CHEPTER 2: CONCRETE MAKING MATERIAL

2.1 Concrete
Concrete is made up of three main ingredients: water, Portland cement, and aggregates. The ratio
of the ingredients changes the properties of the final product, which allows the engineer to design
concrete that meets their specific needs. Admixtures are added to adjust the concrete mixture for
specific performance criteria.

2.2 Cement
A cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets, hardens and adheres to other
materials, binding them together. Cement is seldom used solely, but is used to bind sand and
gravel (aggregate) together. Cement is used with fine aggregate to produce mortar for masonry,
or with sand and gravel aggregates to produce concrete.

2.2.1 Manufacture of cement

Portland cement is manufactured by crushing, milling and proportioning the following materials:

o Lime or calcium oxide, CaO: from limestone, chalk, shells, shale or calcareous
rock
o Silica, SiO2: from sand, old bottles, clay or argillaceous rock
o Alumina, Al2O3: from bauxite, recycled aluminum, clay
o Iron, Fe2O3: from from clay, iron ore, scrap iron and fly ash
o Gypsum, CaSO4.2H20: found together with limestone

The materials, without the gypsum, are proportioned to produce a mixture with the desired
chemical composition and then ground and blended by one of two processes - dry process or wet
process. The materials are then fed through a kiln at 2,600 F to produce grayish-black pellets
known as clinker. The alumina and iron act as fluxing agents which lower the melting point of
silica from 3,000 to 2600 F. After this stage, the clinker is cooled, pulverized and gypsum added
to regulate setting time. It is then ground extremely fine to produce cement.

2.2.2 Chemical shorthand

Because of the complex chemical nature of cement, a shorthand form is used to denote the
chemical compounds. The shorthand for the basic compounds is:
 Compound Formula Shorthand form

Calcium oxide (lime) Ca0 C

Silicon dioxide (silica) SiO2 S

Aluminum oxide (alumina) Al2O3 A

Iron oxide Fe2O3 F

Water H2O H

Sulfate SO3 S

2.2.3 Properties of cement compounds

These compounds contribute to the properties of cement in different ways

Tricalcium aluminate, C3A:-

It liberates a lot of heat during the early stages of hydration, but has little strength contribution.
Gypsum slows down the hydration rate of C3A. Cement low in C3A is sulfate resistant.

Tricalcium silicate, C3S:-

This compound hydrates and hardens rapidly. It is largely responsible for portland cements
initial set and early strength gain.

Dicalcium silicate, C2S:

C2S hydrates and hardens slowly. It is largely responsible for strength gain after one week.

Ferrite, C4AF:
This is a fluxing agent which reduces the melting temperature of the raw materials in the kiln
(from 3,000o F to 2,600o F). It hydrates rapidly, but does not contribute much to strength of the
cement paste.

By mixing these compounds appropriately, manufacturers can produce different types of cement
to suit several construction environments.

2.2.4 HYDRATION
Series of irreversible exothermic chemical reactions between cement and water.Cement-water
paste sets and hardens, gluing the aggregate together in a solid mass Formation of hydration
products over time leads to: Stiffening (loss of workability) , Setting (Solidification), Hardening
(Strength gain)

2.2.5 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

Understanding the basics of hydration is important to

Ensure the strength and durability of concrete

Recognize and mitigate the thermal stresses to prevent cracking

Appreciate the importance of good curing and construction practices

2.2.6 Heat of hydration

Heat liberated when cement comes in contact with water as a result of the exothermic chemical
reaction between cement and water.

Significance:

Can result in thermal cracking which can reduce concrete durability

. Significantly influences lift thickness which impacts economic savings and construction
period.
 2.2.7 TEST ON CEMENT

Tests on Cement at Construction site

The following are the quality tests on cement at construction site:

Color test
Presence of lumps
Adulteration test
Temperature test
Float tests
Date of packing
Color Test of Cement

The color of the cement should be uniform. It should be grey colour with a light greenish shade.

Presence of Lumps
The cement should be free from any hard lumps. Such lumps are formed by the absorption of
moisture from the atmosphere. Any bag of cement containing such lumps should be rejected.

Cement Adulteration Test

The cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between fingers. If it is felt rough, it
indicates adulteration with sand.

Temperature Test of Cement

If hand is inserted in a bag of cement or heap of cement, it should feel cool and not warm.

Float Test
If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, the particles should float for some
time before it sinks.

Date of Packing:

Strength of cement reduces with time, so it is important to check the manufacturing date of the
cement. Generally, the cement should be used before 90 days from the date of manufacturing.

