Immunity

IMMUNITY
By the end of the lesson, students
should be able to:

describe immunity
describe the general structure and state the
classes of antibodies (IgM, IgG, IgA, IgE and IgD)
 Key terms
Pathogens:
Disease-causing microorganism, including certain
viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa

Immune response:
recognition of foreign macromolecules and response
aimed at eliminating them

Antigen:
any molecule that can be specifically recognized as
foreign by cell of the immune system

Antibodies:
highly specific protein that recognized and bind to
specific antigens
 Key terms
Disease-causing microorganism:
Pathogens including certain viruses, bacteria,
fungi and protozoa

recognition of foreign macromolecules

Immune
and response aimed at eliminating
response
them

any molecule that can be specifically

Antigen recognized as foreign by cell of the
immune system

highly specific protein that recognized

Antibodies and bind to specific antigens
 Immunity system
Is a part of the bodys protective and defensive
mechanism against pathogenic microrganisms

Immunity may be defined as the bodys ability to:

- recognize foreign material which has invaded the body
- respond by removing this foreign material quickly and
effectively

Mechanism and chemical barriers prevent most pathogen

from entering the body
 The Human Immune System
Two types of defensive mechanism:

1) Non-specific
protection by skin, mucous and acidic at
stomach

2) Specific
a) Cell-mediated immune response
b) Humoral immune response
An overview of the bodys defense
NONSPECIFIC DEFENSE MECHANISMS SPECIFIC DEFENSE
(protection by skin, mucous and acidic at stomach) MECHANISMS
a) Cell-mediated immune
response
b) Humoral immune response

First line of defense Second line of defense Third line of defense

Skin Phagocytic white Lymphocytes

Mucous membranes blood cell Antibodies
and their secretions Antimicrobial protein
(cytokines)
The inflammatory
response
 Immunity

Organism defence system in

response to foreign or potential
dangerous substances
(antigen)
 Immunity
Active Passive
Type of immunity:
1) Active immunity
arises when the body produces
antibodies against an invading
foreign substances
vaksination : BCG, triple antigen,
Rubella, Hepatitis B

2) Pasive immunity
transfer the maternal antibodies
via placenta or breast milk
induced by injection of serum
taken from an individual already
immune to particular antigen
Active Passive
 Immunity can defined by
- infection by foreign substances
- the state of relative insusceptibility of an animal to infection by
disease-producing organism or to the harmful effects of their
poisons (toxins)

Immune response
- the reaction of the body to foreign or potentially dangerous
substances (antigen)
 Antigen
Known as
immunogen

any substances
capable of stimulating
an immune response

usually a protein or a
large carbohydrate
that is foreign to the
body
 Antigen
An antigen is any molecule or structure
that is could trigger the immune response system

A lymphocyte actually recognizes and binds

to just a small, accessible portion of the antigen
called an epitope

Antigen-
binding epitopes
Antibody A sites (antigenic
determinants)

Antigen

Antibody B
Antibody C
 Antibody
Known as immunoglobulin

Protein compounds
produced by plasma cells
in response to specific
antigens and having the
capacity to react against
the antigens

Two functions of antibody

merge with antigen
activate process of destroy
antigen by phagocytosis
 Proteins produced by plasma cells (B lymphocytes)
that recognize foreign antigens and prevent them
from causing disease
Antigen- Antigen-
binding binding site
site
V Disulfide

V
bridge

V
V
Light Variable
chain regions

C
Constant
C C regions

Transmembrane
region

Plasma
membrane
Heavy chains

B cell Cytoplasm of B cell

(a) A B cell receptor consists of two identical heavy

chains and two identical light chains linked by
several disulfide bridges.
 Proteins produced by plasma cells (B lymphocytes)
that recognize foreign antigens and prevent them from
causing disease
 Antibody Structure
Each antibody consists Antigen- Antigen-

of 4 polypeptide chains binding binding site

site
V Disulfide
bridge

V
two short polypeptides,

V
V
Light Variable
light chains chain regions
C

C
two identical long chains, C C
Constant
regions
heavy chains Transmembrane
region

