continuing up to the present
It is also used for an event or events in a period leading upto the
present. The time period may or may not be specified. Eg: He has made a
fortune through his writings

Present perfect continuous


It may also be used in the same situations, but may also convey the idea
of continuation or non-completion.(eg: Susie has been writing an essay);
or emphasize the duration of the event (eg: Shes been working all
morning)

States and events


Simple tenses are used for single events, states and habits. Continuous
tenses describe activities in progress. They suggest that the activity is
temporary, and may not be complete.
States
They are verbs that describe states. They are called stative verbs. They
describe activities and situations that may not have a definite beginning
or end. They are not generally used in the continuous form. They include
verbs of:
perception: hear, see, feel, smell, taste, notice.
mental states and feelings: love, hate, hope, imagine, remember,

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forget, understand, want, wish, prefer, seem, appear.
relationships and states of being: have, own, possess, belong to, consist
of, cost, depend on, require.

Events
Verbs which describe events are sometimes called dynamic verbs. They
describe activities with a definite beginning and end. They may be used
in the simple or continuous form. They include verbs describing:
momentary acts: kick, jump, knock.
activities: walk, study, work, eat, drive.
processes: grow, change, develop, enlarge.
Many state verbs can be used in the continuous form in the following
situations: 1 to focus on the temporary nature of the action or event.
(Cf. Youre very warm heated. Youre being silly). 2 with a change of
meaning (He appears to be a cold person [appears = seems]. Hes
appearing in a play [appearing = performing)

Participle clauses
Participle clauses contain a participle instead of a full verb. Participles
have the following forms:
Present: showing Past: shown Perfect: having shown passive:
having shown, having been shown.
Present participle clauses are much more common than past participle
clauses. They are used to avoid repetition and make a point more
economically in written texts and are common in fiction. They are not
much used in spoken English.
Participle clauses can describe:
1 events happening at the same time [present participle] (eg. Drinking
his coffee slowly, he thought about the problem)
2 events happening in a rapid sequence [present participle] (eg. Tearing
the envelope open, he took out the letter)
3 events happening with a longer time gap between them [perfect
participle] (Having retired, he found himself with time on his hands)
4 other time relations when used with an appropriate conjunction:
Before being shown round, we were welcomed by the Principal. After
finishing his speech, he took a sip of water. Wear protective gloves when
using this equipment. On arriving, you will find someone waiting for you.
While travelling to work, she usually reads a novel. She has been much
happier, since changing schools

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5 concession when used with an appropriate conjunction (She intends
to go, despite it being so far);
6 cause or reason (perfect participle)(Not having had any breakfast, I
was hungry)
7 condition (past participle)(Left to follow his own inclinations, he would
do not work at all)
If the subject of the participle is different from that of the main clause, it
must be stated.) (the weather being perfect, we decided to go swimming)
If this is not done, the sentence may be confusing. (Kicking with all his
strength, the ball went straight into the goal). If the subject of the
participle clause is not stated, we assume it is the same as the subject of
the main clause.
Participle clauses can be used to replace relative clauses (both defining
and non - defining). They are sometimes known as reduced relatives .
1 With an - ing form
-ing participle clauses can replace a relative pronoun followed by an
active verb. Eg. a new road has been built, which bypasses the town. A
new road has been built, bypassing the town.
2 With an -ed form
If the verb in the relative clause is passive, both the relative pronoun and
the auxiliary verb can be omitted. Eg. The area (which was) designated
for development was near the river.
Verbless clauses: If a relative clause contains a relative pronoun and
the verb be as a main verb, both the relative pronoun and the verb can
be omitted. Eg. The people, (who were) tired of traffic pollution, decided
to take action. His daughter, (who is) now a famous actress, visits him
regularly.