Laboratory tests of cement

1. Consistency test:

This is a test to estimate the quantity of mixing water to form a paste of normal consistency
defined as that percentage water requirement of the cement paste, the viscosity of which will be
such that the Vicats plunger penetrates up to a point 5 to 7 mm from the bottom of the Vicats
mould.
The water requirement for various tests of cement depends on the normal consistency of the
cement, which itself depends upon the compound composition and fineness of the cement.

Test Procedure:

300 g of cement is mixed with 25 per cent water. The paste is filled in the mould of Vicats
apparatus and the surface of the filled paste is smoothed and levelled. A square needle 10 mm x
10 mm attached to the plunger is then lowered gently over the cement paste surface and is
released quickly. The plunger pierces the cement paste. The reading on the attached scale is
recorded. When the reading is 5-7 mm from the bottom of the mould, the amount of water added
is considered to be the correct percentage of water for normal consistency.

2. Initial and final setting time:

When water is added to cement, the resulting paste starts to stiffen and gain strength and lose the
consistency simultaneously. The term setting implies solidification of the plastic cement
paste. Initial and final setting times may be regarded as the two stiffening states of the
cement. The beginning of solidification, called the initial set, marks the point in time when the
paste has become unworkable. The time taken to solidify completely marks the final set, which
should not be too long in order to resume construction activity within a reasonable time after the
placement of concrete.
The initial setting time may be defined as the time taken by the paste to stiffen to such an extent
that the Vicats needle is not permitted to move down through the paste to within 5 0.5 mm
measured from the bottom of the mould. The final setting time is the time after which the paste
becomes so hard that the angular attachment to the needle, under standard weight, fails to leave
any mark on the hardened concrete. Initial and final setting times are the rheological properties
of cement.
Test procedure:
A neat cement paste is prepared by gauging cement with 0.85 times the water required to give a
paste of standard consistency. The stop watch is started at the instant water is added to the
cement. The mould resting on a nonporous plate is filled completely with cement paste and the
surface of filled paste is levelled smooth with the top of the mould. The test is conducted at room
temperature of 27 2C. The mould with the cement paste is placed in the Vicats apparatus and
the needle is lowered gently in contact with the test block and is then quickly released. The
needle thus penetrates the test block and the reading on the Vicats apparatus graduated scale is
recorded. The procedure is repeated until the needle fails to pierce the block by about 5 mm
measured from the bottom of the mould. The stop watch is pushed off and the time is recorded
which gives the initial setting time. The cement is considered to be finally set when upon
applying the needle gently to the surface of test block, the needle makes an impression, but the
attachment fails to do so.

Soundness test

It is essential that the cement concrete does not undergo large change in volume after setting.
This is ensured by limiting the quantities of free lime and magnesia which slake slowly causing
change in volume of cement (known as unsound). Soundness of cement may be tested by
LeChatelier method or by autoclave method. For OPC, RHC, LHC and PPC it is limited to 10
mm, whereas for HAC and SSC it should not exceed 5 mm.

It is a very important test to assure the quality of cement since an unsound cement produces
cracks, distortion and disintegration, ultimately leading to failure.
Test Procedure:
The LeChatelier apparatus is used. The mould is placed on a glass sheet and is filled with neat
cement paste formed by gauging 100 g cement with 0.78 times the water required to give a paste
of standard consistency. The mould is covered with a glass sheet and a small weight is placed on
the covering glass sheet. The mould is then submerged in the water at temperature of 27-32C.
After 24 hours, the mould is taken out and the distance separating the indicator points is
measured. The mould is again submerged in water. The water is now boiled for 3 hours. The
mould is removed from water and is cooled down. The distance between the indicator points is
measured again. The difference between the two measurements represents the unsoundness of
cemen
Compressive strength

Compressive strength is the basic data required for mix design. By this test, the quality and the
quantity of concrete can be controlled and the degree of adulteration can be checked.

Test Procedure:
The test specimens are 70.6 mm cubes having face area of about 5000 sq. mm. Large size
specimen cubes cannot be made since cement shrinks and cracks may develop. The temperature
of water and test room should be 27 2C. A mixture of cement and standard sand in the
proportion 1:3 by weight is mixed dry with a trowel for one minute and then with water until the
mixture is of uniform colour. Three specimen cubes are prepared. The material for each cube is
mixed separately. The quantities of cement, standard sand and water are 185 g, 555 g and (P/4) +
3.5, respectively where P = percentage of water required to produce a paste of standard
consistency. The mould is filled completely with the cement paste and is placed on the vibration
table. Vibrations are imparted for about 2 minutes at a speed of 12000400 per minute. The
cubes are then removed from the moulds and submerged in clean fresh water and are taken out
just prior to testing in a compression testing machine. Compressive strength is taken to be the
average of the results of the three cubes. The load is applied starting from zero at a rate of 35
N/sq mm/minute. The compressive strength is calculated from the crushing load divided by the
average area over which the load is applied.The result is expressed in N/mm2.
 Tensile strength

The tensile strength may be determined by Briquette test method or by split tensile strength test.

