NOTES ON

CV 102 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

(for internal circulation only)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI 620 015

!2
CV 102 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

Properties and uses of construction materials such as stones, bricks, cement, concrete and
steel.

Site selection for building Components of Building- foundations Shallow and Deep
foundations brick and stone masonry plastering lintels, beams and columns roofs.

Roads Classification of rural and urban roads pavement materials Traffic signs and road
markings Traffic signals.

Surveying- Classification Chain survey Ranging Compass survey Exhibition of

different survey equipments.

Water supply Quality of water wastewater treatment unit their functional utility Need
for conservation of water.

Text Books:
1. Building Construction by Sushil Kumar
2. Building Materials by S.C. Rangwala

Reference:
Lecture Notes prepared by the Department of Civil Engineering / NITT

!3
!4
 UNIT I

BUILDING MATERIALS

STONES

Stone is a naturally available material of construction and is obtained from rocks.

Classification of Rocks
Rocks are classified in following three ways
1. Geological Classification
2. Physical Classification
3. Chemical Classification

1. Geological Classification
Based on the mode of formation, the rocks are classified as:
i. Igneous Rocks
ii. Sedimentary Rocks
iii. Metamorphic Rocks

i. Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed by the cooling of molten rocky material called
magma which is inside the earth's surface. If the magma cools at a considerable depth from
earth's surface then it is called Plutonic rock. The cooling is slow and hence these rocks
possess coarsely grained crystalline structure. Eg. Granite.

If the magma cools at a relatively shallow depth from earth's surface then it is called
Hyperbyssal rocks. The cooling is quick and hence these rocks possess finely grained
crystalline structure eg. Dolerite.

If the magma cools at earth's surface than it is called volcanic rocks. The cooling is very rapid
and hence these rocks possess extremely fine grained structure. Eg. Basalt.

ii. Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of products of
weathering on the pre-existing rock. All the products of weathering are u1timately carried
away from their place of origin by the agents of wind, rain, frost, etc. eg. Sandstone,
Limestone, Gypsum, Gravel etc

iii. Metamorphic Rocks: When the pre-existing rocks (i.e. Igneous and Sedimentary rocks)
are subject to great heat and pressure, they are changed in character and forms metamorphic
rocks. Eg. Slate, Marble, Gneisses.

2. Physical Classification
Based on general structure the rocks are classified as
i) Stratified Rocks
ii) Un Stratified Rocks
iii) Foliated Rocks.

!5
i) Stratified Rocks: These rocks possess planes of stratification and such rocks can easily be
split up along these planes. Eg. Sedimentary Rocks.

ii) Unstratified Rocks: These rocks do not exhibit any definite layers or strata. The structure
of these rocks may be crystalline, granular or compact granular. Eg. Igneous rocks.

iii) Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to be split up in a definite direction only.
Eg. Metamorphic Rocks.

3. Chemical Classification
Based on chemical constituents, the rocks are classified as
i) Silicious Rocks
ii) Argillaceous Rocks
iii) Calcareous Rocks.

i) Silicious Rocks: In these rocks, Silica is the main constituent. Eg. Granite Quartzites etc.

ii) Argillaceous Rocks: In these rocks, clay or argil is the main constituent. Eg. Slates,
Laterites etc.

iii) Calcareous Rocks: In these rocks, Calcium Carbonate is the main constituent Eg. Lime
stones, Marbles etc.

Tests for Stones

The following are the tests conducted on stones to decide construction work

1. Impact test
2. Crushing strength test
3. Attrition test
4. Hardness Test
5. Water absorption test
6. Freezing and thawing test
7. Microscopic test
8. Smith's test

1. Impact test: In this test, a cylinder of diameter 25 mm and height 25 mm is taken out
from the sample of stone. A steel hammer of wt 2 Kg is allowed to fall axially on the cylinder
from 1cm height for first blow, 2 cm height for second blow etc. Blow at which the specimen
breaks is noted. If it is nth blow, n represents the toughness index of stone.

2. Crushing Strength test: In this test, a cube of stone is tested in a compression testing
machine. The rate of loading is 4.0 N / mm2 per minute. The maximum load at which the
stone crushes is noted.

Crushing Strength of the stone = Max load / Area of bearing face of the stone

!6
3. Attrition test: In this test, some known weight of stone pieces are taken and put in the
Deval's attrition test cylinder. The cylinder is rotated about its horizontal axis for 5 hrs at the
rate of 30 RPM. Then the contents in the cylinder are sieved by 1.5 mm sieve. The quantity
of material which is retained on the sieve is weighed.

Percentage of Wear = Loss in Weight x 100

4. Hardness Test: In this test, a cylinder Initial Weight

of stone diameter 25 mm and height 25 mm is
placed in Dorrys testing machine and pressed with a pressure of 12.5 N. The annular steel
disc of the machine is rotated at a speed of 28 RPM. During rotation coarse sand of standard
specification is sprinkled on the top of disc. After 1000 revolutions, the specimen is taken out
and weighed. The coefficient of hardness is given by the formula

Coefficient of hardness = 20 -Loss in weight in g

3
5. Water absorption test: In this test, a stone of known weight is immersed in water for
24 hrs. Then it is weighed again after 24 hrs and the percentage absorption of water should
not exceed 0.6

6. Freezing and thawing test: In this test specimen of stone is placed in freezing mixture
at12c for 24 hours and it is then warmed at atmospheric temperature. The procedure is
repeated for several times and the behavior of stone is noted.

7. Microscopic test: In this test, thin sections of stone are taken and they are examined in a
microscope to study various properties like grain size, mineral constituents etc.

8. Smiths test: In this test, clear water is taken in a test and pieces of stones are placed in it.
The tube is vigorously stirred. If the water becomes dirty it indicates the stone contains
earthy matter.

Qualities of Good Building Stone

A good building stone should have the following qualities:

1. The crushing strength of stone should be greater than 100 N/mm2.

2. Stones must be decent in appearance and be of uniform colour.
3. Stones must be durable. Their natural bed must be perpendicular to the direction
of pressure.
4. Stones should be easily carved and dressed.
5. Fracture should be sharp and clear.
6. For a good building stone, co-efficient of hardness should not be below 14. It
should be hard enough to resist wear and tear.
7. It must have a wear less than 3 percent.
8. It must be fire resistant.