Antibodies with the Plasma

same variable Heavy chains

membrane

segments have B cell Cytoplasm of B cell

identical clefts
(a) A B cell receptor consists of two identical heavy
therefore recognize the chains and two identical light chains linked by
several disulfide bridges.
same antigen
 Antibody Structure
Antigen- Antigen-
binding binding site
The 4 polypeptide site
V Disulfide
bridge

V
chains are held

V
V
Light Variable
chain regions
together by C

C
Constant
covalent disulfide C C regions

(-S-S-) bonds Transmembrane

region

Plasma
membrane
Heavy chains

B cell Cytoplasm of B cell

(a) A B cell receptor consists of two identical heavy

chains and two identical light chains linked by
several disulfide bridges.
 Antibody Structure & Function
The antigen binding site is
specific to the protein coat of
a given bacteria or virus
(species specific)
Attachment of an antibody
Now marks the invader for
ingestion by phagocytotic cells
(eg. WBC)
Antibody Structure
 Immunoglobulin Classes
* Based on differences
in structure of
constant regions on
heavy chains,
antibody can be
divided into 5 classes

IgA
IgD
IgE
IgG
IgM
 Ig M
Primary antibody
response.
Structure = pentamer
5-10% of serum
antibodies.
Found in blood, lymph,
on B cells.
Agglutinates; first
antibody
produced in response to
Pentamer
infection
IgM
Half-life = 5 days.
 Ig G
Temporary protection
to newborn.
Structure = monomer
Found in blood, lymph,
intestine
Cross placenta
Enhance phagocytosis;
neutralize toxins &
viruses; protect fetus & Monomer
newborn. IgG
Half-life = 23 days.
 Ig A
Secretory; saliva and
tears
Structure = dimer
10-15% of serum
antibodies.
Found in secretions.
Mucosal protection.
Half-life = 6 days.
Dimer IgA
 Ig D
Cell surface receptors
in B lymphocytes.
Structure = monomer.
0.2% of serum
antibodies.
Found in blood, lymph,
on B cells.
On B cells, initiate
immune response. Monomer
Half-life = 3 days. IgD
 Ig E
Allergic response.
Structure = monomer.
0.02% of serum
antibodies.
Found on mast cells and
basophils, in blood.
Allergic reactions; lysis
of parasitic worms.
Half-life = 2 days. Monomer
IgE
Relationship Between Antigen, Immune
And Antibody
By the end of the lesson, students
should be able to:
State the roles of lymphoid organs in immunity such as:
Thymus
Spleen
Tonsil
Lymph nodes
Bone marrow

State the various types of antigen and antibody

interactions
 The human lymphatic system
1 Interstitial fluid bathing the
tissues, along with the white
blood cells in it, continually
enters lymphatic capillaries. Lymphatic
capillary
Interstitial
fluid 2 Fluid inside the
Adenoid lymphatic capillaries,
called lymph, flows
Tonsil
through lymphatic
vessels throughout
Lymphatic
4 the body.
vessels
return lymph to the
blood via two large
ducts that drain into Lymph
Blood
veins near the nodes
capillary
shoulders.
Spleen
Tissue Lymphatic
Peyers patches cells vessel
(small intestine)

3 Within lymph nodes,

Appendix microbes and foreign
particles present in
the circulating lymph
encounter macro-
phages, dendritic cells,
and lymphocytes,
Lymphatic which carry out
vessels various defensive
Lymph Masses of actions.
node lymphocytes and
macrophages
 Lymphatic system
Lymph fluid contains leukocyte

Lymph system is closely associated with cardiovascular

system

The function of lymphatic system is to recycle tissue fluid

into the blood in form lymph fluid

Lymph node located at duct; its function is to filter

bacteria and foreign substances from entering the blood

Lymphatic Vessels transport

lymph fluid in one direction
Functions of Lymphatic System

Takes up excess tissues

fluid and returns it to
bloodstream

Absorbs fats in intestinal

villi and transports them
to bloodstream

Helps defend body

against disease
 How does lymphatic system function?