Importance: The tensile strength of cement affords quicker indications of defects in the cement
than any other test. Also, the test is more conveniently made than the compressive strength test.
Moreover, since the flexural strength, is directly related to the tensile strength this test is ideally
fitted to give information both with regard to tensile and compressive strengths when the supply
for material testing is small.
Briquette test method:
A mixture of cement and sand is gauged in the proportion of 1:3 by weight. The percentage of
water to be used is calculated from the formula (P/5) + 2.5, where P = percentage of water
required to produce a paste of standard consistency. The temperature of the water and the test
room should be 27 2C. The mix is filled in the moulds of the shape shown in Figure. After
filling the mould, an additional heap of mix is placed on the mould and is pushed down with the
standard spatula, until the mixture is level with the top of the mould. This operation is repeated
on the other side of the mould also. The briquettes in the mould are finished by smoothing the
surface with the blade of a trowel. They are then kept for 24 hours at a temperature of 27 2C
and in an atmosphere having 90 per cent humidity. The briquettes are then kept in clean fresh
water and are taken out before testing. Six briquettes are tested and the average tensile strength is
calculated. Load is applied steadily and uniformly, starting from zero and increasing at the rate
of 0.7 N/sq mm of section in 12 seconds.

2.2.8 Types of cement

TYPES OF CEMENT COMPOSITION SITUATUIONS PURPOSES

Rapid Hardening Portland RHPC manufactured by
Cement combining lime stone
(finely grounded) and shale
at high temperature
This type of cement is 1. Road Pavement
used where high Works
strength is need to be 2. Precast concrete
achieved in initial casting
stage quickly. (Beams, Colums etc)

Sulphate Resisting Cement
SRC is manufactured with
less than 5% calcium
aluminate to withstand
Sulphate attacks
This type of cement is 1. Pile foundation
used where the 2. In Coastal area
concrete is direct Works
contact with soil 3. Sewage and water
(which has high treatment plants
sulphate content)
TYPES OF CEMENT COMPOSITION
Low Heat Cement This type cement is
produced by lowereing the
amount of tri-calcium
aluminate (C3A) & di-
calcium silicate (C2S)
Quick Setting Cement This type of cement is
manufactured by reducing
the amount of gypsum and
adding small amount of
aluminium sulphate to
accelerate setting time of
cement
Portland Pozzolana Cement PPC is manufactured by
adding pozzolanic materials
such as fly ash, shales, clays
etc
High Alumina Cement HAC or CAC is produced
from lime stone/Chalk and
Bauxite
Coloured Cement Coloured cement is
manufactured by mixing
colour pigments (5-10 % )
with OPC
White Ordinary Portland WOPC is same as the
Cement Ordinary Portland Cement
except the color
SITUATUIONS PURPOSES
This type of cement is 1. Mass Construction
used in mass (Dams, Marine
constructions (like constructions)
dams) and in high 2. Hydraulic
wear resistance Engineering Concrete
required area 3. Retaining wall
construction
As the name suggests, 1. In Underwater
it is used where the Constructions
works needs to be 2. In Cold and Rainy
done quickly weather Conditions
It gains high 1. It is cheap and
compressive strength affordable
with age unlike rapid 2. Mainly used in
hardening cement. It building construction
is cheap and where strength
affordable required with age
3. Water tightness
This cement is used in Used in Sewage
construction of structures and in
refineries, factory or acidic structures
other workshop type
structure because
HAC is counter to
high temperature
As the name suggests, 1. Artificial Marble
It is used where 2. Floor finishing
coloured cements
required for any
aesthetic purpose
WOPC used in white 1. Used as a base coat
washing purpose for before painting
aesthetic purpose 2. Used to cover the
hairline cracks on
concrete surface to
give smooth finish
TYPES OF CEMENT COMPOSITION
Air Entraining Cement AEC produced by mixing
small amount of air
entraining agent
Hydrophobic Cement This type of cement is
manufactured by mixing
admixtures like petrolatum,
napthalene soap which
forms layer and act as water
repellent
Ordinary Portland Cement OPC is manufactured by
mixing limestone/chalk
with shale/clay to form
clinker which is then finely
crushed to form grey color
cement
Expansive Cement Expansive Cement is
formed from the reaction of
tri calcium aluminate (C3A)
with Calcium Sulphate
(C2SO4)
SITUATUIONS PURPOSES
It is used to fillup the Used in frost
gap in concrete which resistance concrete
are produced by (like said, frost also
excessive amount of makes gap in concrete
water during casting like water)
(later evaporated and
leave the gap)
It is useful in wet Useful when cement
climatic conditions is stored for longer
duration in wet
climatic conditions
Commonly used for Widely used in
all type of residential
construction works construction where
special type of cement
properties is not
required
As the name suggests, 1. Used in repair
it expands and works
increases in volume (to create a bond with
while settled. Used to old concrete surface)
avoid the shrinkage of 2. Used in Hydraulic
concrete Structures
 2.3 aggregates
Construction aggregate, or simply "aggregate", is a broad category of coarse particulate material
used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and
geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world.

