How Self-Regulated Learners Cope with Academic Difficulty: The Role of Adaptive Help

Seeking
Author(s): Richard S. Newman
Source: Theory Into Practice, Vol. 41, No. 2, Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner (Spring,
2002), pp. 132-138
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1477465
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Richard S. Newman

How Self-Regulated Learners Cope

with Academic Difficulty: The Role
of Adaptive Help Seeking

W HEN FACING DIFFICULT ACADEMIC TASKS, ness of difficulty they cannot overcome on their o
many students exert little effort. They give and exhibit the wherewithal and self-determination
up prematurely, sit passively, or persist unsuccess- to remedy that difficulty by requesting assistance from
fully on their own. Other students are actively en- a more knowledgeable individual, they are exhibit-
gaged in certain classroom situations but passive ing mature, strategic behavior. Help seeking can avert
in others. Still others consistently exhibit resilience. possible failure, maintain engagement, lead to task
Student engagement in the face of difficulty de- success, and increase the likelihood of long-term
pends on many factors, including (a) how the child mastery and autonomous learning. Indeed, adaptive
has been socialized over the years and (b) how he or help seeking is a strategy of self-regulated learning.
she is presently being taught in the classroom. Since When engaged in difficult tasks on their own, stu-
young children are innately curious and eager to learn, dents often must take the initiative to enlist the help
two important issues emerge. First, there is theof teachers and peers. With development and its
developmental question: "Why have many children associated expectations of independence, the re-
become passive learners who do not take the ini-sponsibility for obtaining assistance falls increas-
tiative required to overcome adversity, while oth-
ingly on the students' shoulders.
ers remain motivated in the face of potential Self-regulated learners possess a "tool kit"
failure?" Second, there is the educational question:
of strategies for dealing with academic challenge
"How do classroom teachers facilitate-or inhib- and are motivated to use appropriate strategies at
it-students' efforts at overcoming adversity?" theThis
appropriate time. Specific competencies and
article addresses the second question, withmotivational
a spe- resources are required for adaptive
cific focus on how teachers can encourage elemen-
help seeking: (a) cognitive competencies (i.e.,
tary and middle-school students to seek help withwhen help is necessary, knowing that oth-
knowing
academic work they cannot do on their own. ers can help, knowing how to ask a question that
The emphasis here is on adaptive help seeking
yields precisely what is needed); (b) social compe-
(Nelson-Le Gall, 1981; Newman, 1994)-asking for(i.e., knowing who is the best person to
tencies
the help needed in order to learn independently, not for help, knowing how to carry out a
approach
simply to obtain the correct answer. When students
request for help in a socially appropriate way); (c)
monitor their academic performance, showpersonal
aware-motivational resources (i.e., personal
Richard S. Newman is professor of education goals,
at theself-beliefs, and feelings associated with tol-
University of California, Riverside. erance for task difficulty; willingness to express to

THEORY INTO PRACTICE, Volume 41, Number 2, Spring 2002

Copyright ? 2002 College of Education, The Ohio State University

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 Newman
Adaptive Help Seeking

others a need for help; and a sense of personal this understanding, appropriately guide the stu-
agency); and (d) contextual motivational resources
dent's learning. Intersubjectivity may mitigate the
(i.e., classroom factors such as goals, grading sys-
power differential common to student-teacher re-
tems, collaborative activities, student-teacher in- lations. Teachers who are perceived as friendly and
teraction, and teacher expectations for the child caring demonstrate "democratic interaction" styles,
that facilitate help seeking). with lines of communication open to students
This article is organized around key aspects (Wentzel, 1997). Caring teachers tend to listen, ask
of a self-system theory (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; questions, inquire if students need help, make sure
Newman, 2000). Children have three self-system students understand difficult material, and provide
needs that underlie self-regulated learning: relat- help in a nonthreatening way. When they experi-
edness, autonomy, and competence. Children have ence this type of communication, students learn
a need to, first, feel that others care about their that teachers are trustworthy helpers. For students
already disengaged at school, teacher involvement
well-being; second, feel they are in charge of their
own actions; and third, feel competent. Self-per- may be especially important. Low achievers, who
ceptions of relatedness, autonomy, and competence often have poor self-perceptions of ability and low
influence the degree to which children regulate their self-esteem, typically are reluctant to seek academic
own learning. Thus, socializers need to provide help in class. Yet, this reluctance is reduced in
children with involvement (e.g., nurturance and classrooms in which teachers believe their respon-
affective closeness), support for autonomy (e.g., sibility is to attend to students' academic as well
encouragement of independence), and support for as social and emotional needs (Ryan, Gheen, &
competence (e.g., lessons that instill a sense of Midgley, 1998).
competence and an understanding that academic Beliefs about help seeking. Teacher involve-
success is contingent on competence). In this arti- ment forms the basis of students' beliefs and feel-