Blood pressure at the end

of artery is high

Plasma flow through the

capillaries wall enter to
space between cell
interstitial fluid

Blood plasma flow through

capillaries wall (red blood
cell do not diffuse via
capillaries wall)
How does lymphatic system function?

Most of fluid tissue

accumulate as lymph enter
the lymph vessel

Lymph capillaries closed

and the rest will flow through
big vessel thorax vessel
and right lymph vessel
How does lymphatic system function?
 Lymphatic system

Primary lymphatic organs

Red bone marrow
Thymus gland

Secondary lymphatic organ

Spleen
Lymph nodes
Other organs (tonsil)
Primary Lymphatic Organs
Red bone marrow
Thymus gland

Right Lymphatic Duct
Drains right upper portion of
the body
Thoracic Duct
Drains most of the body
Spleen
Major site of antibody
production; disposal site for old
red blood cells and foreign
debris; site of red blood cell
formation in the embryo
Bone Marrow
Marrow in some bones is
production site for infection-
fighting blood cells (as well as
red blood cells and platelets)
Tonsils
Defense against bacteria
and other foreign agents
Thymus
Site where certain white
blood cells acquire means
to chemically recognize
specific foreign invaders
Some of the
Lymph Vessels
Return excess interstitial
fluid and reclaimable
solutes to the blood
Some of the
Lymph Nodes
Filter bacteria and many
other agents of disease
from lymph
 i) Red Bone Marrow
Site of stem cells that are ever
capable of dividing and
producing blood cells

Five types of white blood cells

(WBCs) function in immunity

Most bones of children have red

blood marrow

Adult - it is present only in the

bones of the skull, the sternum,
the ribs, the clavicle, the pelvic
bones and vertebral column
 i) Red Bone Marrow
Red blood marrow has
network of connective
tissue which support
the stem cells and their
progeny

Lymphocytes
differentiate into B
lymphocytes and the T
lymphocytes
 i) Red Bone Marrow

Bone is not only the

source of B lymphocytes,
but also the place where
B lymphocytes mature

T lymphocytes mature in
the thymus gland
 ii) Thymus Gland
Located along trachea
behind sternum in upper
thorax
Larger in children; shrinks
as we get older
Divided into lobules where
T lymphocytes mature
Interior (medulla) of lobule
secretes thymopoietin and
thymosin thought to aid T
cells to mature
Secondary Lymphatic Organs
Spleen
Lymph nodes
Other organs (tonsil)
 i) Lymph Nodes
Small (1- 25 mm) round structures
Found at points along lymphatic vessels
Have fibrous connective tissue capsule with incoming
and outgoing lymphatic vessels
Each nodule contains sinus filled with lymphocytes
and macrophages
 Occurs singly or in groups of
nodules :
Tonsils are located in back of
mouth on either side
Adenoids on posterior wall above
border of soft palate
Peyers patches found within
intestinal wall

Lymph nodes occur in regions:

- axillary nodes in armpits
- inguinal nodes in groin
 ii) Spleen

Located in upper left

abdominal cavity just
beneath diaphragm
Structure similar to
lymph node; outer
connective tissue divides
organ into lobules with
sinuses
 ii) Spleen

Lobules contain sinuses

filled with blood
Blood vessels of spleen
can expand; therefore
spleen functions as
blood reservoir; makes
blood available in times
of low pressure or
oxygen need
 ii) Spleen
Spleen has red pulp
containing RBCs,
lymphocytes, and
macrophages; functions to
remove bacteria and worn-
out blood cells

White pulp contains mostly

lymphocytes to help fight
infections

Both help to purify the blood

Structure of the Spleen
 Functions :
i) Stores blood platelets

ii) Site of erythrocyte

production in the fetus
(capability that normally
ceases after birth)

iii) Store some of the

breakdown products of
RBC for later reuse
 iii) Other Lymphatic Organs
Tonsils
Lymph tissue under the
lining of the oral cavity
and throat (pharynx)