2.3.1 Classification of Aggregates

Classification of Aggregates Based on Shape

We know that aggregate is derived from naturally occurring rocks by blasting or crushing etc.,
so, it is difficult to attain required shape of aggregate. But, the shape of aggregate will affect the
workability of concrete. So, we should take care about the shape of aggregate. This care is not
only applicable to parent rock but also to the crushing machine used.

Aggregates are classified according to shape into the following types

Rounded aggregates
Irregular or partly rounded aggregates
Angular aggregates
Flaky aggregates
Elongated aggregates
Flaky and elongated aggregates

Rounded Aggregate
The rounded aggregates are completely shaped by attrition and available in the form of seashore
gravel. Rounded aggregates result the minimum percentage of voids (32 33%) hence gives
more workability. They require lesser amount of water-cement ratio. They are not considered for
high strength concrete because of poor interlocking behavior and weak bond strength.

Irregular Aggregates
The irregular or partly rounded aggregates are partly shaped by attrition and these are available
in the form of pit sands and gravel. Irregular aggregates may result 35- 37% of voids. These will
give lesser workability when compared to rounded aggregates. The bond strength is slightly
higher than rounded aggregates but not as required for high strength concrete.
 Angular Aggregates
The angular aggregates consist well defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly planar
surfaces and these are obtained by crushing the rocks. Angular aggregates result maximum
percentage of voids (38-45%) hence gives less workability. They give 10-20% more compressive
strength due to development of stronger aggregate-mortar bond. So, these are useful in high
strength concrete manufacturing.

Flaky Aggregates
When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and length of that aggregate it
is said to be flaky aggregate. Or in the other, when the least dimension of aggregate is less than
the 60% of its mean dimension then it is said to be flaky aggregate.

Elongated Aggregates
When the length of aggregate is larger than the other two dimensions then it is called elongated
aggregate or the length of aggregate is greater than 180% of its mean dimension.

Flaky and Elongated Aggregates

When the aggregate length is larger than its width and width is larger than its thickness then it is
said to be flaky and elongated aggregates. The above 3 types of aggregates are not suitable for
concrete mixing. These are generally obtained from the poorly crushed rocks.

Classification of Aggregates Based on Size

Aggregates are available in nature in different sizes. The size of aggregate used may be related to
the mix proportions, type of work etc. the size distribution of aggregates is called grading of
aggregates.

Following are the classification of aggregates based on size:

Aggregates are classified into 2 types according to size

Fine aggregate
 Coarse aggregate

Fine Aggregate
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate passed through it called as
fine aggregate. Natural sand is generally used as fine aggregate, silt and clay are also come under
this category. The soft deposit consisting of sand, silt and clay is termed as loam. The purpose of
the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability agent.

Fine aggregate Size variation

Coarse Sand 2.0mm 0.5mm

Medium sand 0.5mm 0.25mm

Fine sand 0.25mm 0.06mm

Silt 0.06mm 0.002mm

Clay <0.002

Coarse Aggregate
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate retained is called coarse
aggregate. Gravel, cobble and boulders come under this category. The maximum size aggregate
used may be dependent upon some conditions. In general, 40mm size aggregate used for normal
strengths and 20mm size is used for high strength concrete. the size range of various coarse
aggregates given below.

