Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Ethnography of Metacognitive
Self-Assessment and
Self-Management among
Experienced Language Learners
WILLIAM P. RIVERS
Bryn Mawr College and the National
Foreign Language Center at the University of
Maryland
1029 Vermont Avenue, NW, Suite 1000
Washington, DC 20005
Email: wrivers@nflc.org
Research in cognition has shown that expert learners in diverse fields, including chess,
mathematics, physics, and language learning, approach new learning tasks differently than
novice learners. More recent research in neuropsychology makes a strong claim that metacog-
nition is separate from cognition and consists of two types of behavior: self-assessment and
self-management. This article analyzes self-directed language learning behaviors of adult
third-language learners based on qualitative data. The data were gathered in 1993 and 1994
from 11 learners of Georgian and Kazakh at the University of Maryland at College Park. All
learners had 2/2/2 (L/R/S) proficiency in Russian according to the Federal Interagency
Language Roundtable (FILR) scale. Data were analyzed using the Grounded Method for
analyzing qualitative data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). All learners were found to assess their
progress, learning styles, strategy preferences, and conflicts with teaching styles and with the
behaviors of other learners regularly. Based on these assessments, the majority of learners
made attempts at specific self-directed learning behaviors, focused primarily on changes to
course materials and classroom activities, and targeted specific learning tasks and strategies.
Here, the student refers to the instructors empha- Im global extrovert. The other two are introvert
sis on rote memorizationa common pedagogi- types, and you can see that our different capabilities
cal method in the Soviet Union. This insistence on come out in different activities. Im more creative in
composition, they have a better memory of vocab,
rote memorization, and American students un-
etc. (Georgian student 1, Weekly survey 1).
willingness to do it, is a possible source of conflict
in classes with Soviet-trained instructors and This learner style conflictbetween an extro-
American students with little exposure to Soviet- verted learner and two introverted class-
trained instructors (Leaver & Flank, 1987). It matesgenerated considerable difficulty and
should be noted that the majority of learners had frustration:
little exposure to Soviet-trained instructors, be-
cause none had studied abroad. Any such expo- My only concern is, now that were running short of
sure presumably came during the students under- time, that we cant afford to spend a half hour to an
graduate careers. The same student continues: hour on [Student 1s] experiments in poetry, fairy
tales ancient history any more (Georgian student
I brought in a Georgian art book that related to a 2, Weekly survey 1).
book [Instructor A] showed me Thursday re [sic]
Georgian history. [Instructor A] told me right off the This conflict was not resolved until the depar-
bat [that Instructor A] didnt like the bookwhich ture from the course of Student 1 (the student
was disconcerting . . . as a teacher of Classical lan- left the course for job-related reasons). Both stu-
guages, [Instructor A] may not be used to . . . cogni- dents exhibited a keen awareness of their own
tive, participatory teaching (Georgian student 1, learner styles and learning strategy preferences.
Daily survey 6). Georgian student 1 was aware of a difficulty
Student 2 had a different conflict: with short-term memory and the acquisition of
lexicon, and resultant problems in activities re-
They try to keep us talking, which I wouldnt have quiring the use of short-term memory and re-
considered all that important before, but I can see cently taught lexicon:
how it is activating a lot of vocabulary (Georgian
student 2, Daily survey 4). The hard part comes when we have to translate it [a
newspaper article] on the spot in class . . . I do better
This response is illuminating in that the student at other activities, when my inability to keep up
recognizes her preference for activities other [doesnt interfere with the activity]. They [students 2
than speaking, the emphasis in the course on and 3] hear better/remember vocab better (Geor-
speaking, and some benefit of the non-preferred gian student 1, Weekly survey 1).
activity. This last traitflexibility in learner style
and learning strategy preferencesreappears Student 2 exhibited an awareness of difficulties
throughout the data. with oral activities:
Learner style conflicts within the class cohort
They try to keep us talking, which I wouldnt have
remain a less well investigated area in research on considered all that important before, but I can see
cognitive styles and Second Language Acquisi- how it is activating a lot of vocabulary (Georgian
tion (SLA). Nonetheless, some researchers, nota- student 2, Daily survey 4).
bly Leaver (1993) have recognized the potential
for problems in classrooms with divergent learner Informal consultations with the instructors and
styles and learning strategy preferences among the students tended to confirm the accuracy of
the class cohort.6 All parties recognized the con- these assessments. Student 1 did indeed have
flict: more difficulty in acquiring vocabulary, and Stu-
dent 2 was more reluctant to engage in conversa-
Ive become increasingly aware of the differences in tion.