Relative clauses
Relative clauses are usually introduced by a relative pronoun, eg.Who,
whom, whose, which, that, where, when. These clauses function as
adjectives and modify a noun which has been given (or sometimes only
implied) earlier.
Defining relative clauses
1 We use defining relative clauses to distinguish one thing or person
from similar things or persons. If the information in the relative clause is
omitted, the sentence will not make sense. For that reason the clause is
not separated by commas. Eg. Curitiba is an example of a city which has
been successful in avoiding transport problem.
2 They can be introduced by the relative pronouns who (subject), whom

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(object), whose (possessive), which/that (for things), where (place),
when (time).
3 If the relative pronoun is the object of the clause, it can be omitted.
Eg. The man (whom) I met yesterday phoned me up.
In informal English who can be used as an object as well as a subject and
that may be used to replace who/whom. Eg. The girls who I saw last
night ... it was the same man that had spoken to me earlier.
Non defining relative clauses
1 Non defining relative clauses give additional information about the
preceding noun. If they are omitted, the sentence wil still make sense.
They are separated off by commas, which have a similar function to
brackets in this case. Eg. The city, which I had visited once before,
was huge.
2 They can be introduced by the same relative pronouns as defining
relative clauses, except for that, which is not normally used. Eg. My
grandparents house, which was very old, was surrounded by fruit
trees.
3 The relative pronoun cannot be omitted.
Relative clauses with prepositions
If a preposition is required, this may be placed before the relative
pronoun in formal English, or at the end of the clause in less formal
English. Eg. Hes the man to whom the prize was awarded. (formal) Hes
the man (who) the prize was given to.(informal)
Whom, not who, must be used after a preposition.
When we are referring to a place, if the relative clause includes a
preposition, which must be used instead of where. This is because the
relative pronoun is the object of the preposition. Eg.The area where I
lived was very prosperous. The area (which) I lived in was very
prosperous.
Sentence relatives
A non defining relative clause can refer back to the whole of the
previous clause. Eg. I had left my money at home, which meant I had to
borrow from my friend.
The following phrases are also used to refer back to a whole clause:
in which case, at the result of which, by which time, at which time/point,
since when, since which time.
Relative with quantifiers
Quantifiers (eg some, a few ) can also be used in non defining relative
clauses, with of whom/of which/of whose. Examples of quantifiers which
can be used in this way are: all, both, some, many, a few, several,
enough, hardly any, neither, none, one/two /three, half/one third, the

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majority, a (large/small) proportion, a number
This structure can also be used with comparatives and superlatives. Eg.
he had two sisters, the younger of whom still lived at home.

MODALS AND RELATED EXPRESSIONS


Modals and semi modal verbs give us information about the speakers
attitude towards an event or his judgement of it. Eg.Is it desirable? Is it
necessary? Is it probable?
The type of information provided by modals can also be given through
structures with adjectives (it is advisable to ...), adverbs (probably) and
lexical verbs (I forbid you to ...) It is useful to learn these expressions
together with the related modal verbs. Modal verbs are verbs such as
can, must, will, should, etc. They always come first in the verb phrase,
and do not have a 3rd person singular s ending. They are followed by
the bare infinitive (infinitive without to). Eg.He could have told her earlier.
Semi modals have some, but not all, of these features. Eg.He ought to
tell someone. He has to see her now.
1 Obligation / necessity
Present / future
I must/have to finish this now. I will have to go soon.
Past
We had to get the report finished that day.
Other expressions:
She needs to get more information. Shes got to go now. He was
obliged to give up his job. Strong shoes will be needed. You are to
wait here until I give you permission to leave.
2 Prohibition
Present / future
You mustnt touch that. You cant go there its not allowed.
Other expressions: it is forbidden to walk on the grass. You are not
allowed to go there. Smoking is prohibited. (formal) you are not to
run in the corridors. Mobile phones are banned in my school.
3 Lack of obligation / necessity
Present / future
You neednt come if you dont want to. You dont have to do it now.
Past
They said it was quite near, so he didnt need to take the car. (=it wasnt
necessary to take the car, and he didnt). When he got there he found it
was quite near, so in fact he neednt have taken the car. (=he took the
car unnecessarily).

