INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF
AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Let us begin our discussion of industrial automatic
controls by answering the question, "What is an automatic
controller?" An automatic controller is a mechanism which
measures the value of a variable quantity or condition and
operates to correct or limit the deviation of the measured value
from some selected reference. Note that a measurement must be
taken and an operation must be performed to correct that
measurement, if necessary, to conform to some selected reference.
Often the selected reference is called the "set point." Another term
used in lieu of selected reference is "desired value." Simple devices
like the light switch on the wall or the throttle of an automobile or
the switch on an electric range can be called "controllers." We did
not say automatic controllers. These devices require a human
operator in order to function. If we will agree to consider the
human operator as a part of the system we may call these
common everyday examples automatic controllers. In the case of
the light switch on the wall, the human operator must be always
present with his fingers on the switch and with his eyes sensing
the lightness of the room. He would operate the switch to turn on
the lights when the room reached a certain degree of darkness
and would operate the switch to turn off the lights when the room
reached a certain degree of lightness. This satisfies our definition
since a measurement is taken and an operation is performed in
response to it. In the case of a man operating an automobile, he
completes the operations necessary to call it an automatic
controller. If he desires to operate a car at a constant speed his
eyes would see the measurement of speed on the speedometer
and through his mental senses he would determine whether or
not the speed deviated from the desired value and operate the
throttle with his foot if a correction were necessary. One of the
best helps in understanding automatic controllers is to study
what a human operator would do.
For example, if you can sense what you would do to
maintain the speed of an automobile constant over a variable
terrain, then you can understand the performance objectives of
an automatic controller. The very things that you would do to
maintain conditions constant must be incorporated in a
controller. It is often said that if we can perform an operation
manually, we can do it automatically. To do the job as well as a
good human operator sometimes requires an automatic controller
of considerable complexity.
Some everyday examples of completely automatic systems
are the household refrigerator, the electric iron, the automatic hot
water heater, and the automatic heating system in your home.
Control of temperature in the oven of your electric range
constitutes an automatic control system in so far as the oven air
temperature is concerned. The cooking process itself is not a true
automatic control system. When a timer clock is provided, the
duration of cooking must be set so that the oven is automatically
turned off after a prescribed length of time has elapsed. The roast
may or may not be done. To constitute what we would call an
automatic controller, a measurement of temperature of the roast
(by a thermal element inserted into the central portion) would
constitute an indication of cooking completeness. Feeding the
signal of this measurement to a controller which would operate
the oven switch would make the cooking process itself automatic.
1.1. The closed loop idea
Frequently throughout the text we will find it convenient
to speak of the closed loop. Therefore, in the very beginning it
becomes important to understand what we mean by the system
loop and just what elements are necessary to form a closed loop.
In every completely automatic control application, we have a
closed loop. Let us consider an operation which is done manually
and attempt to formulate a closed loop out of it. Figure 1.1 shows
a human subject operating an electric switch to a heater. In this 1.2. Diagram featuring flow of electricity for manual
example the objective is to maintain a constant temperature in control of temperature
the enclosed space. To accomplish this, we have to first measure
the temperature, and the ordinary mercury in glass thermometer Figure 1.2 shows one form of diagram of the
shown is for this purpose. The human operator has one hand on application of Fig. 1.1. This diagram features the energy
the switch and his eyes focused on the thermometer. It is the (electricity) flow with operations of reading the thermometer
coordination of the eyes and hand of the human operator which and operating the switch as "sidelights." A designer of process
make this a closed loop system. The maintenance of the reference equipment would find this type of diagram helpful It shows the
temperature is dependent upon the human operator being alert at wiring diagram from the 110-v service to the switch and then
all times. Now we can see how the loop is closed. The eyes see the to the heater. Also the installer of process equipment could use
temperature and through the mental and body processes a signal diagrams of this type to advantage since all points of
is sent to the hand to operate the switch manually either to connection are shown.
energize the heater when the temperature is low or to de-energize
the heater when the temperature is high. Items necessary to
complete the loop are the electric switch, thermometer, heater,
process or heated space, source of energy, and the human
operator.
1.3. Generalized loop diagram

A more generalized type of closed loop diagram for the

application of Fig. 1.1 is shown in Fig. 1.3. All important
components in the example carry weight in this circuit, such as
the heated chamber or process, the operator, and the final control
element or switch. It was described previously that the human
operator must sense the measurement of temperature, compare
this measurement with the set point, and perform some action on
the switch if a deviation or error exists. These functions are
identified in the figure.
1.4. Conversion from manual to automatic operation
We will replace the human operator with a simple device
that will make the application automatic. One method of
accomplishing this is shown in Fig. 1.4. In place of the mercury
in glass thermometer we will use a sealed thermal system. It
consists of a capillary tubing attached to a thermometer bulb at
one end and to a flexible bellows at the opposite end. The bellows
is fixed at the top. Expansion and contraction of the bellows is
caused by temperature changes within the thermal system. Fills respectively, for the same application where the human operator
used for industrial thermometers are liquids such as mercury, was involved.
xylene, or toluene; gases such as nitrogen, helium, or carbon
dioxide; or mixtures of liquid and vapor such as ethyl chloride,
sulphur dioxide, or freon.

If the temperature within the room falls, the bellows will

contract due to a lowered pressure within the thermal system.
This will continue until the electric contacts are closed, which
energizes the heating element. The length of time required for the
bellows to reverse itself and start expanding depends upon several
factors, among which are the capacity of the heating element, the
resistance to heat flow between the heating element and the air,
the capacity of the air, the resistance to heat flow between air and
thermometer, and the heat capacity of the thermometer bulb. In
the analysis of any automatic control system cognizance must be
taken of the variables such as these which affect its performance.

Diagrams for Automatic Control of Temperature for Fig. 1.4

Figure 1.6
Figure 1.5 is a diagram featuring the energy flow, and Fig. 1.6
is a generalized closed loop diagram of the automatic control
system. These should be compared with Figs. 1.2 and 1.3,
1.5. Open loop systems
Now that we have learned what factors or components are
necessary to form a closed loop system, it is worthwhile to
identify and define what we mean by an open loop control system.
There are many applications of open loop systems in modern
appliances. The automatic washing machine which operates on a
time basis and is not dependent upon whether or not the clothes
are clean, is an open loop system. The washer operates for a
predetermined length of time in the washing, rinsing, and drying
positions. No measurement is taken of the condition of the
clothes. Another example is embodied in some of our automatic
toasters which operate on a time clock basis. In these toasters,
the length of the period is preset, and no consideration is given to
the temperature of bread, which would be the measurement
necessary to determine whether the proper degree of toasting has
been attained. There are other important applications of open
loop control systems in industry. In food canning, batch processes
are operated by a time schedule controller. Here the process such
as blanching or cooking is started manually and stopped
automatically after a certain period of time by a clock timer
switch. No measurement of quality is involved in this circuit, and
therefore it is not a closed loop system.