Electronics-II

EEE 203

Operational Amplifiers
 Purpose
To introduce the Operational Amplifier by
providing background, functionality and
applications.
 Introduction
An Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is an integrated
circuit that uses external voltage to amplify the input
through a very high gain.
We recognize an Op-Amp as a mass-produced
component found in countless electronics.
 Introduction

Operational Amplifiers are represented both

schematically and realistically below:
Active component
 Background
Originally invented in early 1940s using vacuum tube
technology
Initial purpose was to execute math operations in analog
electronic calculating machines
Shrunk in size with invention of transistor
Most now made on integrated circuit (IC)
Only most demanding applications use discrete
components
Huge variety of applications, low cost, and ease of
mass production make them extremely popular
 Amplifiers

Single-ended Amplifier

Differential Amplifier
-Amplifies difference between inputs
Operational Amplifier
Output gain high
A ~= 106
Tiny difference in the input
voltages result in a very
large output voltage
Output limited by supply
voltages
Comparator
If V+>V-, Vout = HVS
If V+<V-, Vout = LVS
If V+=V-, Vout = 0V
3-stage Op-Amp
 Why are they useful?
Sensor signals are often too weak or too noisy
Op Amps ideally increase the signal amplitude
without affecting its other properties
 Why are they useful?
Negative feedback leads to stable equilibrium
Voltage follower (direct feedback)
If Vout = V- , then Vout ~ V+

Closed Loop Transfer Function

H(s) = A / (1 + AF)

When AF >> 1

H(s) = 1 / F
Where: A = Op Amp Open Loop Gain
F = Feedback Loop Gain
 OP AMP Golden rules
1.The output attempts to do whatever is
necessary to make the voltage difference
between the inputs zero.
2.The inputs draw no current.
 Basic Circuits Review
Kirchoffs Law
Voltage Law: The sum
of all the voltage drops
around the loop = Vin V1 + V2 + V3 = Vin

Resistance (Ohms )
Series

Parallel
 Basic Circuits Review
Capacitance (Farad F)
Series

Parallel

Inductance (Henry H)
Series

Parallel
 Ideal Op Amp
Zin is infinite
Zout is zero
Amplification (Gain) Vout / Vin =
Unlimited bandwidth
Vout = 0 when Voltage inputs = 0
 Ideal Op Amp
Ideal Op-Amp Typical Op-Amp

Input Resistance infinity 106 (bipolar)

109 - 1012 (FET)
Input Current 0 10-12 10-8 A
Output Resistance 0 100 1000
Operational Gain infinity 105 - 109
Common Mode Gain 0 10-5
Bandwidth infinity Attenuates and phases at high
frequencies (depends on slew
rate)
Temperature independent Bandwidth and gain
 How are Op-Amps used?
Comparator
Voltage follower
Signal Modulation
Mathematical Operations
Filters
Voltage-Current signal conversion
Non-inverting Op-Amp

Uses: Amplifystraight up
Inverting Op-Amp

Uses: Analog inverter

 Comparator

Uses: Low-voltage alarms, night

light controller
Pulse Width Modulator
Output changes when
Vin ~= Vpot
Potentiometer used to vary
duty cycle

Uses: Motor controllers

 Summation

Uses: Add multiple sensors inputs until a

threshold is reached.
Difference

V 2 R3 R1 R4 V1 R3
Vout
( R4 R2 ) R1 R1

If all resistors are equal:

Vout V2 V1
Integrating Op-Amp

Uses: PID Controller

 Differentiating Op-Amp

(where Vin and Vout are functions of time)

Filters
Decouple the low-pass RC
filter from the load.

Uses: Simple audio. Remove

frequencies over 20kHz
(audible)
Low-pass Filter (active)
Cutoff frequency

This works
because the
capacitor needs
time to charge.
 High pass filter (active)

Band-pass filter cascades both high-pass and low-pass!

 Measuring current
Current (I) better than voltage (V) for measurement
Voltage suffers losses due to resistances in path
Low impedance is better for resisting noise

So how do we generate a constant current source?

Transconductance Amplifier
 Transconductance Amp
Precision 250 resistor
1V / 250 = 4mA
5V / 250 = 20mA
RLoad doesnt matter, just
as long as op-amp has
high enough voltage rails
Uses:
- In: Sensors (temp, pressure, etc),
- Out : Radios (Variable Freq Osc)
 Conclusions
Op-Amps are often used for
Sensor amplification
Mathematical operations (sums, difference,
inverse)
Filters (High/Low/Band pass)
Measurement devices
Current in > Voltage out