!7
 9. It should not contain quarry sap which is nothing but moisture present in the
stones.
10. It must have a specific gravity of greater than 2.7.
11. It must have a compact, fine, crystalline structure, strong and durable.
12. The toughness index must not be less than 13.
13. It must be acid resistant and free form any soluble matter.
14. When a stone is immersed in water for 24 hrs, the percentage absorption by
weight should not exceed 0.6

Uses of Stones

1. Stones are used as basic material for concrete, moorum of roads, calcareous
cements etc.
2. Stones are used in the construction of foundation, walls, columns, lintels, arches,
roofs etc.
3. Stones are used to cover floor of buildings of various types such as residential,
commercial, industrial etc.
4. Stones are adopted to form paving of roads and foot paths.
5. Stones are converted to form basic materials for concrete, moorum of roads,
artificial stones, hollow blocks, etc.
6. Stones are also used as ballast for railway track.
7. Stones are used as flux in blast furnace.
8. Stone blocks are used in the construction of bridges, piers, abutments retaining
wall, dams etc.
9. In modern days, polished stone panels are used as cladding for architectural
purposes and also polished stone slabs are replacing the dining table tops in
residential houses and restaurants.

!8
 BRICKS

Bricks are artificial blocks manufactured from tempered clay into standard sizes. They are
extensively used for building construction. Bricks are very popular because of their easy
availability, economy, strength, durability, reliability and insulating properties.

Bricks are manufactured from Earth containing alumina (20 to 30%) Silica (50 to 60%), Iron
Oxide (5 to 6%) and small quantities of lime and magnesia.

Manufacture of Bricks

Manufacture of bricks involves the following operations

1. Preparation of brick earth
2. Moulding
3. Drying
4. Burnings

1. Preparation of Brick Earth

Clay to be used for the manufacture of the bricks has to be prepared carefully. This includes
the following operations
Removal of loose soil: The top layer of loose soil should be removed for a depth of 20 cm. It
should not be used for preparation of bricks as it contains lot of impurities.

Digging, spreading and cleaning: The earth removed from below 20 cm is spread on a level
ground. All undesirable materials like grass, roots, gravel etc are removed.

Weathering: The spread earth is left as such for a few weeks to allow the clay to mellow

Blending: This consists of mixing the clay with suitable ingredients by turning up and down
many times.

Tempering: This is done to make the whole mass of clay, homogenous and plastic. This is
done by trampling under feet by men or cattle in a Pug mill when bricks are required on large
scale.

A Pug Mill is a conical iron tub provided with a vertical iron shaft. Numbers of horizontal
arms with several cutting blades are attached to this shaft. The brick earth is put inside the
pug mill and the shaft is revolved by bullocks or steam, diesel or electric power. The rotation
of the shaft causes the breaking up of lumps and clods of clay. The clay gets pugged and
tempered.

2. Moulding
The pugged brick earth is then moulded into shape in moulds. Moulding can be done on the
ground or on top of a table, either by hand or machine.

!9
Ground Moulding: A piece of ground is selected, levelled and plastered. Fine sand is
sprinkled and then the mould is placed on top of it. The tempered clay is taken in hand and
dashed into the mould till the mould gets filled with clay. Excess earth is removed. Then the
mould is removed slowly and carefully leaving the moulded brick on the ground.

Table Moulding: In this the moulder stands near a table and the moulding is done on top of
the table. The moulder can mould 500 to 1000 bricks per day.

Machine Moulding: Hard, Strong clay can be moulded by this method. This is adopted
when a large number of bricks have to be moulded. There is a variety of moulding machine in
the Western Country. In India the Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee has developed
a hand operated earth moulding machine. The thoroughly pugged brick earth is pushed under
pressure through an opening whose length and breadth is equal to the length and breadth of
brick.

The pushed out p1astic bank is cut to the desired thickness of bricks by wires, fitted in a
frame at distances equal to the brick thickness. The machine moulded bricks have sharp
edges and corner, smooth external surface and uniform texture.

3. Drying
After the bricks are moulded, they are, dried. This is done on specially prepared drying beds
which must be higher than the surrounding ground. Bricks are dried for a period of 7 to 14
days. During drying this must be protected from wind, rain and direct sun.

4. Burning
After drying the bricks area burned in kilns of clamps to make them harder, stronger, denser,
less absorbent and more durable.

Burning in Clamps: A clamp is an arrangement where the bricks and fuel are arranged in
alternate layers. A floor is prepared and the fuel is first spread at slope of 15. The fuel
consists of wooden piece, cow dung, straw, waste paper etc., On top of this layer the raw
bricks are placed. Then another layer, of 75cm. thick fuel is spread. Thus alternate layer of
brick and fuel are arranged to a height of 3 to 4 cm. Then entire clamp is plastered on all the
sides and top and filled with earth cover to conserve the heat. The bricks are burnt for a
period of one or two months and then cooled for the same period. After cooling the burnt
bricks are removed.

Burning in Kilns: When large number of bricks have to be burnt Kiln are adopted. Kilns are
of two types

1. Intermittent Kilns and

2. Continuous Kilns

In intermittent Kilns the loading firing cooling and unloading are done one after the other and
not simultaneously whereas in continuous these operations are carried out without any

!10
interruptions.

A kiln is an enclosure made of thick walls and provided with doors for loading and unloading
operations. Arrangements are made to carry and circulate hot air and gases through the body
of the kiln by providing flues. The kiln is provided with a roof. Among the various types of
kilns adopted the Hoffmans Kiln is very popular, it can produce about 2,000 to 25,000 burnt
bricks per day.

Merits and demerits of Clamp and Kiln burning of Bricks

Clamp Burning:
1. It is a temporary structure
2. Initial cost is low
3. Amount of fuel used is low and hence economical
4. Continuous supervision is not necessary
5. Quality of bricks is poor. Only 60% is of First Class variety.
6. Firing cannot be regulated
7. It takes a long time for burning and cooling the bricks (3 to 6 months).
8. Used when small number of bricks required at a time. Each clamp can
turnout one lakh bricks at a time.
9. There is large amount of wastage of heat from the hot gases.