Coarse aggregate Size

Fine gravel 4mm 8mm

Medium gravel 8mm 16mm

Coarse gravel 16mm 64mm

Cobbles 64mm 256mm

Boulders >256mm

The classification of aggregates based on their surface texture,

Surface texture classification of aggregates

Group Surface Texture Characteristics Examples

_______ ________________ __________________ _______________

1 Glassy Conchoidal fracture Black flint,

vitreous slag

2 Smooth Water-worn, or smooth Gravels, chert,

due to fracture of slate, marble,

laminated or fine-grained some rhyolites

rock

3 Granular Fracture showing more Sandstone, oolite

or less uniform rounded

grains

4 Rough Rough fracture of fine Basalt, felsite,

or medium-grained rock porphyry,

containing no easily limestone

 visible crystalline

constituents

5 Crystalline Containing easily visible Granite, gabbro,

crystalline constituents gneiss

6 Honeycombed With visible pores and Brick, pumice,

cavities foamed slag,

clinker, expanded

clay

2.3.2 Grading
Combined Aggregate Grading

Aggregate is sometimes analyzed using the combined grading of fine and coarse aggregate
together, as they exist in a concrete mixture. This provides a more thorough analysis of how the
aggregates will perform in concrete. Sometimes mid-sized aggregate, around the 9.5 mm (3 8
in.) size, is lacking in an aggregate supply, resulting in a concrete with high shrinkage properties,
high water demand, poor workability, poor pumpability, and poor placeability. Strength and
durability may also be affected. Fig. 5-10 illustrates an ideal gradation; however, a perfect
gradation does not exist in the fieldbut we can try to approach it. If problems develop due to a
poor gradation, alternative aggregates, blending, or special screening of existing aggregates,
should be considered. Refer to Shilstone (1990) for options on obtaining optimal grading of
aggregate. The combined gradation can be used to better control workability, pumpability,
shrinkage, and other properties of concrete. Abrams (1918) and Shilstone (1990) demonstrate the
benefits of a combined aggregate analysis:

With constant cement content and constant consistency, there is an optimum for every
combination of aggregates that will produce the most effective water to cement ratio and highest
strength.

The optimum mixture has the least particle interference and responds best to a high frequency,
high amplitude vibrator.
However, this optimum mixture cannot be used for all construction due to variations in placing
and finishing needs and availability. Crouch (2000) found in his studies on air-entrained concrete
that the water-cement ratio could be reduced by over 8% using combined aggregate gradation.
Shilstone (1990) also analyzes aggregate gradation by coarseness and workability factors to
improve aggregate gradation.

Gap-Graded Aggregates

In gap-graded aggregates certain particle sizes are intentionally omitted. For cast-in-place
concrete, typical gapgraded aggregates consist of only one size of coarse aggregate with all the
particles of fine aggregate able to pass through the voids in the compacted coarse aggregate.
Gap-graded mixes are used in architectural concrete to obtain uniform textures in exposed-
aggregate finishes. They can also used in normal structural concrete because of possible
improvements in some concrete properties, and to permit the use of local aggregate gradations
(Houston 1962 and Litvin and Pfeifer 1965). For an aggregate of 19-mm (3 4-in.) maximum
size, the 4.75 mm to 9.5 mm (No. 4 to 3 8 in.) particles can be omitted without making the
concrete unduly harsh or subject to segregation. In the case of 37.5 mm (11 2 in.) aggregate,
usually the 4.75 mm to 19 mm (No. 4 to 3 4 in.) sizes are omitted. Care must be taken in
choosing the percentage of fine aggregate in a gap-graded mixture. A wrong choice can result in
concrete that is likely to segregate or honeycomb because of an excess of coarse aggregate. Also,
concrete with an excess of fine aggregate could have a high water demand resulting in a low-
density concrete. Fine aggregate is usually 25% to 35% by volume of the total aggregate. The
lower percentage is used with rounded aggregates and the higher with crushed material. For a
smooth off-the-form finish, a somewhat higher percentage of fine aggregate to total aggregate
may be used than for an exposed-aggregate finish, but both use a lower fine aggregate content
than continuously graded mixtures. Fine aggregate content also depends upon cement content,
type of aggregate, and workability. Air entrainment is usually required for workability since low-
slump, gap-graded mixes use a low fine aggregate percentage and produce harsh mixes without
entrained air. Segregation of gap-graded mixes must be prevented by restricting the slump to the
lowest value consistent with good consolidation. This may vary from zero to 75 mm (to 3 in.)
depending on the thickness of the section, amount of reinforcement, and height of casting. Close
control of grading and water content is also required because variations might cause segregation.
If a stiff mixture is required, gap graded aggregates may produce higher strengths than normal
aggregates used with comparable cement contents. Because of their low fine-aggregate volumes
and low water-cement ratios, gap-graded mixtures might be considered unworkable for some
cast-in-place construction. When properly proportioned, however, these concretes are readily
consolidated with vibration.