Function:
- protect the respiratory
system from infection
by antigen or bacteria
(that enter the body
through the mouth or
nose)
Antibody reaction
 Antigen-antibody interaction
When antigen enter to body, it stimulates the
immune response and produce antibody

The specific antigen-antibody interaction base on

Lock and Key concept

Antigen-antibody interaction will produces varies

antibody such as
Neutralization
Agglutination
Precipitation
Complement fixation /
Activation of complement
 i) Neutralization
Is the simplest mechanism

The antibody blocks viral

attachment sites or coats
bacterial toxins, making
them ineffective

Phagocytic cells eventually

destroy the complex
 ii) Agglutination
Neutralizes and opsonizes the
microbes

Each antibody has two or more

antigen-binding sites and can
cross-link adjacent antigens

The cross-linking can result in

clumps of bacteria being held
together by the antibodies,
making it easier for phagocytes
to engulf the mass
 iii) Precipitation
Precipitation is similar to
agglutination but involves the
cross-linking of soluble
antigen molecules instead of
cells

These immobile precipitates

are easily engulfed by
phagocytes
 iv) Complement Fixation
Antibodies combine with
complement proteins

This combination activates

the complement proteins

which produce lesions in the

foreign cells membrane that
result in cell lysis
Antibody-mediated interaction
By the end of the lesson, students should
be able to:

explain humoral and cell-mediated immune responses

explain MHC and interleukins

Immune Formation

Antigen
presentation
Antigen Presentation
 Cells of the immune system

The vertebrate body is

populated by two main
types of lymphocytes:
- B lymphocytes (B cells)
- T lymphocytes (T cells)
Both types of
lymphocytes circulate
throughout the blood and
lymph and are
concentrated in the:
- spleen
- lymph nodes
- other lymphatic tissue
 Lymphocytes that migrate
from the bone marrow to
thymus develop into T
cells

Lymphocytes that remain

in the bone marrow and
continue their maturation
there become B cells
 T Lymphocyte
T lymphocyte have receptor at membrane surface

Interaction between antigen and lymphocyte depend on

type of lymphocyte
T cells are distinguished by T-cell antigen receptor (TCR)
that allows T cells to recognize specific antigens
 How do T cells know which cells to target?

T cells do not recognize

antigens unless they are
presented properly

by antigen presenting
cell
 Characteristic of T cells
Provide cell-mediated
immunity against viruses
and cancer cells

Produced in bone marrow,

mature in thymus

Cytotoxic T cell (TC) destroy

nonself protein-bearing cells

Helper T cells (TH) secretes

cytokines that control the
immune response
 Major Histocompatibility Complex
(MHC)
Genes which produces a host cell protein that can
present an antigen fragment to T cell receptor

MHC of genes produced 2 classes of MHC molecules:

MHC-I and MHC-II

Class I MHC molecules can be found on all nucleated

cells of the body

Class II MHC molecules can be found on

macrophages, B cell and dendritic cells
 Major Histocompatibility Complex

Once the pathogen is

inside a host cell,
enzymes in the cell cleave
the pathogen proteins into
smaller pieces
peptide antigens or antigen
fragments

These antigen fragments

then bind to an MHC
molecule inside the cell
 Major Histocompatibility Complex
Movement of the MHC
and bound peptide to the
cell surface results in
antigen presentation, the
display of the antigen
fragment on the cell
surface

If an antigen-presenting
cell encounters a T cell,
the receptors on the T cell
can bind the antigen
fragments
 There are two main types of T cells, and each responds to one
class of MHC molecule

Cytotoxic T cells (TC) (have antigen receptors that bind to protein

fragments displayed by the bodys class I MHC molecules
Known less formally as Killer T cells
Cytotoxic T cells (TC) recognize and destroy cell with
foreign antigens on their surface
By releasing perforin
that lyses cells
 Helper T cells (TH) have receptors that bind to peptides
displayed by the bodys class II MHC molecules