Kiln Burning:
1. It is a permanent structure
2. Initial cost is higher
3. Fuel cost is higher
4. Constant supervision is necessary
5. Quality of bricks turned out is good. 90% first class bricks
6. Time of firing is only 24 hours and cooling is 12 days.
7. It is yielding about 25,000 bricks per clay
8. Heat of hot gases is utilized in heating bricks to be burnt.

Size and Weight of Bricks

The Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi has specified, standard bricks of 19cm x 9cm x
9cm with 1cm thick mortar joints. This standard brick weight is 3kg.

Classification of Bricks
Bricks are classified as under

1. First class bricks: Table moulded edges are clear, square straight. Used for superior
works.
2. Second class bricks: Ground moulded burnt in kilns surface not smooth and edges not
regular used where the bricks work will be plastered.
3. Third c1ass bricks: Ground moulded not hard rough surface and edges are also not sharp
and regular. Used for unimportant and temporary constructions.
4. Fourth class bricks: These are over burnt bricks dark in colour and irregular. Used as
!11
aggregates for concrete foundations, floors, roads etc.

Characteristics of Good Bricks

A good brick should satisfy the following essential qualities
1. Colour should be uniform. Colour should be red. Well burnt and sound bricks have
these colours.
2. The bricks should have even surfaces free from flaw or cracks and should have
sharp well defined edges.
3. These should be so hard that no impression should be left when scratched with
finger nails.
4. These should produce clear ringing sound when struck against each other.
5. No brick should absorb more than 15% of its weight of water when kept immersed
in for 24 hours.
6. No brick should have a crushing strength less than 3.5 N/mm2.
7. On breaking the surface it should show a bright homogeneous and compact
surface free from voids
8. A brick soaked in water should not show any deposit of white salts on drying in
shade.
9. When dropped flat from a height of 1m the brick should not break.
10. Bricks should not conduct most heat and they should be sound proof.

Testing of Bricks
For deciding the suitability of bricks the following tests are to be conducted.
1. Absorption test: A brick is taken and it is weighed dry. It is then immersed in water for a
period of 16 hours. It is weighted again and the difference in weight indicates the amount of
water absorbed by the brick. It should not, in any case, exceed 20 percent of weight of dry
brick.

2. Crushing strength test: Crushing strength of a brick is found out dry by placing it in
compression testing machine. It is pressed till it breaks. Minimum crushing strength of
bricks is 3.5 N/mm2and for superior bricks; it may vary from 7.0 to 14.0 N/mm2

3. Soundness test: In this test, two bricks are taken and they are struck with each other.
Bricks should not break and a clear ringing sound should be produced.

4. Hardness test: In this test, a scratch is made on brick surface with the help of a finger
nail. If no impression is left on the surface then the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard.
5. Test for presence of soluble salts: Soluble salts, if present in bricks, will cause
efflorescence on the surface of bricks. For finding out the presence of soluble salts in a brick,
it is immersed in water for 24 hours. It is then taken out and allowed to dry in shade.
Absence of grey or white deposits cover about 10 percent surface, the efflorescence is said to
be slight and it is considered as moderate, when the white deposits cover about 50 percent of
surface, the efflorescence becomes heavy and it is treated as serious, when such deposits are
converted into powdery mass.

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 CEMENT

It is the product which is obtained by burning and crushing to powder a well proportioned
mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials. It was introduced in 1824 by Joseph Asp
Din a brick layer of Leeds, England. After hardening it resembles in colour to the stone
quarried near Portland in England, so it is named after that as Portland cement.

It is available in different varieties and the selection of variety depends upon the condition,
strength and the type of structure.

Raw materials required for manufacture of cement are:

1. Calcareous and
2. Argillaceous material

Calcareous Materials: Calcareous materials are those materials which contain calcium or
lime as their main constituents such as lime stone, chalk etc.

Argillaceous Materials: Argillaceous materials are those materials which contain alumina as
their main constituents such as shale, laterite etc. It provides the required proportion of silica,
clay, oxide of iron to the cement.

Proportion of mixing

The ingredients are generally mixed in the ratio of two parts of Calcareous materials and one
part argillaceous material. Limestone and shale are first crushed and then they are mixed
either in wet state or in dry state by grounding them together. The mixture is then burnt in a
rotary kiln at a temperature between 1400C and l500C. Pulverized coal, gas or oil being
used as the fuel. The clinker so obtained is first cooled and then gypsum (3 to 4%) is added
and it is grounded to the required fineness.

Main chemical Ingredients of Cement (Raw Stage)

Sl. No. Ingredient Composition Percentage

1 Lime CaO 60 to 67
2 Silica Sio2 17 to 25
3 Iron Oxide Fe2O3 0.5 to 6
4 Alumina Al2O3 3 to 8
5 Gypsum or Calcium Sulphate CaSO4 3 to 4
6 Magenisum Oxide MgO 0.1 to 4
7 Sulphur Trioxide SO3 1 to 3
8 Alkalies such as soda NaO, K2O 0.1 to 1

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Functions and Effects of Various Ingredients

Lime: It makes the cement sound and provides strength to the cement. Excess of it in original
form causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.
Silica: It provides strength to the cement. In excess it slows down the setting of cement.

Alumina: It provides quick setting property to the cement. In excess it weakens the strength
of cement.

Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum): It helps in increasing the initial setting time of cement.

Iron Oxide: It provides colour, hardness and strength to the cement.

Magnesium Oxide: It provides colour and hardness to the cement. Excess of it in free state
makes the cement unsound.

Sulphur Trioxide: In small quantity it makes the cement sound and in excess it makes the
cement unsound.

Alkalies: In excess it causes efflorescence.