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Withdidnt have to either meaning can be conveyed, depending on the
stress and the intonation used. He didnt have to go to London (but he
did). He didnt have to go to London (so he didnt).
Other expressions: Shes not obliged to go. Its not
obligatory/compulsory. Its not (absolutely) necessary for you to
go. These classes are voluntary.
4 Advise
Present / future
You should/ought to ask for more money.
Past
You should/shouldnt have gone there on your own.
The perfect form expresses disapproval of something that was done.
Other expressions: I wouldnt recommend you to go there. It wouldnt
be a good idea to tell him. Customers are advised to retain their
receipts. It is advisable to book first. If I were you, I would do it. It was
wrong of him to borrow the money.
5 Opportunity / free choice
Present / future
You can take whatever you want. You could always go tomorrow (if you
wanted).
Past
You could go anywhere without problems. He could have been a doctor if
he had wanted.
Other expressions: Its up to you whether you go or not. Its your
decision/choice whether you stay or go. Hes free to whatever he
wants. You will have no opportunity to travel wherever you want.
6 Permission
Present / future
Could I borrow this book? Of course you can!
Past
They said I could go wherever I wanted.
It is also possible to say May/Might I borrow this book? But this is rather
formal and old fashioned; it is not frequently used. When talking about a
particular ocassion in the past, could is not possible. I could/was
allowed to driv my fathers car whenever I wanted. On her tenth
birthday, Lisa could/was allowed to ride her bicycle to school.
Other expressions: He lets me go wherever I want. The librarian gave
me permission to take the book.
7 Ability
Present / future
Can you manage on your own?

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Past
I could speak English when I was six.
When talking about a particular ocassion in the past, could is not
possible.
I could/was able to swim when I was very young. (general ability)
Although I was very frightened, I could/was able to tell the police officer
what had happened. (particular event)
Other expressions:
After a lot of effort, I managed to do it. I know how to swim. She has
the ability to sense the feelings of others. (formal). She is capable of
doing very well if she wants to.
1 need / need to
When need is used as a modal verb, it is followed by a bare infinitive. (It
is most common in the negative) It removes obligation imposed by the
speaker. He neednt come if he doesnt want to.
When it is used as a main verb, it is followed by the full infinitive, and can
refer to obligation from an external force. He really needs to be careful.
It is often used in the question form. Do we need to bring our own sheets
and towels?
2 be supposed to / suppose
Compare:
Youre supposed to be working. (suggests criticism = Youre meant to be
working and youre not)
I suppose Ill have to go. (expresses reluctance = Im afraid Ill have to
go, even though I dont want to.)
8 Logical deduction / assumption
Present
It must be true. Theres someone at the door. Itll be Carla. We should
be able to get there on time.
Past
It must have been an accident.
Other expressions: I expect thats Mrs Stevens on the phone. Im
convinced that hes right. Im sure/certain that he did it. Hes
bound/sure/certain to tell everyone. We can conclude that he was the
murderer. (formal) It follows from this that she was not guilty. (formal)
We can assume that the house was empty. The child was presumably
away at the time. The answer is thus/therefore/hence x minus 2y.
(formal, academic)
9 Possibility
It might conceivably be happening (present)
It may well happen (future)

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It could possibly have happened (past)
The adverb well makes the possibility stronger. It could well be true
theres plenty of evidence. The other adverbs stress that the situation is
not certain, but do not tell us any more about the speakers own
viewpoint.
Other expressions: Its possible/conceivable that she was murdered.
Theres a strong possibility that it was Ira. Possibly/Perhaps/Maybe
she got lost. Its quite likely that hell tell us. The likelihood is that
theyll arrive late. The chances are that shell pass the exam. I bet
shell be pleased! (informal)
10 Uncertain possibility
Present It might/may not be true.
Future Cheer up it might/may never happen.
Past It might/may not have happened.
Other expressions: Theres very little/not much chance/possibility
that well find it. Theyre not likely to see him. Its (highly) unlikely
that shell come. I dont think hell come. I doubt that youll see them. I
cant see them finishing today.
11 Impossibility
Present It cant be true.
Future It couldnt/cant ever happen.
Past It couldnt/cant possibly have happened.
When used as an exclamation could and might often express annoyance
and criticism You could/might have told me !!