our personalities learning styles lately (Georgian
One episode in the Georgian course stands as
student 2, Weekly survey 1).
a metaphor for learner autonomy. All students
We waste a lot of time repeating explanations because repeatedly expressed their discomfort with the
[Georgian student 1] was busy talking and making pace of the course and the amount of the mate-
284 The Modern Language Journal 85 (2001)
rial, either to the administration or to the teach- This particular example of self-directed language
ers: learning is the only clear instance occurring in
the corpus of survey responses from the Georgian
We really cant do all the homework theyre asking us
course.
to do (Georgian student 1, Daily survey 3).
Two final points concerning the Georgian
The complaint was made directly to the instruc- course: First, of the three conflicts which appear
tors, an illocutionary first step in learner auton- in the survey responses, two (the learner-teacher
omy. The instructors responded by prioritizing style conflict and the course workload and se-
the homework tasks for the students: quence conflict) were resolved by the learners
and teachers, with minimal intervention from the
It was some help today when they made an effort to administration. The thirdthe learner style con-
prioritize the tasks for us, after we talked it over [my
flict within the class, and an attendant personality
emphasis] (Georgian student 1, Daily survey 3).
clashwas resolved only by the removal of one of
Apparently, the problem recurred, as evidenced the learners, for reasons unrelated to the course.
by the responses to the problem in the later daily The ability to resolve such conflicts within the
and weekly surveys: framework of the classroom, when coupled with
remarks such as the following, indicate that the
At the end of the day, [Instructor B] agreed to cut our learners (and teachers) in this course were flex-
homework tasks back, so we have time to review vo-
ible in their approach to the learning process:
cab, and to do what we can do with better quality . . .
(Georgian student 1, Daily survey 6). I need much more practice in the areas that I like less
and tend to neglect when left to my own devices
We have boiled down all our activities, in class and at
(Georgian student 2, Daily survey 2).
home, to the kind of work we agree we need and want
most (Georgian student 2, Weekly survey 3).
On the other hand, we are getting practice where we
The first citation above addresses an additional are weakest (Georgian student 1, Daily survey 4).
issue: the students self-assessment of the quality
of the work done. The second citation above ad- They try to keep us talking, which I wouldnt have
dresses an issue besides the amount of home- considered all that important before, but I can see
work: course content. Unfortunately for the pur- how it is activating a lot of vocabulary (Georgian
poses of research, these discussions were held in student 2, Daily survey 4).
camera, as it were, between the students and
That flexibility, as seen in the research literature,
teachers. That alone, the fact that the students
is a hallmark of the experienced language learner
appealed directly to the instructors and left the
and the good language learner.
administration out of the loop, testifies to the
The Kazakh group, which consisted of 8 stu-
degree of autonomy exhibited by the students. A
dents, provided a rich set of survey responses
more typical response (as will be seen in the data
containing evidence of: two broad learner-
form the Kazakh group) would have been an
teacher style conflicts; a great deal of information
appeal to the teachers, followed by an appeal to
on the learners self-assessment of their progress,
the program administration.
learner styles, and learning strategy preferences;
Direct evidence of self-directed language learn-
and a group-wide attempt to change the structure
ing appears in the corpus of survey responses
of the course. The Kazakh students seemed less
from the participants in the Georgian course.
aware of the differences in individual learner
Student 1 claimed to have found materials of styles, often using the survey to appeal to the
personal interest (an art book), and this student
administration for a modification which would
was accused by other students of writing poetry
suit the individual making the appeal, even
and fairy tales. These are evidence of self-di-
though the same days surveys might contain re-
rected language learning, insofar as the student
sponses from other learners praising the activity
(Student 1) engaged in activities which were not
which the first respondent wanted removed. In
assigned by the instructors, which reflected the
the corpus of survey responses, the Kazakh group
students own interests (poetry, fairy tales, Geor-
evinces little awareness of this phenomenon.
gian history), and which reflected a learning
The first learner-teacher style conflict arose
strategy preference:
from the drill and kill nature of the instruc-
Im more creative in composition, they have a better tional techniques used, and the reaction of the
memory of vocab, etc. (Georgian student 1, Weekly class cohort to those techniques. The reliance on
survey 1). oral drills caused widespread conflict, with most
William P. Rivers 285
students objecting to the reliance on oral drills ing, and reading for detail. The responses to the
and requesting more written drills: newspaper texts and the approach used in analyz-
ing the texts indicated both apprehension and a
I feel like [Instructor D] is frustrated by our slow pace
general preference for bottom-up processing:7
in doing oral drills and our very slow response to
questions. This may be a cultural difference, Im not The rather lengthy newspaper article is a bit over-
sure. Perhaps they do a great deal more oral drilling whelming initially but if I keep at it, I would think that
in the former Soviet Union, but I have never had to I may learn to decipher the structures (Kazakh stu-
do so much oral drilling without extensive written dent 7, Daily survey 11).
exercise first (Kazakh student 1, Daily survey 6).