2.3.4 Bulk Density (Unit Weight) and Voids

The bulk density or unit weight of an aggregate is the mass or weight of the aggregate required
to fill a container of a specified unit volume. The volume referred to here is that occupied by
both aggregates and the voids between aggregate particles. The approximate bulk density of
aggregate commonly used in normal-weight concrete ranges from about 1200 to 1750 kg/m3 (75
to 110 lb/ft3). The void content between particles affects paste requirements in mix design (see
preceding sections, Particle Shape and Surface Texture and Grading). Void contents range
from about 30% to 45% for coarse aggregates to about 40% to 50% for fine aggregate.
Angularity increases void content while larger sizes of well-graded aggregate and improved
grading decreases void content (Fig. 5-7). Methods of determining the bulk density of aggregates
and void content are given in ASTM C 29 (AASHTO T 19). In these standards, three methods
are described for consolidating the aggregate in the container depending on the maximum size of
the aggregate: rodding, jigging, and shoveling. The measurement of loose uncompacted void
content of fine aggregate is described in ASTM C 1252.

2.3.5 Relative Density (Specific Gravity)

The relative density (specific gravity) of an aggregate is the ratio of its mass to the mass of an
equal absolute volume of water. It is used in certain computations for mixture proportioning and
control, such as the volume occupied by the aggregate in the absolute volume method of mix
design. It is not generally used as a measure of aggregate quality, though some porous aggregates
that exhibit accelerated freeze-thaw deterioration do have low specific gravities. Most natural
aggregates have relative densities between 2.4 and 2.9 with corresponding particle (mass)
densities of 2400 and 2900 kg/m3 (150 and 181 lb/ft3). Test methods for determining relative
densities for coarse and fine aggregates are described in ASTM C 127 (AASHTO T 85) and
ASTM C 128 (AASHTO T 84), respectively. The relative density of an aggregate may be
determined on an ovendry basis or a saturated surface-dry (SSD) basis. Both the ovendry and
saturated surface-dry relative densities may be used in concrete mixture proportioning
calculations. Ovendry aggregates do not contain any absorbed or free water. They are dried in an
oven to constant weight. Saturated surface-dry aggregates are those in which the pores in each
aggregate particle are filled with water but there is no excess water on the particle surface.

2.3.6 Absorption and Surface Moisture

The absorption and surface moisture of aggregates should be determined according to ASTM C
70, C 127, C 128, and C 566 (AASHTO T 255) so that the total water content of the concrete can
be controlled and correct batch weights determined. The internal structure of an aggregate
particle is made up of solid matter and voids that may or may not contain water. The moisture
conditions of aggregates are shown in . They are designated as: 1. Ovendryfully absorbent 2.
Air drydry at the particle surface but containing some interior moisture, thus still somewhat
absorbent 3. Saturated surface dry (SSD)neither absorbing water from nor contributing water
to the concrete mixture 4. Damp or wetcontaining an excess of moisture on the surface (free
water) The amount of water added at the concrete batch plant must be adjusted for the moisture
conditions of the
aggregates in order to accurately meet the water requirement of the mix design. If the water
content of the concrete mixture is not kept constant, the water-cement ratio will vary from batch
to batch causing other properties, such as the compressive strength and workability to vary from
batch to batch. Coarse and fine aggregate will generally have absorption levels (moisture
contents at SSD) in the range of 0.2% to 4% and 0.2% to 2%, respectively. Free-water contents
will usually range from 0.5% to 2% for coarse aggregate and 2% to 6% for fine aggregate. The
maximum water content of drained coarse aggregate is usually less than that of fine aggregate.
Most fine aggregates can maintain a maximum drained moisture content of about 3% to 8%
whereas coarse aggregates can maintain only about 1% to 6%. Bulking. Bulking is the increase
in total volume of moist fine aggregate over the same mass dry. Surface tension in the moisture
holds the particles apart, causing an increase in volume. Bulking of a fine aggregate (such as
sand) occurs when it is shoveled or otherwise moved in a damp condition, even though it may
have been fully console
dated beforehand. Fig. 5-13 illustrates how the amount of bulking of fine aggregate varies with
moisture content and grading; fine gradings bulk more than coarse gradings for a given amount
of moisture. Fig. 5-14 shows similar information in terms of weight for a particular fine
aggregate. Since most fine aggregates are delivered in a damp condition, wide variations can
occur in batch quantities if batching is done by volume. For this reason, good practice has long
favored weighing the aggregate and adjusting for moisture content when proportioning concrete.
.