cle, I discuss ways in which teachers can satisfy ings about both the benefits and costs of help
students' self-system needs and thereby contribute seeking. In turn, what students think and feel about
to their competencies and motivational resources seeking help may well affect actual help-seeking
required for adaptive help seeking. I also discuss behavior.
how peers-within the classroom setting-can in- Preschoolers, kindergartners, and first grad-
fluence students' help seeking. ers who approach their teacher for assistance gen-
erally do so because of global, affective traits of
Involvement With Students the teacher (e.g., niceness and kindness). With age,
Teacher influence children become aware of additional ways the
In classrooms in which teachers share with chil- teacher can meet their needs. By the middle of
dren their time, energy, and nurturance, students tend elementary school, for example, students judge a
to be attentive, effortful, self-expressive, and inter- teacher as helpful when he or she is aware of their
ested in learning. Teacher involvement is important problems and gives them advice, time, energy, and
in adaptive help seeking because of two mediating encouragement to ask questions in class. Through-
out the elementary and middle-school years, per-
processes: teacher-student intersubjectivity and stu-
dents' personal beliefs. ceptions of mutual liking and friendship with the
Teacher-student intersubjectivity. Teachers teacher are important factors in students' help seek-
perceived as caring and involved typically estab- ing (Newman & Schwager, 1993). But students also
lish classrooms that are characterized by "inter- have negative views of teachers with regard to help
subjectivity" (i.e., attunement of teacher's and seeking. As early as second grade, students fear
student's purpose, focus, and affect). When teach- negative reactions (e.g.. "I think she might think
ers and students are "on the same page," teachers I'm dumb") if they ask for help (Newman & Goldin,
are especially able to take the student's perspec- 1990). Perceived costs are heightened when students
tive and understand his or her thinking (e.g., re- experience teachers they perceive as unwilling to
garding a particular academic task) and, based on help (e.g., "If you had paid attention, you wouldn't

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THEORY INTO PRACTICE / Spring 2002
Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner

need to ask that question"). Because of their need Social goals. The more strongly they strive
for peer approval and need to protect their self- for goals of social affiliation (i.e., desire for friend
worth, older students are particularly afraid of ship and intimacy), the more students value an
"looking dumb" in front of their teachers. use help seeking as a strategy for dealing with ac
Students integrate or weigh perceived benefits ademic difficulties (Ryan, Hicks, & Midgley,
and costs of help seeking. This integration process 1997). These goals, however, do not guarantee that
becomes increasingly complex over the school help seeking is adaptive. Children may appear to
years. Elementary and middle-school students gen- work together and request help from one another
erally are aware of the benefits (e.g., "asking ques- but are really just goofing off. Requests among
tions helps you learn") as well as the costs (e.g., friends are sometimes socially inappropriate (e.g.,
"it's embarrassing") of going to the teacher. Yet in shouting questions across the room) and cognitively
elementary grades, students decide whether to ac- inappropriate (e.g., requesting unnecessary help).
tually seek help depending only on the degree to Also, social affiliation does not guarantee that help
which they expect benefits. At middle school, stu- seeking leads to academic success. When working in
dents decide based on expectations of benefits as collaborative groups, students most interested in so-
well as expectations of costs. That is, with transi- cial affiliation tend to rely on help from peers, whereas
tion to middle school, thoughts and fears about those most interested in academic success "fall
costs compete with beliefs about benefits. Students back" on the teacher (Newman & Gauvain, 199
in upper grades increasingly struggle with decid- Teachers can encourage students' social af
ing what to do when they need assistance with filiation. They can also downplay the importan
schoolwork (Newman, 1990). of goals of social status (i.e., desire for peer a
proval and popularity). The more strongly student
Peer influence feel that social approval from peers is importan
Can peer involvement also influence help seek-
the more they are embarrassed to ask for help
ing? Yes, as a result of friendships and social goals.
the classroom (Ryan et al., 1997). At the transition
Importantly, peer influences are constrained byto themiddle school, when students tend to be esp
degree to which teachers and classroom rules permit
cially concerned about maintaining a positive im
students to work together and help one another. age in front of classmates, social status goals likel
Friendships. Friends, by definition, assist and
have a negative effect on help seeking. For exam
support one another (see Berndt & Keefe, 1996).
ple, if the student's self-esteem is easily threa
Among elementary and middle-school students,
ened and his or her peer group does not val
"quality" friendships are characterized by help and
academic success, these goals often inhibit hel
support as well as certain features, such as reli-seeking. Importantly, however, inhibition seems t
ability, affection, intimacy, and lack of conflictbeand
buffered if the student has a strong sense of s
rivalry, that tend to mediate efforts at help seek-
and has a peer group that does value learning. Stu-
ing. In close relationships, children are relatively
dents who want to learn but feel peer pressure no
unconcerned about self-disclosure, threats to self-
to "look dumb" have to coordinate different go
esteem, and indebtedness to those who help them.
as they decide what to do when facing academ
In a friendly context, children find it easier to man-
difficulty. Goal coordination may be particular
age and negotiate social demands of interactions
daunting for the student who wants to learn b
and focus their mutual efforts on learning and prob-
whose peer group exerts pressure not to "look
lem solving. Among friends, help seeking is most
smart" (Wentzel, 1996).
likely to result in requested information and there-
by is reinforced as an effective learning strategy. Autonomy Support for Students
In contrast, children in conflictual relationships Teacher influence
typically are reluctant to disclose difficulties to one Self-regulated learners feel autonomous. This
another and probably would not expect help to be not mean they are self-sufficient and isolate
does
forthcoming even if they requested it. from others. On the contrary, they feel comfortab

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 Newman
Adaptive Help Seeking