Final compounds of Cement

Sl. Compound Formula Abbreviation Range

No.
1 Dicalcium silicate 2(CaO)SiO2 C2S 21 to 45%

2 Tricalcium silicate 3(CaO)SiO2 C3S 25 to 50%

3 Tricalcium Aluminate 3(CaO)Al2O3 C3A 5 to 11%

4 Tetra Calcium Aluminum 4(CaO)Al2O3 C4AF 9 to 14%

Ferrite Fe2O3
5 Other Constituents and - - 8%
Gypsum

C 2S
1. It hydrates slowly.
2. It hardens more slowly
3. It provides ultimate strength to the cement.
4. It has more resistance to chemica1 attack.

C 3S

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 1. It hydrates more rapidly.
2. It develops early strength.
3. It generates heat more rapidly and has less resistance to chemical attack.

C 3A
1. It is fast reacting with large amount of heat generation.
2. It causes initial setting of cement.
3. It is weak against sulphate attack.

C4AF
1. It is comparatively inactive.
2. It has poor cementing value.
3. It is slow in reaction with small heat generation.

Properties of Cement

Fineness: It is the degree of grinding of cement. The rate of reaction depends upon the
fineness of grinding i.e. it increases with the fineness and vice versa, causing early setting
and greater heat which is the main cause of cracks due to expansion and contraction. A
coarser particle settles down in concrete causing bleeding. It is measured in terms of
percentage weight retained, on BIS Sieve No.9 after 15 minutes sieving. For accurate
measurement it is measured by surface area, air permeability method and the unit is cm2/gram
of cement.

Setting Time: Setting of cement is the phenomenon by virtue of which the green cement
changes into hard mass. Initial setting is a stage in the process of hardening after which any
crack that may appear will not reunite and the completion of this process is, known as final
setting time. The time between water is added in cement and initial setting takes place is
known as Initial Setting Time.

In order that the concrete may be placed in position conveniently, initial setting time of
cement should be sufficient and after lying the hardening should be rapid so that structure can
be available for use early in time. Cement should not loose its plasticity till the various
operations of mixing, transporting and placing are complete. Hence this time is generally kept
not less than 30 minutes.

Strength: The quality of concrete and cement is always judged by strength and that is only
by compressive strength because cement is weak in tension and for it steel reinforcement is
always provided. For this purpose cement and standard sand are mixed in the ratio of 1:3 and
sand should be as per BIS 650 -1966 i.e. Standard Leighton Buzzard sand. It is light greyish
white in colour.

Soundness: Free lime and magnesia present in cement makes the cement unsound by
increasing the volume after setting. Because when water is mixed with free lime it

!15
disintegrates. So these compounds should be present within limits. It is generally measured
by Le-Chatelier method or by Autoclave method.

Heat of Hydration: Setting of cement is due to chemical reactions between cement and
water and this process is known as Hydration. As, this reaction is exothermal process, so
sufficient heat is generated and this process continues for an indefinite period at a
diminishing rate. This heat causes unequal expansion in mass concrete structure such as
dams, retaining walls etc. For such works low heat cement is always recommended. It is
always measured in calories/gram unit.

Different Types of Cement

1. Ordinary Portland cement.

2. Rapid Hardening Portland cement
3. Low Heat Portland cement
4. Portland Blast Furnace slag cement
5. Portland Sulphate resistant cement
6. Air entraining portland cement
7. White and coloured cement
8. High Alumina cement
9. Pozzoana cement
10. Oil well cement
11. Quick setting cement
12. Expanding cement

1. Ordinary Portland Cement: It is also known as Normal setting cement. It is general

purpose cement suitable for all purpose. It is used in Road pavements, buildings, culverts,
water pipes etc. In the other sense it is used every where except in places where special
properties of other types are required. Out of the total consumption of different types of
cement 90% of this type is used.

2. Rapid Hardening Cement: Its manufacturing process is same as that of ordinary cement
except chemical composition, degree of grinding and temperature of burning. It contains less
quantity of C2S and more quantity of C3S. It is generally used where high early strength is
required and so it is some times called as High Early Strength Portland cement.

It is used by concrete product manufactures, highway pavements which are to be opened

early for road traffic and in cold weather concreting due to its high heat of hydration
development.

3. Low Heat Portland Cement: This cement is so called because it develops low heat at the
time of hydration. It contains C3A and; C3S in less quantity because they develop early heat.
It develops strength quite late and so not advised to concrete structures as it requires
shuttering and curing, for a longer period. It is generally used in massive concrete structures
such as dams, bridge, abutments, retaining walls etc.

!16
4. Blast Furnace Slag Cement: As the name indicates in this cement granulated blast
furnace slag is grained along with cement clinkers. Percentage of slag varies from 25 to 65%.
It is cheaper as compared to ordinary cement because waste product is used in it. It can also
be used in massive concrete such as dams, bridges etc. It has a1so the capacity to resist
sulphate bearing soils, and water. Hence good for use in marine structures and construction in
marshy areas.

5. Sulphate Resistant Portland Cement: It contains very low percentage of C3A and C4AF.
Because when C3A and C4AF come in contact with sulphates they form sulpho aluminates
causing swelling and disintegration. It is used in canal lining, construction of pipe lines and
culverts etc.

6. Air Entraining Portland Cement: It is ordinary Portland cement mixed with small
quantities or air entertaining materials during grinding. The diameter of air bubbles varies
from 0.075 mm and 1.25 mm. On account of air bubbles the strength of cement is reduced.
Air bubbles are permitted only up to 3 to 4 percentage, as these reduce 10 to 15% strength of
cement. Air entraining materials are Dorex Resin, Vinsol, Resin, oils and Fats etc. These
should be 0.01% to 0.05% by weight of cement. This cement is more plastic and workable
causing less segregation and bleeding in concrete. It makes the concrete more resistant to
freezing. It. also reduces the water requirement and has high resistance to weather. This
cement is generally used in making insulated walls, roof slabs, and light weight concrete and
the concrete which is subjected to freezing and thawing.

7. White and Coloured Cement: In it white chalk and china clay are used instead of lime
stone and clay as these are having low percentage of Iron Oxide i.e.1 %. Oil is used as fuel to
avoid contamination o coal ash. It is 3 to 4 times costlier than ordinary cement. It is used for
decorative floorings. Bridge railings, traffic curbs and aerodrome markings.