2.3.7 TESTS ON AGGREGATE

Aggregate plays an important role in pavement construction. Aggregates influence, to a great
extent, the load transfer capability of pavements. Hence it is essential that they should be
thoroughly tested before using for construction. Not only that aggregates should be strong and
durable, they should also possess proper shape and size to make the pavement act monolithically.
Aggregates are tested for strength, toughness, hardness, shape, and water absorption.
In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following
tests are carried out:

1. Crushing test
2. Abrasion test
3. Impact test
4. Soundness test
5. Shape test
6. Specific gravity and water absorption test
7. Bitumen adhesion test

1.CRUSHING TEST

Fig-1 Crushing Test Setup

One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under compressive stress. A
test is standardized by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to determine the crushing strength of
aggregates. The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing
under gradually applied crushing load.
The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate in standard mould to a compression test
under standard load conditions (See Fig-1). Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and
retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height
in three layers. Each layer is tamped 25 times with at standard tamping rod. The test sample is
weighed and placed in the test cylinder in three layers each layer being tamped again. The
specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the rate of 4 tonnes
per minute. Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of
passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of the weight of the total sample (W1) which is
the aggregate crushing value.
Aggregate crushing value = (W1/W2)*100
A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 would
normally be regarded as weak aggregates.
2.ABRASION TEST

Fig-2 Los Angeles Abrasion Test Setup

Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they
are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a preferred
one for carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-
IV).
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing
action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.
Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520 mm
mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated (see Fig-2). An abrasive charge consisting of
cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along
with the aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the
sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges
from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500
-1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.
After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction is
expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion
value.
A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions.
For bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 percent is specified.
3.IMPACT TEST

Fig-3 Impact Test Setup

The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.
Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup
of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing
machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 numbers of blows
(see Fig-3). Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm
by vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 numbers of blows. The crushed
aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact value is measured as
percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample (W1).
Aggregate impact value = (W1/W2)*100
Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldnt exceed 30 percent.
For bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound
macadam base courses the maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent.
4.SOUNDNESS TEST
Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by
conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing and
thawing is likely to disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates, they
are subjected to an accelerated soundness test as specified in IS: 2386 part-V.
Aggregates of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of
either sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 18 hours and then dried in oven at 105 to
1100C to a constant weight. After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by
sieving out all undersized particles and weighing.
The loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with sodium sulphate and 18
percent with magnesium sulphate solution.
5.SHAPE TESTS

Fig-4 Flakiness Gauge

The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and elongated
particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher workability and
stability of mixes.
The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate particles whose least
dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size. Flakiness gauge (see Fig-4) is used for this
test. Test procedure had been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-I).
The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by weight of particles
whose greatest dimension (length) is 1.8 times their mean dimension. This test is applicable
to aggregates larger than 6.3 mm. Elongation gauge (see Fig-5) is used for this test. This test is
also specified in (IS: 2386 Part-I). However there are no recognized limits for the elongation
index.
Elongation Gauge

6.SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION

The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties that are required
for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio of its
mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperature. Because the
aggregates may contain water-permeable voids, so two measures of specific gravity of
aggregates are used:

1. Apparent specific gravity and

2. Bulk specific gravity.

Apparent Specific Gravity, Gapp, is computed on the basis of the net volume of aggregates i.e
the volume excluding water-permeable voids. Thus
Gapp = [(MD/VN)]/W
Where,
MD is the dry mass of the aggregate,
VN is the net volume of the aggregates excluding the volume of the absorbed matter,
W is the density of water.
Bulk Specific Gravity, Gbulk, is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates
including water permeable voids. Thus
Gbulk = [(MD/VB)]/W
Where,
VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.
Water Absorption: The difference between the apparent and bulk specific gravities is nothing
but the water permeable voids of the aggregates. We can measure the volume of such voids by
weighing the aggregates dry and in a saturated surface dry condition, with all permeable voids
filled with water. The difference of the above two is MW.
MW is the weight of dry aggregates minus weight of aggregates saturated surface dry condition.
Thus,
Water Absorption = (MW/MD)*100
The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5 to
2.9. Water absorption values ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for aggregates normally used
in road surfacing.
7. BITUMEN ADHESION TEST
Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and free from
dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous construction.
Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be dealt with by
removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing temperature. Further,
the presence of water causes stripping of binder from the coated aggregates. This problem occurs
when bitumen mixture is permeable to water.
Several laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen binder to
an aggregate in the presence of water. Static immersion test is one specified by IRC and is quite
simple. The principle of the test is by immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in water
maintained at 400C temperature for 24 hours.
IRC has specified maximum stripping value of aggregates should not exceed 5%.