These cell secrete substances that activate or enhance

immune response
 Two subsets of helper cells have been identified:
T helper 1 (TH1) cells: mainly promote cell-mediated immune
responses
T helper 2 (TH2) cells: stimulate B cell to divide and produce
antibodies and thus function in mainly in humoral immunity
T Suppress Cells (TS)

Lowers of activated B cell

after antigen destroy

Lowers of activated T
cytotoxic cell after antigen
destroy
 Characteristic of B cells

Provide antibody-mediated
immunity against bacteria

Produced and become

mature in bone marrow

Reside in spleen and

lymph nodes

Circulate in blood and

lymph
 Characteristic of B cells

Directly organize antigen

and then undergo clonal
selection

Clonal selection produces

antibody-secreting plasma
cells as well as memory B
cells
 B Lymphocyte
TH2 stimulate B cells

B cells mitosis to form

clone

2 type of clone, plasma

cells and memory cells

Plasma cells produced

antibody, migrate to
infection area region via
lymph and blood
 B Lymphocyte
Antibody attacks
antigen, before
infection host cells

Memory cells give

secondary response
when same antigen
attacks again

Easy to produced
antibody
 Immune response
(A)Cell-mediated immune
response
- involve T lymphocyte
directly react to antigen
which enter to the cell

(B)Humoral immune
response
- involve antibody response
produced by B lympocyte
towards antigen in plasma
cell and lymph
 Immune
Humoral Cell-Mediated
Response Type
Cell involved in
B cells T cells
Response

Protein Made by Cell Antibody (Ig) T cell receptor (TCR)

In serum, tears, etc

Always on cell surface
Location of Protein (released by B cell) or on
(attached to T cell)
cell surface
Free Antigens (Ag) or Ag Antigens attached to
Protein Recognizes attached to microbial surfaces of eukaryotic
surfaces cells
Aid in killing targets Complement Perforins

Side Effect Allergies Graft rejection

 Helper T lymphocytes function in both
humoral and cell-mediated immunity:

Both types of immune responses are initiated by

interactions between antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
and helper T cells (TH)

(1) An APC engulfs a bacterium and

transports a fragment of it to the
cell surface via a class II MHC
molecule
(2) A specific TH cell is activated by
binding to the MHC-antigen
complex on the surface of the
APC
 Activated helper T cells secrete
several different cytokines
(proteins or peptides) that
stimulate other lymphocytes

The helper T cell itself is also

subject to regulation by
cytokines
As a macrophage phagocytosizes
and presents antigen, the
macrophage is stimulated to
secrete a cytokine

Helper T cells modulate both

humoral (B cell) and cell-
mediated (cytotoxic T cell)
immune responses
CELL-MEDIATED RESPONSE
(T CELLS)
 Cell-mediated response

When T cell inside the

lymph nodes stimulate
with antigen

T cell become biggest

and divided to form T
cell clone; helper T
cells, cytotoxic T cells
and memory T cells
(inside lymph nodes)
 Cell-mediated response

Clones will produced

receptor at membrane
surface (function: receptor
for antigen binding)

Cytotoxic T cell (killer)

move to blood vessel and
tissue fluid
 Cell-mediated response
Cytotoxic T cell will lyses
the cell that have infected
with antigen
Another T cell clone will
produce helper T cell
(produce interleukins that help
regulate immune function)

Helper T cell will help B cell

to produce antibody
Helper T cell also help
cytotoxic T cell attack the
antigen
 Cell-mediated (T-cell)
sequence is summarized as:
Virus invades body cell
foreign antigen-MHC class II
complex displayed on cell
surface of APC specific T
cell (TH) activated by this
complex clone of T cells
produced; some become
cytotoxic T cells migrate to
area of infection cytotoxic
T cells release protein
(perforin) that destroy target
cell
 ANTIBODY FORMATION OF
THE LYMPHATIC TISSUE IN
THE HUMORAL RESPONSES
(B CELLS)
 Humoral response
Foreign antigen enter the
body and get free in blood
Helper T cell will be activated