PASSIVES: Special points


1 make, see, hear, help
These verbs are all followed by the infinitive without to when they are
active, and the infinitive with to when they are passive. Eg. They made
him stand in the front. He was made to stand in the front.
2 let
This is never used in the passive. Eg. They usually let him stand in the
front. He is usually allowed to stand in the front.
3 Future with is to
This is often used in the passive for reporting news items. It is a fairly
formal structure. Eg. New measures to support the homeless are to be
introduced(by the government).
It is common in newspaper headlines, where it is usually shortened.
Eg.New measures to support the homeless to be introduced.
4 need doing
This structure has a passive meaning. Eg.This house needs painting.(This

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house needs to be painted.)
5 by, with and in
The agent of a passive verb is introduced by by. With or in may be used
to introduce the means by which something is done. Eg. The drain was
cleared by the workmen. The drain was blocked with rubbish. The roads
were crowded with people. Service is included in the price.

WORDS AND FIXED PHRASES


On the spur of the moment: without preparation or planning
(impulsivamente; sin pensarlo).
In the end of the tether: the condition of having used up all ones
patience, strength, etc., and of being able to bear nothing more (al lmite
de sus fuerzas; en las ltimas).
In the nick of time: just in time; at the necessary moment (al pelo; de
perilla; muy a tiempo).
A stroke of luck: to be lucky (un golpe de suerte).
A ray of hope: a very small bit (of hope or comfort)(un rayo de
esperanza).
In the heat of the moment: glimmer.
A new lease of (on) life: the ability to be happy, active, and successful
again, esp. after being weak or tired (prorrogar su vida; volver a la vida,
nacer de nuevo).
Put ones back into it: to help (poner empeo en algo).
Make sense: to have a clear meaning; to be a wise course of action
(tener sentido).
To have a go: an attempt to do something (intentar).
Shed (/throw/cast) light: clarify (arrojar luz sobre algo).
Draw a line: to set limits (trazar una lnea = poner lmites).
Spare a thought for somebody: take into consideration (pensar un
momento en alguien).
Spot of bother: fighting or public disorder.
Load of nonsense: a large amount of; a lot of(montn de pavadas).
Have a stab: try (esforzarse por hacer; tratar de aprender o adivinar).
A grain of truth: a single very small piece of hard substance; =some
but not much truth(una pizca de verdad).
Lack/take leave of ones senses: become crazy (perder la razn/el
juicio).
Added years: make him/her look older (parecer mayor).
Supersede: take the place of; replace (reemplazar).
A wink of sleep: (usu. Negative) even a short period of sleep (no pegar

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los ojos).
A pack of lies/thieves: (derog) any collection of (sarta de mentiras).
Presence of mind: the ability to act calmly, quickly and wisely in
conditions of sudden danger or surprise (presencia de nimo, serenidad).
It is a matter of opinion: what a person thinks about something, based
on personal judgement rather than actual facts (es un punto discutible).
A piece of cake: something very easy.
Excel: best - better.
Encounter: meet.
For a greater good: una mentira blanca/piadosa.
Come in useful/handy: to be useful (resultar til / venir bien).
Handy: useful and simple to use (til; a mano, cerca; habilidoso).
On and off (off and on): from time to time; sometimes (por perodos
breves).
Probation (n): the system of allowing certain law breakers not to go to
prison, etc, if they behave well and report regularly to a probation officer
for a fixed period of time (libertad condicional, libertad bajo palabra).
Counselling (v): to advise as a suitable course of action; to give advice
and support (esp someone experiencing difficulty)[brindar
asistencia/atencin psicolgica a alguien; aconsejar a alguien que haga
algo; aconsejar cautela o mesura]
Astray (adv): away from the right path (perderse, extraviarse;
descarriarse, ir por el mal camino)
Deterrent: something that deters (from): to prevent from acting, esp
by the threat of something unpleasant (elemento disuasorio; disuadir).
Mugger (n): a person who mugs (v): to rob (a person) with violence,
esp in a public place.
Assailant (n): an attacker
Turnstile /t:nstail/: a small gate with arms spinning round on a central
post, set in an entrance to let people in one at a time, usually after
payment (molinete como en la entrada del subte).
Slew (n): lot, a large number.
Detain: to prevent a person from leaving for certain time; to delay.
Catch: to trap; esp after chasing and hunting; capture.
Trap: to catch (an animal) in a trap, esp for food or fur or as business.
Lure: atraer .
Lure somebody into something: tentar a alguien para que haga algo.
Mount: to go up; climb.
Sea: of a large mass or quantity spread out in front of one.
Closed circuit TV cameras
Police records