LIST OF IS CODES RELATED TO AGGREGATE TESTING

Tests for Aggregates with IS codes

Property of Aggregate Type of Test Test Method

Crushing strength Crushing test IS : 2386 (part 4)

Hardness Los Angeles abrasion test IS : 2386 (Part 5)

Toughness Aggregate impact test IS : 2386 (Part 4)

Durability Soundness test IS : 2386 (Part 5)

Shape factors Shape test IS : 2386 (Part 1)

Specific gravity test and water

Specific gravity and porosity IS : 2386 (Part 3)
absorption test

Adhesion to bitumen Stripping value of aggregate IS : 6241-1971

2.4 Water for Concrete

Water is one of the most important elements in construction but people still ignore quality aspect
of this element. The water is required for preparation of mortar, mixing of cement concrete and
for curing work etc during construction work. The quality and quantity of water has much effect
on the strength of mortar and cement concrete in construction work.

2.4.1 Quality of Water

The water used for mixing and curing should be clean and free from injurious quantities of
alkalis, acid, oils, salt, sugar, organic materials, vegetable growth and other substances that may
be deleterious to bricks, stone, concrete or steel. Potable water is generally considered
satisfactory for mixing. The pH value of water should be not less than 6.
2.4.2 Effects of Bad Quality Water on Cement Concrete
It has been observed that certain common impurities in water affect the quality of mortar or
concrete. Many times in spite of using best material i.e. cement, coarse sand, coarse aggregate
etc. in cement concrete, required results are not achieved. Most of Engineers/Contractors think
that there is something wrong in cement, but they do not consider quality of water being used.
Some bad effects of water containing impurities are following.

Presence of salt in water such as Calcium Chloride, Iron Salts, inorganic salts and sodium etc.
are so dangerous that they reduce initial strength of concrete and in some cases no strength can
be achieved. There is rusting problem in steel provided in RCC.

Presence of acid, alkali, industrial waste, sanitary sewage and water with sugar also reduce the
strength of concrete.
Presence of silt or suspended particle in water has adverse effect on strength of concrete.
Presence of oil such as linseed oil, vegetable oil or mineral oil in water above 2 % reduces the
strength of concrete up to 25 %.
Presence of algae/vegetable growth in water used for mixing in cement concrete reduce of
the strength of concrete considerably and also reduce the bond between cement paste and
aggregate.

2.4.3 How to test water and what should be tested

It is recommended that the water is tested through a certified lab. The water should confirm the
standard IS: 3025-1986 which is briefly described below.

Limit of Acidity: To neutralize 200 ml sample of water, use phenolphthalein as an

indicator. It does not require more than 2 ml 0.1 normal NAOH.
Limit of Alkalinity: To neutralize 200 ml sample of water, use methyl oil as an indicator,
it does not require more than 10 ml 0.1 normal HCL

Limit of Solids

Organic: 200 Mg per liter

Inorganic: 3000. Mg per liter
Sulphate: 400 mg per liter
Chloride: 500 mg per liter for RCC work and 2000 mg per liter for concrete not
containing steel.
Suspended matter: 2000 mg per liter

Physical and chemical properties of ground water should be tested along with soil
investigation and if the water is not found conforming to the requirements of IS: 456-
2000, it should not be used. The water found satisfactory for mixing is also suitable for
curing. However the water used for curing should not produce any objectionable stain or
unsightly deposit on the surface. The presence of tannic acid or iron compounds in water
meant for curing is objectionable. Sea water should not be used for mixing or curing.

It is a common thinking in construction work that the water fit for human consumption is
generally acceptable for mixing mortar or concrete and curing work. However, the water must be
tested before using in construction work. When you are making huge expenditure on
construction work, a negligible amount spent on water testing should not be saved. Tested water
or treated water should be used as this will increase the strength of cement concrete and enhance
the life of building.

2.4.4 Water Reducing Admixtures

The water reducer admixture improves workability of concrete/mortar for the same water cement
ratio. The determination of workability is an important factor in testing concrete admixture.
Rapid loss of workability occurs during first few minutes after mixing concrete and gradual loss
of workability takes place over a period from 15 to 60 minutes after mixing. Thus relative
advantages of water reducing admixture decrease with time after mixing. These admixtures
increase setting time by about 2 to 6 hours during which concrete can be vibrated. This is
particularly important in hot weather conditions or where the nature of construction demands a
time gap between the placements of successive layers of concrete.
Advantages

It can reduce 10% of water consumption.

It can improve mixture of cement concrete for workability.
Compression strength improves by more than 15 %.
It can reduce initial stage of cement heat hydration by large margin.
It has no function of corrosion reinforcing bars.
It increases workability, density and strength without increasing the quantity of cement.

Hence in the area where there is less availability of water and the water is carried from long
distances for construction work, the water reducing admixture is most beneficial for cement
concrete work as it saves water up to 10%. It also increases the strength of cement concrete with
the same quantity of cement.