For coloured cement suitable pigments varying from 5 to 10% free from soluble salts are
added during grinding. Iron oxide gives Red, Yellow and Brown colour. Chromium dioxide
gives green and cobalt Blue gives blue coloured cement is used for decorations only such as
Terrazzo Floor finishes swimming pools etc.

8. High Alumina Cement: It contains 35% to 45% of aluminates Bauxite and chalk or lime
stone are mixed dry and heated till they melt and on cooling they form clinkers. These
clinkers are then grounded to the required fineness. It is dark in colour and initial setting time
varies from 3 to 6 hrs and final setting takes place with in 2 hours of the Initial set. Its setting
times are controlled by the rate of cooling of the fused product. It is highly resistant to heat
and the strength is more. It is high resistant to attack of sulphates. It gives high heat of
hydration and, is also costlier than ordinary Portland cement. It is used in structures subjected
to the action of sea water, chemical and sulphate bearing water. It is generally used for
chemical plants and in lining of furnaces. It can also be used in cold weather concreting.

!17
9. Pozzolana Cement: Pozzolana is a naturally occurring material such as volcanic ash or
Pumice stone or an artificial product such as burnt clay or shale containing siliceous and
aluminous mineral substances. As per BIS 1489-1967, the proportion of pozzolana material
varies from 10 to 25% by weight of cement. It increases the workability, reduces heat of
hydration, and increases the water tightness. It also offers greater resistance against sulphatic
action and sea water. It is used in the construction of massive concrete structures such as
dams, bridge abutments and retaining wall etc. This cement has been also used in Bhakra
Nangal Dam.

10. Oil Well Cement: As the name indicates, it is used for cementing; oil wells. It is used at
greeter depth under high temperature and pressure. As approximately 3 hrs are required to,
pump the cement to fill the space between steel tube lining and wall of the well, so it should
not set during this period. Iron Oxide is so adjusted that all the alumina is converted into
C4AF and sc proportion of C3A is very small, high increases the setting time of cement and
also hardens quickly after setting. It protects the oil well causing from corrosion and also help
in supporting the oil well casing and thus reduce the tension, in steel pipes. It also fills up the
porous strata preventing water or gas from gaining access in the oil bearing strata.

11. Quick Setting Cement: It has less proportion of CaSO4 (Gypsum) or a small % of
aluminium sulphate is added at the time of grinding. It is grounded much finer than ordinary
Portland cement. Its initial setting time is 5 minutes and final setting time is 30 minutes. It is
used for concreting under or in running water and only in special circumstances as it gives
very little time for mixing
.
12. Expanding Cement: As per the name, its volume increases on hardening. It takes about
15 days-for the expansion to occur fully but the time can be controlled by curing. The upper
limit of expansion is 1%. The agent which causes expansion is Calcium Sulpho Aluminate
(3CaOA12O33CaSO4) which is formed by the presence of calcium sulphate with Calcium
Oxide present in cement in sufficient quantity.

Field Tests on Cement:

1. The colour of cement should be uniform gray with light greenish shade.
2. Cement should feel smooth when touched.
3. If hand is inserted in a bag of cement it should feel cool not warm.
4. If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, it should sink and
should not float on the surface.
5. Cement should be free from any hard lumps.
A sample meant for testing shall be drawn from at least 12 different bags or barrels or
containers or from 12 different positions in a heap if cement is loose. Chemical composition
of cement should be checked for B. I. S. specifications.

Laboratory Tests on Cement:

1. Fineness of Cement: 100 gm of cement is weighed accurately and placed on IS: sieve No.
9 (90 micron). Any air lumps are broken using fingers. Now gentle sieving is done

!18
continuously for fifteen minutes. The residue left is weighed. This shall not exceed 10% by
weight of the sample of cement special methods have been devised in which it is possible to
estimate the particle size distribution. This is estimated in terms of the specific surface, i.e.,
the surface area per unit weight.

2. Consistency: This is a test conducted to estimate the quantity of water to be mixed in

cement to form a paste of normal consistency for use in other tests. 300 gms of cement
should be weighed. To this about 25% of water should be mixed. The paste obtained should
be filled in the mould of the Vicat apparatus. The interval of time between the instant of
adding water to the dry cement and the instant of commencement of filling the mould is
called the time of gauging.

The plunger, the biggest of the three needles 10 mm. diameter, is lowered gently on to the
paste in the mould. Now the settlement of the plunger is noted. If the settlement is between 5
and 7 mm from the bottom of the mould the amount of water added is correct. If this
condition is not satisfied, the test must be again repeated changing the percentage of water
until the stipulated extend of penetration of the plunger is reached.

Let W1 = Weight of cement taken for the test.

W2 = Weight of water added corresponding to the condition of the stipulated extent of
penetration of the plunger.
W2
Percentage of water, = Pa = X 100%
! W1

3. Test for Setting Time: The object of this test is to make a distinction between normal
setting and quick setting types of cement end also to detect deterioration due to storage.

Weigh 300 gm of cement and add Pa percentage of water (which is the percentage of water
required to have normal consistency. See test for consistency.) The paste obtained after
mixing is filled in the mould.1. In the Vicat apparatus, attach the needle of square section, i.e.
1 mm X 1 mm to the Vicat rod. Lower the system so that the needle just touches the surface
of the paste and gently release. Find out if the needle pierces into the paste fully. If it does,
again release the needle on the paste after a few seconds and again observe whether the
needle pierces fully into the paste. This is repeated till the needle does not pierce into the
paste completely. Now the interval of time between this instant and the instant at which water
was added to the cement is called the initial setting time.

!19
 !

Fig.1.1 Vicat Apparatus

Now change the needle to the third one which has a projecting sharp point in the centre with
an annular attachment. Now release this needle as before on the same paste. The needle as
well as the attachment will make their impressions on the paste. Repeat this process till only
the needle makes the impression but not the attachment. The interval of time between this
instant and the instant at which the water was added is called the final setting time. Vicat
Apparatus is shown in figure.1.1.

