Energy Engineering

Ocean energy conversion

Fundamental characteristics of tidal power, Harnessing tidal energy and limitations.

Principle of working of ocean thermal energy, Rankine cycle, Limitations of OTEC.
Geothermal energy conversion working principle, Types of geothermal stations, Limitations.

The ocean can produce two types of energy: thermal energy from the sun's heat,
and mechanical energy from the tides and waves.
Oceans cover more than 70% of Earth's surface, making them the world's largest
solar collectors. The sun's heat warms the surface water a lot more than the deep ocean
water, and this temperature difference creates thermal energy. Just a small portion of the
heat trapped in the ocean could power the world.
Ocean thermal energy is used for many applications, including electricity generation.
There are three types of electricity conversion systems: closed-cycle, open-
cycle, and hybrid. Closed-cycle systems use the ocean's warm surface water to vaporize
a working fluid, which has a low-boiling point, such as ammonia. The vapor expands and
turns a turbine. The turbine then activates a generator to produce electricity. Open-cycle
systems actually boil the seawater by operating at low pressures. This produces steam that
passes through a turbine/generator. And hybrid systems combine both closed-cycle and
open-cycle systems.
Ocean mechanical energy is quite different from ocean thermal energy. Even though
the sun affects all ocean activity, tides are driven primarily by the gravitational pull of the
moon, and waves are driven primarily by the winds. As a result, tides and waves are
intermittent sources of energy, while ocean thermal energy is fairly constant. Also, unlike
thermal energy, the electricity conversion of both tidal and wave energy usually involves
mechanical devices.
A barrage (dam) is typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by forcing the
water through turbines, activating a generator. For wave energy conversion, there are three
basic systems: channel systems that funnel the waves into reservoirs; float systems that
drive hydraulic pumps; and oscillating water column systems that use the waves to
compress air within a container. The mechanical power created from these systems either

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directly activates a generator or transfers to a working fluid, water, or air, which then drives
a turbine/generator.
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses the temperature difference between cooler
deep and warmer shallow or surface seawaters to run a heat engine and produce useful
work, usually in the form of electricity. OTEC is a base load electricity generation system.
However, since the temperature differential is small, the thermal efficiency is low, making
its economic feasibility a challenge.
Cold seawater is an integral part of each of the three types of OTEC systems: closed-cycle,
open-cycle, and hybrid. To operate, the cold seawater must be brought to the surface. The
primary approaches are active pumping and desalination. Desalinating seawater near the
sea floor lowers its density, which causes it to rise to the surface.
The alternative to costly pipes to bring condensing cold water to the surface is to pump
vaporized low boiling point fluid into the depths to be condensed, thus reducing pumping
volumes and reducing technical and environmental problems and lowering costs

Closed cycle

Closed-cycle systems use fluid with a low boiling point, such as ammonia (having a boiling
point around -33 C at atmospheric pressure), to power a turbine to generate electricity.
Warm surface seawater is pumped through a heat exchanger to vaporize the fluid. The
expanding vapor turns the turbo-generator. Cold water, pumped through a second heat
exchanger, condenses the vapor into a liquid, which is then recycled through the system.

In 1979, the Natural Energy Laboratory and several private-sector partners developed the
"mini OTEC" experiment, which achieved the first successful at-sea production of net
electrical power from closed-cycle OTEC. The mini OTEC vessel was moored 1.5 miles
(2.4 km) off the Hawaiian coast and produced enough net electricity to illuminate the ship's
light bulbs and run its computers and television.

Open cycle

Open-cycle OTEC uses warm surface water directly to make electricity. The warm seawater
is first pumped into a low-pressure container, which causes it to boil. In some schemes, the
expanding steam drives a low-pressure turbine attached to an electrical generator. The
steam, which has left its salt and other contaminants in the low-pressure container, is pure

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fresh water. It is condensed into a liquid by exposure to cold temperatures from deep-ocean
water. This method produce salinized fresh water, suitable for drinking
water, irrigation or aquaculture.

In other schemes, the rising steam is used in a gas lift technique of lifting water to
significant heights. Depending on the embodiment, such steam lift pump techniques
generate power from a hydroelectric turbine either before or after the pump is used.

In 1984, the Solar Energy Research Institute (now known as the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory) developed a vertical-spout evaporator to convert warm seawater into
low-pressure steam for open-cycle plants. Conversion efficiencies were as high as 97% for
seawater-to-steam conversion (overall steam production would only be a few percent of the
incoming water). In May 1993, an open-cycle OTEC plant at Keahole Point, Hawaii, produced
close to 80 kW of electricity during a net power-producing experiment.[35] This broke the
record of 40 kW set by a Japanese system in 1982.

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Working fluids

A popular choice of working fluid is ammonia, which has superior transport properties, easy
availability, and low cost. Ammonia, however, is toxic and flammable. Fluorinated carbons
such as CFCs and HCFCs are not toxic or flammable, but they contribute to ozone layer
depletion. Hydrocarbons too are good candidates, but they are highly flammable; in
addition, this would create competition for use of them directly as fuels. The power plant

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size is dependent upon the vapor pressure of the working fluid. With increasing vapor
pressure, the size of the turbine and heat exchangers decreases while the wall thickness of
the pipe and heat exchangers increase to endure high pressure especially on the evaporator
side.