We had a long talk with our instructors today and we
We need more written practice, especially with gram- are not going to do mamoth [sic] newspaper articles
mar. We do a lot of oral practice, but it would be anymore for a while until we sort of know the gram-
easier if we did some written work first (Kazakh stu- mar and structure that goes into them (Kazakh stu-
dent 4, Daily survey 6). dent 2, Daily survey 15).
Our instructors seem to be accustomed to oral repe- Again, the conflict was partially resolved by an
tition and to oral exercises, with material we have just instance of the exercise of learner autonomyin
learned, while we are more accustomed to written this case, the talk with the instructors.
exercises, perhaps corrected orally. Some adjustment
Much as the Georgian cohort, the Kazakh stu-
is necessary on both sides (Kazakh student 5, daily
survey 7).
dents actively assessed their learner styles and
their learning strategy preferences. Among the
The resolution to this conflict lay in a direct con- assessments of learner style were several assess-
frontation with the instructors: ments of learner type, according to no particular
taxonomy:
[We] finally got up the courage today to tell our
teacher that we Americans almost never work orally Even though I rate myself as a global learner, it is
in school . . . oral drills are murder on us. Immedi- hard to do that when there are so few good reference
ately everything started getting written out on the texts or primers (Kazakh student 8, Daily survey 6).
board and we got to write down sentences and work
from our papers. It was great! (Kazakh student 1, Here, a student claimed to be a global learner.
Daily survey 8). Others claimed to be analytic learners:
Note as well that the resolution to this conflict Our instructor intends to spend several days (19) on
occurred only when the students expressed the possessive endings alone, which is a good
autonomy, by approaching the instructor and re- idea. . . . Such periodic concentration on certain as-
questing a specific change in the manner of pre- pects of the language is necessary, in my opinion, if
we are to really learn the language (Kazakh student
sentation of new material. However, not all of the
5, Daily survey 6).
students agreed with the new approach:
The fact that we have no textbook (but numerous
[Instructor D writes] sentences, words on the board
global/random handouts) makes it that much harder
it takes a long time to copy it all. By the time I
to study prepare the exercises (Kazakh student 8,
finish, she has already gone on to some new words,
Daily survey 9).
etc., which means I am missing things. Others have
said the same thing (Kazakh student 6, Daily survey Other learners classified themselves as aural or
8). visual learners:
This student was the only one who gave a negative While this [taped dialogues] will be useful, progress
response to the change from purely oral presen- will be slower, at least for me, since my visual memory
tation to a mixture of written and oral presenta- is far superior to my aural memory (Kazakh student
tion. (The others mentioned in the response 1, Daily survey 12).
did not choose to do so in the surveys.) Thus, the
Field-dependence also receives implicit mention:
tentative conclusion is that for the majority of the
students in the Kazakh group, this particular con- reciting words without context is inherently unsatisfy-
flict was resolved in a satisfactory manner. ing (Kazakh student 2, Daily survey 9).
A second conflict arose during the use of a
Our vocabulary is growing nicely, but is organized
top-down approach to newspaper texts. After ap- around phonetic sounds, rather than student matter,
proximately 2 months of instruction, the teachers i.e., words beginning with y rather than words con-
introduced authentic target language newspaper nected with a certain topic. I dont mind this, but
articles, and directed the students to perform a some students are bothered by it (Kazakh student 5,
number of tasks with the articles: scanning, gist- Daily survey 3).