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 CONCRETE

Concrete is the most versatile material for all types of construction works and has been used
for innumerable construction works, either as plain concrete or as reinforced cement concrete
or as precast concrete, or prestressed concrete or in many other forms. In building industry,
the concrete is mainly used for purposes, viz., foundations, columns, beams, slabs, stair cases,
lintels, doors, window frames, sun-shades, storage tanks, etc. The various constituents of
concrete are cement, water, fine aggregate, and coarse, aggregates. In Reinforced Cement
Concrete Steel is also used.

Cement: Properties and various types of cement have already been discussed previously

Aggregate: These are the inert or chemically inactive materials which form the bulk of
cement concrete. These aggregates are bound together by means of cement. The aggregates
are classified into two categories, Fine and coarse.

The material which is passed through 4.75mm size sieve is termed as fine Aggregate. Usually
natural river sand, issued as a fine aggregate. But at places where river sand is not available
crushed stone may be used as a fine aggregate.

The material which is retained on 4.75 mm size B. S. test sieve termed as a coarse aggregate.
Broken stone is generally used as a coarse aggregate. The nature of work decides the
maximum size of coarse aggregate. For thin slabs and walls the maximum size of coarse
aggregate should be limited to one-third the thickness of the concrete section.

The aggregate to be used for cement concrete work should be hard, durable and clean. The
aggregate should be completely free from lumps of clay, organic and vegetable matter, fine
dust etc. The presence of a11 such debris prevents adhesion of aggregates and hence, reduces
the strength of concrete.

Water: Water which is used for making concrete should be clean and free from harmful
impurities such as oil, alkali, acid etc. In general water which is fit for drinking should be
used for making concrete.
Grades of Concrete
Concrete as per IS 456 2000 is classified into three groups as ordinary concrete, Standard
concrete and High strength concrete. M10, M15 and M20 are ordinary concrete, M25, M30,
M35, M40, M45, M50 and M55 are grouped as Standard concrete and M60, M70, M75 and
M80 are grouped under High strength concrete. The letter M refers to the mix and the
number indicates the specified compressive strength of that mix at 28 days expressed in N/
mm2. For lean concrete bases and simple foundations for masonry walls M5 and M7.5 grades
of concrete may be used. These mixes need not be designed. Grades of concrete lesser than
M20 are not to be used in RCC work. For general guidance, the nominal mix proportions
(volume ratio) correspond approximately to the different grades as follows:

!21
 M 5 - 1:5:10
M 7.5- 1:4:8
M 10 - 1:3:6
M 15 - 1:2:4
M 20 - 1:1.5:3
M 25 - 1:1:2
Gain of strength with age
The concrete develops strength with continued hydration. The rate of gain of strength is faster
to start with and the rate gets reduced with age. It is customary to assume the 28 days
strength as the full strength of concrete. Actually concrete develops strength beyond 28 days
also. The variation of strength with age is shown in Figure.1.2.
Minimum Age of member with full Age Factor
design stress is expected (months)
1 1.00
3 1.10
6 1.15
12 1.20
STRENGTH OF STANDARD SPECIMEN

Rapid
hardening
40

30

20

Ord. portland
10 or
PBFS

1 3 7 14
! DAYS

Fig.1.2 Gain in compressive strength with age

Strength of Concrete
Strength of concrete is its resistance to rupture. It may be measured in number of ways, such
as strength in compression, in tension, in shear or in flexure. All these indicate strength with
reference to a particular method of testing .The compressive strength of concrete is generally

!22
determined by testing cubes or cylinders made in laboratory or field. The size of the mould
should be 150mm x150mm x150mm.Based on the compressive strength only the concrete is
graded. The strength of the concrete is mainly depend on the following factors
1. Quality of materials and grading of the aggregates
2. Water
3. Water cement ratio
4. Cement content
5. Age of concrete; and
6. Methods of mixing, placing, compacting and curing.

Workability of concrete
The concrete should have sufficient workability. The workability of concrete indicates the
ease with which it can be mixed, placed and compacted. The degree of workability (decided
by slump test) for different forms of concrete work is specified. Generally, the strength
decreases with increase in degree of workability and vice verse.

Slump Test
Slump test is the most commonly used method of measuring workability of concrete which
can be employed either in the laboratory or at site of work. It is not a suitable method for very
wet or very dry concrete. The slump cone is as shown in Fig.1.3.

The mould is placed on a smooth, horizontal, rigid and non absorbent surface. The mould is
then placed in four layers, each approximately height of the mould. Each layer is tamped
25 times by the tamping rod taking care to distribute the stroke evenly over the cross section.
After the four layers are filled in side the cone, mould is removed from the concrete
immediately by raising it slowly and carefully in a vertical direction. This allows the concrete
to subside. This subsidence is referred as slump of concrete.

!
All dimensions in Centimeters
!23
 Fig 1.3 Slump Cone

Durability of Concrete
The concrete possesses a high durability value, it is not much affected by atmospheric
actions. On the contrary, with the age, the concrete goes on hardening, there by increasing in
strength. It is this property, which gives this material a distinct place among the building
materials.
Water Cement Ratio
The strength of concrete depends upon the quantity and quality of its ingredients i.e. cement,
aggregate and water. General assumption is that strength of concrete directly depends up on
the quantity of cement. If cement is more, strength will be more but this assumption is not
correct because strength of concrete also depends upon water cement ration.

Water cement ratio is generally defined as the ratio of volume or weight of mixing water to
that of cement in a concrete mix. It is expressed in liters of water required per bag of cement
50 kg. The relation between strength and water/ cement ratio of concrete is as shown in Fig.
1.4.

!
Fig.1.4 Relation between strength and water/ cement ratio

Operations in Concreting

The following processes are involved in making concrete to achieve desired strength and
durability.

!24
 1. Storing of material (Cement, aggregate)
2. Batching of material (By volume, by weight)
3. Mixing of concrete (By hand, by machine)
4. Transportation of concrete.
5. Placing of concrete.
6. Curing of concrete

1. Storing of Material
Cement: It is a fine powder and also hygroscopic in nature i.e. it absorbs moisture from air or
free water and starts setting. So it should be protected from dampness. Hence the water
houses constructed for its storage must fulfill the basic requirements.
Trying the level best and keeping all precautions, strength of cement reduces on long storage.
Every effort should be made to store it for lesser time. Cement stored for long time should be
checked before its use. It has also been observed that by the passage of time, stressed cement
recapture its strength up to certain extent.