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Sophisticated technology
Recorded incidents
Time consuming analysis
Building a bridge
Make full use of a system
Involved in a project
Claims to produce accurate matches
Have reported massive drops in crime

PREPOSITIONS
A - bad at: not good. eg. Im not good at Maths.
hopeless at: very bad or unskilled. Eg. Im hopeless at Maths.
adept at: highly skilled. Eg. He was highly adept at making up
excuses for his lateness.
efficient at: working well, quickly and without waste.
B - similar to: like - alike; of the same kind; almost but not exactly the
same in nature or appearance. Eg. We have similar opinions; my opinions
are similar to hers.
applicable to: directed towards or concerning a particular person or
group. Eg. The rule is only applicable to UK citizens.
preferable to: better, because more suitable; that one should or
would prefer. Eg. A dark suit is preferable to a light one for evening wear.
Anything is preferable to having her stay for the whole week!
contrary to: completely different or wholly opposed. Eg. Opinions
contrary to mine.//Contrary to our advice, he gave up his job.
C - anxious about: feeling anxiety; worried and frightened. Eg. I was
terribly anxious about the exam.
happy about: feeling that something is right or good; satisfied.
Eg.People are not happy about the latest government decisions.
worried about: experiencing worry; anxious. Eg.She seemed worried
about something.
curious about: eager to know or learn, esp. about something
unfamiliar or mysterious; inquisitive. Eg. I am curious about what
happened.
D - dependent on: needing the help or support of something or someone.
Eg.The country is dependent on foreign aid. The country is dependent on
oil export.
That will be decided by. Eg.The size of the crowd is dependent on the
weather.
reliant on: depending on, relying on. Eg. We should not be so reliant

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on her; she is very childish.
intent on: having a determined intention. Eg. He is intent on getting
his degree.
keen on: having a strong, active interest in something; eager to do
something. Eg. Men are keen on playing football. Some people are keen
on growing roses.
E - different from: unlike; not the same or of the same kind. Eg.They are
quite different from each other.
apart from: without considering; except for. Eg.A good piece of work,
apart from a few slight faults.
As well as. Eg.Apart from being too large, it just doesnt
suit me.
distinct from: clearly different or separate. Eg.Those two ideas are
quite distinct from each other.
exempt from: freed from a duty, service, payment, etc. eg. He is
exempt from military service.
F - indicative of: showing or suggesting. Eg.His presence is indicative of
his willingness to help.
typical of: showing the main signs or qualities of a particular kind,
group or class. Eg.This book is typical of the 19thC.
Showing the usual behaviour. Eg.It is typical of her to be
so attentive.
illustrative of: used for explaining the meaning of something.
characteristic of: typical; representing a things or persons
characteristic. Eg. The characteristic taste of Italian wine. It is
characteristic of her that she never complained.
Close to: near. Eg.The church is close to the shops.
Fond of: having a great liking or love (for someone or something, esp.as
result of a long relationship). Eg. She has many faults, but we are all very
fond of her.
Affectionate towards showing gentle love. Eg.She was affectionate to the
little child.
Attached to: to be fond of and feel a strong connection with. Eg.I am
deeply attached to this old car.
Certain of: some of them but not all of them. Eg.Certain of these
questions have never been answered. Completely confident about the
truth of something; be confident; sure. Eg. She is certain of having
passed the exam.
In vain: uselessly; without a successful result. Eg.We tried in vain to make
him change his mind.
Out of the blue: unexpectedly. Eg.He appeared out of the blue.

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Cope with: to deal successfully with a difficult situation. Eg.The factory
coped very well with the sudden increase in demand.
Manage on: to succeed in living, esp.on a small amount of money.
Eg.They managed quite well on very little money.
Not to be sneezed at: (often humorous) worthy of consideration; not to be
considered unfavourably. Eg An increase of $10 is not to be sneezeed at.

Dependence on - depend on; indication of - indicate (without preposition);


application for - apply for; characteristics of - characterized by; difference
between - differ from; preference for - prefer sth/sbdy to sth/sbdy;
involvement in - involved with; contribution to - contribute to.