286 The Modern Language Journal 85 (2001)
Although the cited examples also make refer- who intervened and convinced the instructors of
ence to affective behaviors and learning strategy the worth of an independent study day.
preferences, the clear result to be drawn from Other examples of learner autonomy included
them is that this particular cohort of experienced a request for an American-trained Turkic linguist
language learners was aware of their individual to deliver a lecture on Kazakh verbal morphol-
learner styles and learning strategy preferences, ogy:
even where they could not name the style or
Were having some problems understanding the
strategy.
manner and usage of certain verb tenses. Perhaps
The first example of self-assessment of learning [Instructor G] can help (Kazakh student 5, Daily sur-
strategy preferences analyzed abovethe strong vey 11).
and negative reaction to oral presentation, cou-
pled with the universal request for written presen- Students also made requests for dictionaries, text-
tationis a clear example of the students assess- books, and primers. A recurrent request was to
ments of their learning strategy preferences with slow the pace of the course and reduce the
respect to the mode of presentation of new mate- amount of homework. This, too, required inter-
rial. Other preferences expressed included a de- vention form the program staff, in careful con-
sire for repetition: sultation with the instructors. Throughout the
course, the Kazakh cohort, both collectively and
Review, review, review! This is very good for me individually, was quick to express learner auton-
(Kazakh student 1, Daily survey 12). omy.
In terms of learner autonomy, a pattern of re-
Another student expressed the desire for tran-
liance upon administrative intervention to
scripts, to accompany taped dialogues (Kazakh
achieve the particular goals of the cohort became
student 5, Daily survey 13). A third student stated
clear. In general, there were two possible out-
a preference for gisted dialogues with glosses of
comes to any assertion of learner autonomy:
key vocabulary:
either the adoption of the students suggestion or
Give us a loose summary of what is going on, a few of the rejection of it. In the latter case, the students
the key phrases and any new vocabulary, then send us tended to continue pressing their request rather
home to see how we do recovering the whole dia- than seeking alternatives. Some individual stu-
logue ourselves (Kazakh student 1, Daily survey 17). dents did occasionally demonstrate some self-di-
rected language learning behaviors, especially in
At the level of learning strategies, especially at
the latter stages of the course. A source for the
the level of cognitive strategies, this cohort of
relatively low incidence of self-directed language
learners had a clear conception of their own pref-
learning behaviors may have been cultural. The
erences and the interaction of those preferences
two instructors in this course tended initially to
to the course as a whole.
reject any assertion of autonomy; the perceived
The students of the Kazakh group had one
lack of autonomy may have contributed to both
singular, collective assertion of learner autonomy.
the lack of self-directed language learning behav-
Beginning in the first week of class, a request was
iors, and to the students stubborn persistence in
taken up to add independent study time to the
asserting their autonomy. Thus, the lack of auton-
course schedule:
omy for the experienced learner created a feed-
I would suggest that the week be cut back to 4 days a back mechanism, which only served to exacer-
week with one day set aside for catching up on all the bate the overall situation. A tentative conclusion
material. If we had Wednesdays off, we would be to be drawn from the Kazakh daily survey re-
fresher for the remaining class days (Kazakh stu- sponses is that autonomy is a prerequisite for
dent 8, Daily survey 3). self-directed language learning.
guages. Jensen (1989) and Jordan (1991) both suggest ments of the Total Physical Response and Silent Way
288 The Modern Language Journal 85 (2001)
methods. See Omaggio Hadley (1993) for a description pirieskoje issledovanije razvitija reevoj kompe-
of the latter two methods. A description of the Emo- tencii v uslovijax inostrannogo jazyka za rubeom.
tional-Semantic Method may be found in Sydykova [Empirical research on the development of spoken
(1989). competence during language study abroad]. In D.
6 Leaver suggests alleviating this potential conflict by Davidson (Ed.), American contributions to the VII in-
distributing students across class sections according to ternational congress of MAPRIAL (pp. 123152).
their learner styles. This would allow the strengths and Washington, DC: American Council of Teachers of
weaknesses of individual students, or individual prefer- Russian.
ences in learning strategies, to complement those of Brecht, R., Davidson, D., & Ginsberg, R. (1991). On
other individual learners in the class. Leavers sugges- evaluating proficiency gain in study abroad envi-
tionthe grouping of students by learner styles to cre- ronments: An empirical study of American stu-
ate a complementary distribution of learner styles dents of Russian (A preliminary analysis of data).
within the classroomwas impractical in a course with In Z. Dabars (Ed.), Selected papers delivered at the
three students and two instructors (Leaver, 1993). NEH symposium in Russian language and culture (pp.
7 This is a possible example of the short-circuit hy-
101130). Washington, DC and Baltimore, MD:
pothesis in action (Clarke, 1980). The National Endowment for the Humanities and
the Center of Russian Language and Culture of
Friends School.
Brecht, R., Davidson, D., & Ginsberg, R. (1993). Predic-
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