Helper T cell secrete the

cytokines and activated B
cell
B cell will divided through
mitosis & B cell clone will be
produce
B cell clone differentiating
then produce plasma cell &
memory cell
 Humoral response
Plasma cell produce specific antibody
Antibody move through lymphatic and blood to infected
area
Antibody will bind with antigen (at pathogen surface)
Antigen-antibody complex will formed
Memory cell will produced antibody & attack antigen
when the same pathogen enter the body for the second
time
 Humoral response (B-cell)
sequence is summarized as:
Pathogen bearing antigens invades body APC
phagocytizes pathogen foreign antigen-MHC class
II complex displayed on APC surface helper T cell
binds with foreign antigen-MHC complex B cell
activated clone of B cells produced B cells
differentiate, becoming plasma cells plasma cells
secretes antibodies antibodies form complexes
with pathogen antibody complexes trigger
processes leading to pathogen destruction
 By the end of the lesson, students should
be able to:

explain the primary and secondary immune

responses

explain the concept of self and non-self (organ

transplant)
IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY
 Primary and secondary response

When a person is
exposed to an antigen
for the first time, there
is a lag of several
days before specific
antibody becomes
detectable

This antibody is IgM

(first Ig class
produced after initial
exposure to antigen)
 Primary and secondary response

After a short time, the

antibody level declines

These are main

characteristics of the
primary response
 Primary and secondary response

If, at a later date he or she

is re-exposed to the same
antigen, there is a far
more rapid appearance of
antibody, and in greater
amount

It is of the IgG class and

remains detectable for
months or years

These are the features of

the secondary response
 Primary and secondary response

If, at the same time that

he is re-exposed to an
antigen, he is exposed to
a different antigen for
the first time

the properties of the

specific response to this
antigen are those of the
primary response
The Primary and secondary immune responses
1 Day 1: First 4 Secondary response to anti-
exposure to gen A produces antibodies
antigen A 3 Day 28: to A; primary response to anti-
2 Primary
Second exposure gen B produces antibodies to B
response to
to antigen A; first
antigen A
exposure to
produces anti-
antigen B
bodies to A

104
Antibody concentration

103
(arbitrary units)

102 Antibodies Antibodies

to A to B

101

100
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56
Time (days)
Putting the two responses to explain graph
 10 Immune Response
1. Following the first exposure to a
foreign antigen, a lag phase
occurs in which no antibody is
produced, but activated B cells
are differentiating into plasma
cells. The lag phase can be as
short as 2-3 days, but often is
longer, sometimes as long as
weeks or months
2. The amount of antibody
produced is usually relatively low
3. Over time, antibody level
declines to the point where it may
be undetectable
4. The first antibody produced is
mainly IgM (although small
amounts of IgG are usually also
produced)
20 Immune Response
1. If a second dose of the same
antigen is given days or even
years later, an accelerated 20
or anamnestic immune response
(IR) occurs. This lag phase is
usually very short (e.g. 3 or 4
days) due to the presence of
memory cells
2. The amount of antibody
produced rises to a high level
3. Antibody level tends to remain
high for longer
4. The main type of antibody produced
is IgG (although small amounts of
IgM are sometimes produced)
 VACCINATION
A process of generating a state of immunity by
artificial means

A vaccine contains an antigen that can stimulate a

primary immune response against a particular
disease-causing agent, but does not produce the
severe symptoms of that disease

A vaccine might contain bacteria or viruses that has

been killed or weakened

Causes a person to develop an artificial acquired

active immunity
 Example of vaccination for
health (doses of antigen)
BCG (tuberculosis / TB) injection New born, 12 years old

Rubella - injection 12 / 15 years old

Hepatitis B - injection New born, 1 and 5 month

Triple antigen: 5 month

Hepatitis B -injection
Polio - mouth
DPT/DT (Diphthteria, Tetanus,
pertussis)-injection (refer Biological Science pg:490-
503)
Doses of antigen
Self and non-self recognition
 Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
The ability of the vertebrate immune system to
distinguish self from non-self depends on a group
of membrane protein known as Major
Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