Tidal power

This is a form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained from tides into
useful forms of power, mainly electricity.

Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation.
Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Among sources of renewable
energy, tidal power has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited
availability of sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting its
total availability. However, many recent technological developments and improvements,
both in design (e.g. dynamic tidal power, tidal lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g.
new axial turbines, cross flow turbines), indicate that the total availability of tidal power
may be much higher than previously assumed, and that economic and environmental costs
may be brought down to competitive levels.

Tidal power is taken from the Earth's oceanic tides; tidal forces are periodic
variations in gravitational attraction exerted by celestial bodies. These forces create
corresponding motions or currents in the world's oceans. Due to the strong attraction to the
oceans, a bulge in the water level is created, causing a temporary increase in sea level.
When the sea level is raised, water from the middle of the ocean is forced to move toward
the shorelines, creating a tide. This occurrence takes place in an unfailing manner, due to
the consistent pattern of the moons orbit around the earth.[6] The magnitude and character
of this motion reflects the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth,
the effects of Earth's rotation, and local geography of the sea floor and coastlines.

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Different Types of Tidal Plants

Tidal Barrages
These involve the creation of mammoth concrete dams with sluices to create
grander scale operations than the 12th century tide mills.
Tidal Stream Generators
Very similar to the principles in wind power generation water flows across
blades which turn a turbine much like how wind turns blades for wind power
turbines.
Dynamic Tidal Power
This is a technology that is not currently commercial viable, but in which the
UK, Korea, and China invested heavily to research. It involves a partial dam
which raises the tidal height and several hydropower generators.
The differences in height between the head of the dam and the low tide
coast force water through the generator, much like a traditional hydropower

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dam. The first commercial tidal power plant in the world since the middle
ages is the La Rance Tidal Barrage in France.
The barrage was constructed in 1960 and consists of a 330m long dam with
a 22km2 basin. The effective tidal range is 8m.
The work was completed in 1967 when 24 5.4m diameter bulb turbines,
rated at 10MW each, were connected to the French power network with a
225kV transmission line.
The French authorities decided on a bulb turbine with axial power
generation because it suited the style of a tidal barrage as it flows from the
head of the dam to the basin through the turbine.

WHERE ARE GOOD AREAS FOR EXPLOITING TIDAL ENERGY?

Tidal range may vary over a wide range (4.5-12.4 m) from site to site. A tidal range of at
least 7 m is required for economical operation and for sufficient head of water for the
turbines. Hammerfest
Traditional tidal electricity generation involves the construction of a barrage across an
estuary to block the incoming and outgoing tide. The dam includes a sluice that is opened to
allow the tide to flow into the basin; the sluice is then closed, and as the sea level drops, the
head of water (elevated water in the basin) using traditional hydropower technology, drives
turbines to generate electricity. Barrages can be designed to generate electricity on the ebb
side, or flood side, or both.

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Tidal range may vary over a wide range (4.5-12.4 m) from site to site. A tidal range of at
least 7 m is required for economical operation and for sufficient head of water for the
turbines. A 240 MWe facility has operated in France since 1966, 20 MWe in Canada since
1984, and a number of stations in China since 1977, totaling 5 mWW. Tidal energy schemes
are characterized by low capacity factors, usually in the range of 20-35%.
The waters off the Pacific Northwest are ideal for tapping into an ocean of power using
newly developed undersea turbines. The tides along the Northwest coast fluctuate
dramatically, as much as 12 feet a day. The coasts of Alaska, British Columbia and
Washington, in particular, have exceptional energy-producing potential. On the Atlantic
seaboard, Maine is also an excellent candidate. The undersea environment is hostile so the
machinery will have to be robust.
Currently, although the technology required to harness tidal energy is well established, tidal
power is expensive, and there is only one major tidal generating station in operation. This is
a 240 megawatt (1 megawatt = 1 MW = 1 million watts) at the mouth of the La Rance river
estuary on the northern coast of France (a large coal or nuclear power plant generates
about 1,000 MW of electricity). The La Rance generating station has been in operation since
1966 and has been a very reliable source of electricity for France. La Rance was supposed to
be one of many tidal power plants in France, until their nuclear program was greatly
expanded in the late 1960s. Elsewhere there is a 20 MW experimental facility at Annapolis
Royal in Nova Scotia, and a 0.4 MW tidal power plant near Murmansk in Russia. UK has
several proposals underway.
Studies have been undertaken to examine the potential of several other tidal power sites
worldwide. It has been estimated that a barrage across the Severn River in western England
could supply as much as 10% of the countrys electricity needs (12 GW). Similarly, several
sites in the Bay of Fundy, Cook Inlet in Alaska, and the White Sea in Russia have been found
to have the potential to generate large amounts of electricity.
WHAT IS THE IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT?
Tidal energy is a renewable source of electricity which does not result in the emission of
gases responsible for global warming or acid rain associated with fossil fuel generated
electricity. Use of tidal energy could also decrease the need for nuclear power, with its
associated radiation risks. Changing tidal flows by damming a bay or estuary could,