Aggregates: For achieving proper quality of concrete, it is essential that aggregate should be
free from deleterious materials, organic matters such as tree leaves, vegetable wastes, animal
refuse etc. It should also not be coated with mud, silt or clay as these reduces the bond
between cement paste and aggregate particles. It should have uniform moisture content and
proper grading of aggregates.

2. Batching of Materials
Batching means measurement of ingredients of concrete for proper mixing. Normally
such a quantity is mixed in one batch, which can be transported, placed and compacted with
in time i.e. before initial set takes place. Batching is of two types.
1. Volume Batching.
2. Weight Batching.

Measurement of Cement: Cement is always measured by weight. This is because its volume
differs considerably by the way of container is filled in. A batch of concrete should always
consume full number of bags. For this purpose weight, of cement bag is taken as 50 kg.

Measurement of Water: Water is generally measured by volume because its weight can not
be easily calculated. Measuring of water by volume is easy and automatic. Measuring device
can be easily made. Generally water in the field is measured by buckets or tin, cans but this
method is not accurate.

!25
Measurement of Aggregate by Volume: For these purpose generally wooden boxes of
capacity equivalent or part of one cement bag i.e. 35 liters are used. These boxes are known
as Petties or Farmas or Gauge Box.

Weigh Batching: As per the name, ingredients of concrete are measured by weight. This is
more accurate and is generally used where high quality concrete is required. As described
earlier generally one cement bag or its multiple is the basic unit. In this system allowance for
water present in aggregate is made, but bulking has no effect.

3. Mixing of Concrete
i) Hand Mixing
ii) Machine Mixing.

i) Hand Mixing: It is adopted for small works where quantity of concrete required is small.
In it various ingredients of concrete are mixed by hand.

ii) Machine Mixing: For producing large quantity of concrete at a faster rate and at lesser
cost, machine mixing is adopted. The machine used for mixing concrete is known as
concrete mixer.
1. Continuous mixer
2. Batch type mixer.

Continuous mixer: It mixes and delivers concrete just as a steady stream of concrete, till it
is in operation. This type of mixers is not so common in use in India.

Batch type mixer: Mixes and discharge each loads of material separately. These are of two
types.
1. Tilting mixers.
2. Non-Tilting or Rotary Mixers.

Tilting Mixer: It has a conical drum which revolves about an inclined axis of 50 with
horizontal. The drum can be brought into different positions for charging, mixing and
discharging. In small mixers the materials are charged directly and in mixers of large
capacities loading skips are used. The mixed concrete is generally discharged on iron sheets.
Blades are fixed, in the internal surface of the rotating drum.

Non-Tilting Type: It is also known as rotary type mixer. It has a drum revolving about
horizontal axis and cylindrical in shape. It has an opening on both sides one for charging and
other for discharging. For charging loading skip is used which is fed with the help of wire
ropes and for discharging chutes are used.

!26
4. Transportation of concrete:
As the initial setting time of cement is generally 30 minutes, hence mixing, transportation,
placing and compaction should be completed with in this time. In no case this time should not
exceed one hour after initial setting time.

When transportation time required is more, than it should be kept agitated and in summer
season it should be kept cool. In no case there should be any loss of water during
transportation.

5. Placing of Concrete:
As for as possible concrete should be placed in single thickness. In case of deep sections,
concrete should be placed in successive horizontal layers and proper care should be taken to
develop enough bond between successive layers. Concrete should be placed as soon as
possible. But in no case, it should be placed after 30 minutes of its preparation. During
placing it should be seen that all edges and corners of concrete surface remain unbroken,
sharp and straight in line.

6. Curing of Concrete:
Concrete surfaces are kept wet for a certain period after placing the concrete. This is termed
as Curing of Concrete. The period of curing depends on the type of cement and nature of
work. For ordinary Portland cement, the curing period is 7 to 14 days. If rapid hardening
cement is used, curing period can be considerably reduced. It can be done by spraying and
ponding of water or covering the concrete with moist earth, sand, or wet gunny bags.

Types of Concrete
The following are the various types of concrete in use.
1. Plain Cement Concrete
2. Reinforced Cement Concrete
3. Pre Stressed Concrete
4. Light Weight Concrete
5. No-Fines Concrete
6. Pre-Cast Concrete
7. Fiber Reinforced Concrete
1. Plain Cement Concrete
It is a mixture of cement, sand pebbles or crushed rock and water. It possesses the following
important properties.

!27
 i) It is free from corrosion
ii)It has a high compressive strength
iii)It blinds rapidly with steel
iv)It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasions.
v)It has a tendency to shrink. It can be minimized by curing
vi)It has a tendency to be porous.

2. Reinforced Cement Concrete

Plain cement concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. To make this efficiency
better steel bars known as reinforcement are embedded in concrete. This is known as
reinforced cement concrete (RCC).

3. Pre-stressed Concrete
In this type of concrete, high tensile steel wires are used as reinforcement instead of mild
steel bars. There are two types of prestressing namely

i) Pre-tensioning and
ii) Post tensioning.

i) Pre-tensioning: In pre-tensioning method, the wires are initially stressed and the concrete
is cast in the moulds built around the wires. The wires released after the concrete attain its
strength. The tendency of the wires to return to their original length sets up a compression in
concrete, which helps the concrete to resists more tensile stress.

ii) Post-tensioning: In post tensioning the wires are placed inside the concrete and then
stressed. The use of prestressed concrete results in saving of concrete and steel to the extent
of 50% and 80% respectively compared to RCC.