HLA System (Human Leucocyte Antigen System)

- A series of four gene loci (A,B,C&D) in humans that
code for a group of glycoproteins, present on the surface
of cell membranes that act as antigens and are important
in determining the acceptance or rejection by the body of
a tissue or organ transplant
 HLA System (Human Leucocyte Antigen System)

These antigens are one group of histocompatibility

Successful transplantation requires a minimum
number of HLA differences between the donors and
recipients tissues
These markers are present on the surface of most cells
& slightly different in each individual
No two people (except identical twin) are likely to have
the same MHC protein on their cells
The more closely related two individuals are, the more
HLA antigens they have in common
 Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
3 group of MHC : MHC class I, MHC class II &
MHC class III

(a) MHC class I antigens are found on most nucleated cells and
are important in distinguishing between self and non-self

(b) MHC class II antigens are found only on cells of the immune
system, particularly B cells, macrophages, some T cells and
dendritic cell

(c) MHC class III antigens include components of the complement

system (which consist of roughly 30 proteins in blood plasma
that function together to fight infections)
 Tissue Rejection
Certain organs such as skin, the
heart and kidney, could be
transplanted easily from one
person to another if the body did
not attempt to reject them

Rejection occurs because

antibodies & cytotoxic T cells (TC)
bring about destruction of
foreign tissue in the body

When rejection occurs, the

immune system is correctly
distinguishing between self and
non-self
 Tissue Rejection
This problem can be
controlled by carefully
selecting the organ to be
transplanted and
administering
immunosuppressive drugs

It is best if the transplanted

organ has the same type of
HLA antigens as those of
the recipient because
cytotoxic T cells recognize
foreign HLA antigens
ORGAN TRANSPLANT
(liver)
By the end of the lesson, students should
be able to:

describe AIDS

explain the mechanism of action of HIV

infection and symptom of AIDS
list the possible causes and prevention of
HIV infection
 Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS)
 AIDS
The retrovirus, Human
Immunodeficiency Virus
(HIV), that causes AIDS

Retrovirus is an RNA virus

that uses its RNA as
template to make DNA with
the help of reverse
transcriptase
 HIV
HIV virus is the types of RNA
virus
Size< 0.1m in spherical shape
HIV damages the immune
system by destroying TH cell

Like all virus, HIV replicate

inside cells
 HIV
As a consequence of this
immunosuppression, AIDS
patient usually die from rare
forms of cancer, pneumonia
and others
A person infected with HIV
does not have AIDS until the
virus seriously damages
their immune system,
making them vulnerable to a
range of infections, some of
which can lead to death
 HIV Transmission
HIV can transmitted through body fluid, blood, semen
and virginal fluid
HIV transmitted from infected person through:
- Unprotected and promiscuous sex
- Receives blood from someone infected with HIV
 HIV Transmission
- Receive tissue, semen and organ donation
- Sharing of contaminated needles (especially IV drug
use)
- From mother to child during pregnancy, birth or breast
feeding (infected mother)
- Deep Kissing with bleeding gums
 Symptom and diagnosis
A person infected with HIV may have no
symptoms or a combination symptoms
including:
Nausea
Diarrhea
Unexplained weight loss or fatigue
Swollen glands neck,
Fever, shaking or chills lasting more than
several weeks
Blurred vision
Severe headaches
Easy bruising and pink to purple blotches
Flat or raised usually painless
Found beneath the skin or mucous
membranes such as the nose, mouth, eyes
or rectum
Lung infection or cancer
 PREVENTION
Avoid from precious sex with
infected person

Avoid from drug addict

Do not share tools needle,

tooth brush and shaper

Infected women avoid to

pregnant

Education about AIDS

AVOID
Maintain a healthy lifestyle
 MECHANISM FOR HIV
INFECTION
HIV enters a host cell by attaching a protein on its outer
envelope to CD4 (protein present on the surface of several
types of immune system cells)