asking for assistance when necessary. An importantPeer influence

way teachers can support autonomy and facilitate Students can support, or undermine, one an-
adaptive help seeking involves achievement-related other's sense of autonomy needed for adaptive help
goals. seeking. The general mechanism of influence is
Teachers establish different types of class- social comparison.
room goals (Ames, 1992). When they emphasize First, comparing one's performance with that
the importance of long-term mastery, autonomy, of others can have a positive influence on help
and the intrinsic value of learning (e.g., by using seeking. Because of an overly optimistic view of
criterion-referenced grading and collaborative ac- competence, young children often make nondis-
tivities), teachers foster classroom learning goals. In criminating judgments about the quality of help
this environment, students truly interested in under- from classmates (Stipek & Mac Iver, 1989). Social
standing ask the teacher for task-related information comparison offers information about others'
that helps resolve difficulties; those students who strengths and weaknesses and permits children to
choose not to seek help generally like the challenge accurately evaluate peers' capacity to be effective
of persevering on their own. On the other hand, when helpers (Ruble & Frey, 1991). During the elemen-
teachers stress the importance of getting good grades tary and middle-school years, social comparison
and looking smart (e.g., by using norm-referenced also helps students make realistic judgments about
grading and competitive activities), they foster class- whether they have tried hard enough on their own
room performance goals. Here, students are likely to before turning to others. Students are increasingly
avoid asking for assistance in order to mask low abil- able to judge when assistance is truly necessary so
ity; however, if they do ask for help, they exhibit they can request the right amount of help-not too
nonadaptive patterns of questioning (e.g., immedi- little and not too much (Nelson-Le Gall & Jones,
ately asking for a correct answer without first at- 1990). Although for students in primary grades it
tempting the task on their own) (Butler & Neuman, matters little whether they are alone or not in need-
1995; Newman & Schwager, 1995). ing assistance, at upper grades, realizing it is nor-
Teachers also must adjust to the different mal to have academic difficulty tends to minimize
personal goals students bring with them to the class- embarrassment (Newman & Schwager, 1993).
room. Some students are motivated by personal Social comparison can also have a negative in-
learning goals. They request hints (rather than di- fluence on help seeking. Starting around ages 6-7,
rect answers) and feedback about whether their children feel uncomfortable when receiving help from
work is correct; presumably they want to debug peers as well as teachers. At second grade and be-
errors and get it right on their own. Other students, yond, students are more concerned that peers-in
however, especially those with personal perfor- comparison to the teacher-might interpret a re-
mance goals, are not particularly interested in this quest for help as a sign of being "dumb" (Newman
sort of information. The extent to which teachers & Goldin, 1990). On transition to middle school,
accommodate individual differences in children can when it becomes so important for students to be so-
influence help seeking. When both classroom and cially accepted by classmates, there is an increase in
personal goals emphasize learning, students are the degree of competitiveness in many classrooms
(Eccles & Midgley, 1989). At the same time, there
especially likely to seek help adaptively; whereas,
when both types of goals emphasize performance, typically are changes in how students conceptualize
ability; students come to believe that "smart" chil-
students are reluctant to do so. Importantly, when
students who are concerned about grades and look-dren, who do not have to try very hard, and "dumb"
ing smart in front of peers are placed in a learn-
children, who have to work extra hard, can get a
ing-goal classroom, they tend to overcome-and similar grade on an assignment. Thus, the implica-
compensate for-their personal tendencies to avoid
tion is that students come to perceive those who need
help as not very "smart" (Nicholls & Miller, 1984).
help. By being attuned to individual student's per-
sonal goals, teachers can assist students who oth-
By raising their hand and asking for help, adoles-
erwise might give up (Newman, 1998). cents put their self-worth at risk (Covington, 1992).

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THEORY INTO PRACTICE / Spring 2002
Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner

To the degree they manage both these posi- students may realize that it is normal not to be able
tive and negative aspects of social comparison in to solve all problems independently (McCaslin &
the classroom (e.g., according to grading practices Good, 1996). Moreover, when teachers demonstrate
and types of classroom activity), teachers ultimately to students that they deserve, and expect, answers
hold the key for how peers influence one another's to their questions, it can be argued that children
sense of autonomy needed for adaptive help seeking. are socialized with a personal sense of empowerment
and "voice" (Nelson-Le Gall & Resnick, 1998).
Support for Competence
Teacher influence Peer influence
Teachers can influence whether students are- How might students influence one another's
and feel-competent with regard to adaptive helpcompetence needed for adaptive help seeking? Peer
seeking in a variety of ways. Teachers establish, andinfluence on competency development is highly
dependent on the degree to which teachers allow
students internalize, patterns of discourse in the class-
room (Cazden, 1986). Students then learn the value, students to help one another.
usefulness, and skills of questioning. Questions and In contrast to individual classroom activity
probes that teachers use to diagnose misconceptions (where teachers usually expect students not to need
assistance) and whole-class activity (where ques-
may eventually help students ask intelligent ques-
tions generally flow in the direction of teacher-to-
tions, both of themselves and of others. Teacher feed-
back lets students know when they need help. Givingstudent rather than student-to-teacher), small-group
no more assistance than is necessary may help chil- activity generally reduces social comparison and
dren distinguish between adaptive and excessive help promotes peer collaboration. During small-group
seeking. Explicitly encouraging students to strategi- collaboration, students can turn to one another when
cally use the help that is given to them (e.g., going they need assistance. With experience working to
back to an incorrect problem and trying to re-solvegether, they gradually become better at asking each
it) may help them continue to monitor their under-other "good" questions. For example, students re
standing and determine if they need further assis- quest help more skillfully by checking to see if the
tance (see Webb & Palincsar, 1996). The frequency potential helper is paying attention to them before
with which teachers call on students, the amount ofactually making a request. They make requests that
time they wait for a response, and the amount and are direct, sincere, polite, and clear about what
type of praise they give vary from student to stu- exactly is being requested (Cooper, Marquis, &
dent. Certain students (e.g., low achievers) oftenAyers-Lopez, 1982). Requests are often revised and
learn not to volunteer questions in order to avoidclarified if students are initially unsuccessful in
negative feedback and embarrassment (Eccles & obtaining a response. When students make vague
Wigfield, 1985). Classrooms in which teachers are requests but persist by reformulating and clarify-
"experts" (e.g., who present to the class an expla- ing the requests, academic performance tends to
nation without discussion and then expect students improve. And, when they ask for, and receive,
simply to practice) arguably support students' non- "elaborated" help (e.g., explanations rather than
adaptive, dependency-oriented help seeking (Stod- direct answers), and when they then use that help
olsky, 1988). in a constructive way, students are most likely to
On the other hand, as a result of scaffolded learn (see Webb & Palincsar, 1996).
experiences (e.g., teachers responding to requests Especially at upper-elementary and middle-
for help with hints and contingent instruction rather school levels, collaborative activity provides students
than direct and controlling answers), students have a chance to "think in public" and exchange their
an opportunity to master difficult tasks and learn that thoughts with one another (Brown & Campione,
questioning is a valuable means for solving prob- 1994). Built into many collaborative activities are
lems. When teachers demonstrate that dilemmas and opportunities for children to ask-and be asked-
uncertainty can be tolerated-and perhaps shared questions for purposes of monitoring their own and
and even transformed into intellectual challenge- others' understanding, as well as opportunities for

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 Newman
Adaptive Help Seeking

requesting clarification, justification, and elaboration Third, adaptive help seeking is contingent on th
of other students' ideas. Questions during collabora- student's sense of competence. Teachers provid
tion potentially allow an exchange of perspectivesopportunities for students to internalize patterns o
among individuals who are working on relativelyclassroom discourse (e.g., effective questioning) re-
equal footing. As students observe the effective-lated to adaptive help seeking. In small-group co
ness of peers' questions in resolving difficulties, laborative activities, students can practice skills o
they learn that different individuals contributeself-monitoring and self-questioning. They can also
unique skills and knowledge. They may learn how,question peers and learn how asking for and giv
in the future, to choose helpers according to bothing assistance to one another are keystones to ac
their own needs and others' competencies. demic success.

In sum, adaptive help seeking is a unique

Conclusion strategy of self-regulated learning. Studying, rehear
ing, organizing, self-checking, and self-testing are
Dealing with academic adversity is a critical
self-regulated
part of the learning process. This article has fo- learning strategies that students can
carry out independently. Help seeking, on the othe
cused on one particular way that self-regulated
hand, is a self-regulative strategy that students mus
learners remain engaged in the face of difficulty
carry out through social interaction with others; the
and potential failure. It is important for students,
after determining that they do not understand participate
an in regulating their own learning by ob-
taining
assignment, to take the initiative to get assistance assistance from others. Indeed, "self-regula
rather than give up. But many students lack the tion" and "other regulation" are integrally intertwine
competencies and motivational resources required(see Vygotsky, 1978). "Others" in the classroom
for adaptive help seeking. They exert little effort, teachers and peers) play obviously importan
(i.e.,
sit passively, or persist unsuccessfully on their roles
own. in students becoming self-regulated learners.
Teachers and peers can facilitate adaptive
help seeking by providing students with involve- References

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