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however, result in negative impacts on aquatic and shoreline ecosystems, as well as

navigation and recreation.
The few studies that have been undertaken to date to identify the environmental impacts of
a tidal power scheme have determined that each specific site is different and the impacts
depend greatly upon local geography. Local tides changed only slightly due to the La Rance
barrage, and the environmental impact has been negligible, but this may not be the case for
all other sites. It has been estimated that in the Bay of Fundy, tidal power plants could
decrease local tides by 15 cm. This does not seem like much when one considers that
natural variations such as winds can change the level of the tides by several metres.
WHAT ARE THE COSTS OF TIDAL ENERGY?
Tidal power is a form of low-head hydroelectricity and uses familiar low-head hydroelectric
generating equipment, such as has been in use for more than 120 years. The technology
required for tidal power is well developed, and the main barrier to increased use of the tides
is that of construction costs. There is a high capital cost for a tidal energy project, with
possibly a 10-year construction period. Therefore, the electricity cost is very sensitive to the
discount rate.
The major factors in determining the cost effectiveness of a tidal power site are the
size (length and height) of the barrage required, and the difference in height between high
and low tide. These factors can be expressed in what is called a sites Gibrat ratio. The
Gibrat ratio is the ratio of the length of the barrage in metres to the annual energy
production in kilowatt hours (1 kilowatt hour = 1 KWH = 1000 watts used for 1 hour). The
smaller the Gibrat site ratio, the more desireable the site. Examples of Gibrat ratios are La
Rance at 0.36, Severn at 0.87 and Passamaquoddy in the Bay of Fundy at 0.92.
Offshore tidal power generators use familiar and reliable low-head hydroelectric
generating equipment, conventional marine construction techniques, and standard power
transmission methods. The placement of the impoundment offshore, rather than using the
conventional barrage approach, eliminates environmental and economic problems that
have prevented the deployment of commercial-scale tidal power plants.
Three projects (Swansea Bay 30 MW, Fifoots Point 30 MW, and North Wales 432
MW) are in development in Wales where tidal ranges are high, renewable source power is a
strong public policy priority , and the electricity marketplace gives it a competitive edge. Q.
What are some of the devices for tidal energy conversion? The technology required to
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convert tidal energy into electricity is very similar to the technology used in traditional
hydroelectric power plants. The first requirement is a dam or barrage across a tidal bay or
estuary. Building dams is an expensive process. Therefore, the best tidal sites are those
where a bay has a narrow opening, thus reducing the length of dam which is required. At
certain points along the dam, gates and turbines are installed. When there is an adequate
difference in the elevation of the water on the different sides of the barrage, the gates are
opened. This hydrostatic head that is created, causes water to flow through the turbines,
turning an electric generator to produce electricity.
Electricity can be generated by water flowing both into and out of a bay. As there are
two high and two low tides each day, electrical generation from tidal power plants is
characterized by periods of maximum generation every twelve hours, with no electricity
generation at the six hour mark in between. Alternatively, the turbines can be used as
pumps to pump extra water into the basin behind the barrage during periods of low
electricity demand. This water can then be released when demand on the system its
greatest, thus allowing the tidal plant to function with some of the characteristics of a
pumped storage hydroelectric facility.
WHAT ARE SOME OF THE DEVICES FOR TIDAL ENERGY CONVERSION?
The technology required to convert tidal energy into electricity is very similar to the
technology used in traditional hydroelectric power plants. The first requirement is a dam or
barrage across a tidal bay or estuary. Building dams is an expensive process. Therefore,
the best tidal sites are those where a bay has a narrow opening, thus reducing the length of
dam which is required. At certain points along the dam, gates and turbines are installed.
When there is an adequate difference in the elevation of the water on the different sides of
the barrage, the gates are opened. This hydrostatic head that is created, causes water to
flow through the turbines, turning an electric generator to produce electricity.
Electricity can be generated by water flowing both into and out of a bay. As there are two
high and two low tides each day, electrical generation from tidal power plants is
characterized by periods of maximum generation every twelve hours, with no electricity
generation at the six hour mark in between. Alternatively, the turbines can be used as
pumps to pump extra water into the basin behind the barrage during periods of low
electricity demand. This water can then be released when demand on the system its

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greatest, thus allowing the tidal plant to function with some of the characteristics of a
pumped storage hydroelectric facility.
WHY TIDAL ENERGY?
The demand for electricity on an electrical grid varies with the time of day. The supply of
electricity from a tidal power plant will never match the demand on a system. But, due to
the lunar cycle and gravity, tidal currents, although variable, are reliable and predictable and
their power can make a valuable contribution to an electrical system which has a variety of
sources. Tidal electricity can be used to displace electricity which would otherwise be
generated by fossil fuel (coal, oil, natural gas) fired power plants, thus reducing emissions of
greenhouse and acid gasses.

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