TH cells appear to be the main target of the virus

HIV destroys TH cells and over time causes a dramatic

decrease in their numbers

Some evidence suggest that the virus gradually destroys

the lymph nodes

When the TH cell population is depressed, the ability to

resist infection is severely impaired

Its make the AIDS patient more susceptible to cancer and

other opportunistic infections
 AIDS progression
Phase I:
- few weeks to a few years; flu like symptoms, swollen lymph
nodes, chills, fever, fatigue, body aches. Virus is multiplying,
antibodies are made but ineffective for complete virus removal

Phase II:
- within six months to 10 years; opportunistic infections present,
Helper T cells affected, 5% may not progress to next phase

Phase III:
- Helper T cells below 200 cells/mm., opportunistic infections
and /or cancers present, clinical AIDS, death [victim actually
dies from the secondary infections occurring after their
immune system is destroyed by HIV]
Time Course of the Progression of
AIDS after HIV Infection
Person with AIDS die from one or more of the following disease
rather than from the HIV infection itself

Pneumocystis carinii: The lung become useless as they fill with

fluid and debris due to an infection with a protozoan

Mycobacterium tuberculosis: This bacterial infection, usually of

the lungs, is seen more often as an infection of lymph nodes
and other organs in patient with AIDS

Toxoplasmic encephalitis: Is caused by a protozoan parasite

that odinarily lives in cats and other animals. Many people
harbor a latent infection in the brain or muscle, but in AIDS
patients, the infection leads to loss of brain cells, seizures and
weakness

Kaposis sarcoma: Unusual cancer of blood vessels, which

gives rise to reddish-purple, coin-sized spots and lesions on
the skin
 REPLICATION OF HIV
The genetic material for an HIV virus consists of RNA instead of DNA
Inside the HIV capsid are RNA and three enzymes of interest
-reverse transcriptase
-integrase
-protease

The HIV particle has an envelope acquired when it buds from an

infected cell
The life cycle of HIV

1. Attachment
2. Fusion
3. Uncoating
4. Reverse transcription
5. Replication
6. Integration
7. Biosynthesis
8. Maturation
9. Release
HIV life cycle
 Attachment
During attachment, the
HIV virus binds to the
plasma membrane

HIV has an envelope

marker and this marker
allows the virus to bind
to a CD 4 receptor in the
host-cell plasma
membrane
 Fusion

After attachment occur,

the HIV virus fuses with
the plasma membrane
and the virus enter the
cell
 Uncoating

A process called
uncoating removes the
capsid
capsid and RNA is
released
 Reverse transcription
This event in the reproductive cycle is unique to
retroviruses
The enzyme called reverse transcriptase makes a
DNA copy of retroviruses RNA genetic material
Usually in cells, DNA transcribed into RNA
Retroviruses can do the opposite only because
they have a unique enzyme from which they take
their name
(Retro in Latin means reverse)
 Replication
The DNA copy of viral genetic material now
undergoes replication, and the result is double-
stranded DNA
 Integration
The viral enzyme integrase now splices viral DNA into a host
chramosome
The term HIV provirus refers to viral DNA integrated into host DNA
HIV is usually transmitted to another person by means of cells that
contain proviruses
Also, proviruses serve as a latent reservoir for HIV during drug
treatment
Event if drug therapy results in an undetectable viral load,
investigators know that there are still proviruses inside infected
lymphocytes
 Biosynthesis
When the provirus is
activated, perhaps by a new
and different infection, the
normal cell machinery
directs the production of
more viral RNA

Some of this RNA becomes

the genetic material for new
virus particles

The rest of viral RNA brings

about the synthesis of viral
proteins (including capsid
proteins, viral enzymes and
the envelope marker) at
host ribosomes
 Maturation
Capsid protein, viral
enzymes and RNA are
assembled to form new
viral particles

The viral enzyme

protease cleaves viral
proteins so that they are
a size suitable for viral
assembly

Reproduction of the virus

has now taken place
 Release
During budding, the virus gets its envelope and
envelope marker coded for by the viral genetic
material
HIV life cycle: A Review