4. Light Weight Concrete

They are produced from a wide variety of both natural earth substance and fly ash. It mainly
consists of cement, aggregates of loose porosity, steel and water. The bulk density of this
concrete varies from 500 to 1800 kg/m3 whereas the bulk density of ordinary concrete is
about 2300 kg/m3.
Advantages:
i) Its weight is less
ii)It has better insulating and fire resisting properties

!28
 iii)It saves the cost of material handling because of its lightness.
iv)It has a high water absorption property
v) Local industrial waste can be economically utilized to prepare this type of
concrete.
vi)The use of light weight concrete results in the reduction of cost to the extend of
about 30 to 40% or so.
5. No-fines Concrete
It consists of cement, coarse aggregate and water. Thus fine aggregate or sand is eliminated.
This concrete has been adopted for cast-in-situ external load bearing walls of single and multi
storey houses, small retaining walls etc.,
The advantages are.
i)It possesses better insulating properties
ii)The unit weight of no-fines concrete is about 2/3 of the unit weight of conventional
concrete.
iii)There is direct saving in material requirements as the concrete does not require
sand.
iv)The drying shrinkage is low
v)As there is absence of capillary passages, there is no transmission of water by
Capillary action.

6. Precast Concrete
Precast concrete is manufactured in a factory and the transmitted to the site. The advantages
are:
i)The pre-cast articles may be given the desired shape and finish with accuracy.
ii)The labour required in the manufacturing process of pre-cast units can be easily
trained.
iii)Concrete of superior quality is produced
iv)The pre-cast structures can be dismantled when required and they can then be
suitably used elsewhere.
v)The work can be completed in short time.

7. Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

It mainly consists of cement, fiber, sand and water. Asbestos, glass, nylon or coconut fibers
have been tried as alternative to steel. The advantages are:
a) It has thin sections

!29
b) Production rate is less
c) More durable
d) Less maintenance cost

!30
 STEEL

Steel is probably the most versatile commonly used structural material. Steel is used to a
large extent in modern multi-storied buildings. Steel is used as reinforcing bars/wires for
concrete since concrete is weak in tension. Structural steel is available in various forms and
shapes and it is being used for various structural components.

Physical Properties of Mild Steel

1. Mass density = 7850 Kg/m3

2. Youngs Modulus = 2.04 x 105 N/mm2
3. Modulus of Rigidity = 0.785 x 105 N/mm2
4. Poissons Ratio = 0.25 0.3
5. Coefficient of thermal expansion = 12 x 10-6 per c

Reinforcement Steel

Steel reinforcement is of following types

1. Mild Steel bars (MS)

2. High strength deformed bars / rolled twisted bars (HSD / RTS)
3. High tensile bars

Normally in all types of structural elements High Strength Deformed bars are used as main
reinforcement. For distribution bars mild steel is being used. Reinforcement steel is
characterized by its yield strength and ultimate tensile strength. Stress strain behavior is
studied by conducting simple tension test and various salient points are noted to determine
the strength.

Reinforcement bars are available in various nominal sizes. Mild steel (Grade I) and (Grade II)
are available in the following nominal sizes 5,6,8,10,12,16,20 mm diameter which has the
yield stress of 250 N/mm2 and minimum ultimate tensile stress as 410 N/mm2. Diameters 22,
25,28,32,36,40,45,50 are also available which has yield stress as 240 N/mm2.

High strength deformed bars / wires are available in the following nominal sizes:
6,8,10,12,16,18,20,22,25,28,32,36,40,45,&50 with the characteristic strength 415 N/mm2 and
500 N/mm2.

Structural Steel

Various shapes and sections are used for building works. Most of them are made by rolling.
The common types of sections used in structural steel work are shown in Fig..1.5

!31
 !

Fig.1.5 Sections in Steel

Plates: Plates may be of any size or thickness. Common uses of plates in building
construction are as webs and flanges of deep beams, column flanges, column base, etc.

Flats: These are rolled as in the case of plate but are much longer in lengths and have shorter
widths. The widths vary form 18mm to 50 mm. The minimum and maximum thickness vary
from 3mm to 80 mm. Flats are costlier than plates but are put to a considerable use in
building construction. Flat section may have one rounded side with greater thickness than the
remaining section and this is called bulb ball. These are used only in specific instances.

Angles: Angle sections are widely used in steel trusses. Most common types are angles with
equal legs and with unequal legs and are designated by ISA width and height of legs of
angles. The equal angles vary form 20 mm x 20mm to 200mm x 200mm in size and 3mm to
5mm in thickness. The term 20mm x 20mm denotes that the width of legs is 20mm overall.
Unequal angles vary in size from 20mm x 30mm to 220mm x 100mm and thickness from
4mm to 20mm. Special angles with a square toe, round backed, acute, square root and bulb
types are also available. These are used to a limited extent in special constructional features

T-Sections:These are used for roof trusses and for certain built up columns. They are
designated by the width of the stem, width of the table and by the thickness. The standard
sizes vary form 40mm x 40mm to 150mm x 150mm with thickness from 6mm to 8mm.
Special T-Sections with bulbs etc. are also used to some extent.

!32
Channels:Channels are mainly used for beams, columns and top and bottom chord members
of truss. They are designated by the depth, flange width and weight per unit length. The size
varies form 50mm x 75mm x 3kg to 420mm x 100mm x 30kg. Whenever stronger channels
of lesser depth are required, these are specially cast with greater thickness than given by the
standards. ISI handbook gives the following four series of channel sections. The only series
that is available in India is ISMC.

Indian Standard Junior Channels (ISJC)

Indian Standard Light Channels (ISLC)
Indian Standard Medium Weight Channels (ISMC)
Indian Standard Special Channels (ISSC)

Joists: Rolled Steel Joists or I-Sections are most commonly used for beams and columns.
They are denoted by the flange with, overall depth and weight per meter run. The British
Standard Joists Section varies in size form 7 cm x 4cm to 60 cm x 17 cm. In U.S.A. I-sections
have vary wide flanges are used. ISI handbook gives the following five series of Beam
Sections. The only series that is available in India is ISMB.

Indian Standard Junior Beams (ISJB)

Indian Standard Light Beams (ISLB)
Indian Standard Medium Weight Beams (ISMB)
Indian Standard Wide Flange Beams (ISWB)
Indian Standard H Beams (ISHB)

Miscellaneous Sections: Z-Sections, rail-sections, troughs, bars etc. are used to a limited
extent in steel work for a building.

!33