NOUN - VERB - ADVERB - ADJECTIVE


Poverty - impoverish - poorly - poor
Safety - safe - safely - safe
Peace - pacify - peaceably - peaceful
Honour - honour - honourably - honourable
Blood - bleed - bloodily - blooded

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES


They are used to make: 1 - adjectives from nouns (attentive - attention;
childish/childlike - child; accidental - accident;
authoritarian(neg)/authoritative(pos) - authority) ; 2 - adjectives from
verbs (excel - excellent;regretable - regret; attractive - attract); 3 - nouns
from verbs (decision - decide; amazement - amaze; breakage - break;
refusal - refuse; informant - inform; adaptaability - adapt); 4 - nouns from
adjectives (romanticism - romantic; modernization - modern); 5 - nouns
from other nouns (host/hostess - hostal; book - booklet; child - childhood;
resource - resourcefulness); 6 - verb suffixes (beautiful - beauty; black -
blacken;chlorate - chlorine; simplify - simple; symbolize - symbol;
carefully - care; amazingly - amaze); 7 - adverb suffixes (bad - badly;
clockwise - clock; northwards - north; picturesquely - picturesque).
disconnected; subconsciously; misheard; illegible; overflowing;
semicircle; incomplete; antisocial.
Educate - education; poor - poverty ; economy - economically; prevent -
unprevented; literate - illiteracy; mortal - mortality; consequence -
consequently; efficient - inefficient - efficiently; ecology - ecological; need
- necessity; come - overcome.

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FIXED EXPRESSIONS
Sit for an exam. Make a revision or make notes. Follow a course or a
module. Study a subject; study history; or study notes. Pass an exam;
pass a test; pass a course; pass history; pass a subject; pass a module.
Do a test; do an exam; do a subject; do a course; do history. Take lessons;
take a subject; take notes; take a course; take modules.

It as a preparatory subject or as a preparatory


object
This structure is often used to postpone the subject of a sentence to a
later position, especially if the subject is a long phrase; since it is usual in
English to place longer or more complicated phrases towards the end of
the sentence. A common pattern is It + be + adjective + that-clause.
It may also be used to place important or new information at the end of
the sentence for emphasis. Eg. It was not always going to be easy to
accustom himself to living an ordinary life after the last two weeks. It
was clear that everything he had ever done had been for his own benefit.
It is vital for Alicia to go to London.
As well as replacing the subject, it may replace the object for similar
reasons. The noun or phrase referred to is placed in a more emphatic
position. It also allows a longer phrase to be used.
Eg. He found it incredible that only the previous day he had been sitting
in that same yacht. She finds it difficult to walk to the shops on her own.
They thought it strange that he had not told anyone.
It also has some non emphatic uses, such as:
It refering to something previously mentioned. This can be a singular
noun or a general idea.
Eg. Far away in the horizon he could just see the big yacht. He followed it
with his eyes until it disappeared over the horizon.
It acting as an empty or dummy subject, it does not refer to any word
or phrase in the text. It is used when talking about dates, times or
weather. Eg.It was noon. It was rainy.

ESSAYS
The word essay comes from the French word ssai. An essay is an
extended piece of writing on a given subject (more than 800 words). It is
longer than a composition and makes people think.
There are many kinds of essays, but there are four kinds of essays which

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are the most important ones. They are: narrative essays, descriptive
essays, argumentative essays and expository essays. According to the
kind o essay it is its purpose. The purpose of a narrative essay is to
retell; the purpose of a descriptive essay is to describe; the purpose of
an argumentative essay is to convince or persuade; the purpose of an
expository essay is to inform.
The general sturcture is an introduction, a body and a conclusion.
The introduction is the thesis that states what you are going to talk
about. It generally takes two paragraphs.
In the body the thesis is supported and extended. It takes at least three
paragraphs (from 3 to 6 paragraphs).
In the conclusion one goes back to the introduction to support the
thesis. It takes more than a paragraph. Although it is shorter than the
Introduction, it has to be balanced.
The easiest kind of essay is the expository essay. It needs a lot of
research of true, accurate and precise information. They tend to be
impersonal;i.e., in British English one tends to be impersonal, but in
American English one is allowed to use the first person singular. The
essay should be unified and coherent. Quotations can be used.
Bibliography quotations should be written at the end of the article.

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