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Keywords: Ocean tidal currents, water waves and thermal gradients are a great source of renewable energy. Ocean tidal,
Ocean energy osmotic, wave and thermal sources have annual potentials of 800, 2,000, 800080,000 and 10,000
Tidal current 87,600 TWh, which are more than global 16,000 TWh/y electricity demand. Ocean wave generators produce
Wave converter relatively lower output, however, four to eleven meters tidal range stations have large power generation
OTEC
capacities. Abundant ocean heat energy potentially harvested using ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
OTEG
devices and ocean thermo-electric generators (OTEG). Tidal stations may be tidal range or current types, but a
Osmotic power
wave energy converter (WEC) may be an oscillating water column (OWC), overtopping, heaving, pitching and
surging devices. Ocean thermal energy can be harnessed by open, close Rankine cycles, thermo-electric
generators and osmotic power plants. Large bays like Turnagain (USA), Annapolis/Minas Passage (Canada),
Seven Barrages/Pentland Firth (UK), La Rance (France), Garorim (South Korea) and Mezen/Penzhin (Russia)
have huge tidal current power generation capacities. Power Potential from tidal current stations is more than
WEC devices which in turn is more than osmotic, OTEC and OTEG technologies. This paper reviews the current
state-of-the-art of tidal, wave, OTEC and OTEG ocean energy technologies.
1. Introduction to hydropower, wind and solar energies the ocean dynamism is an ideal
energy resource. The tide is a periodic rise and fall of water in the seas
Sun provides more than 99.99% of energy and earth contributes and oceans, twice during a lunar day (24Hr and 50 min). Ocean water
about 0.01% [1]. Fossil fuels are a form of antediluvian eon solar remains at the maximum level for 50 min at dierent times on dierent
energy. All sources of energies, except geothermal and nuclear, are days repeating the cycle every 19 years. Sea and ocean levels at
ultimately powered by the sun [2]. Earth radiates heat and its thermal dierent locations depend on their latitudes and shore. Lunar motion
energy come from radioactive decay (80%) and planetary accretion around the earth increases time interval between successive tides from
(20%) [3]. Oceans encompass over 70% of the earth's mass. Ocean tides 12 h to 12 h and 25 min. The earth, moon and sun become aligned
are caused by earth's gravitational interaction with the moon (68%) every two weeks, at new and full moon days, to create maximum height
and sun (32%). The impact of the moon is 2.6 times more than the sun spring tides. On waxing and waning half moon days, in the rst and
due to its shorter distance from earth. Ocean waves are caused by third quarter, the sun being at 90 creates least height neap tides. The
friction of winds with the water surface. Earth has lost 17% of its performance of tidal and wave power plants depends on days of
rotational energy due to its slow deceleration rate of 12.19s/y [4]. months and wind speeds during the years. Water waves are high in
Oceans are a great form of renewable energy which is stored in the deep oceans and low near shallow shores. Wave generator performance
form of thermal energy (heat), kinetic energy (tides and waves), depends on wave amplitudes which are governed by wind speeds.
chemical energy (chemicals) and biological energies (biomass). Tidal Water waves may become dangerous during gusts and storms. Gravity,
current or wave generators harvest kinetic energies, and osmotic power wind and sunshine driven tidal wave and thermal power potentials
plants and thermo-electric generators reap salinity and thermal were guessed earlier to be 22,000, 2000 and 87600 TWh/y [8] but
gradients [5]. Up to date ocean power technologies and barriers are recent estimates show alone wave power potential of 2985 GW [7].
reported in the literature [6,7]. Ocean temperature varies from 24 to 28 C on surface to 46 C at
Climate change, S curved growths, population, energy and power 1 km depths. The dierence in temperature may be a basis of the ocean
crises require to explore and harvest renewable energy resources. Akin thermo-electric generator. Temperature dierences of 20 C are easily
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: nasrullahk@yahoo.com (N. Khan), anamkalair@gmail.com (A. Kalair), naeemkalair@uog.edu.pk (N. Abas), aun.haider@skt.umt.edu.pk (A. Haider).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.079
Received 15 October 2015; Received in revised form 7 May 2016; Accepted 15 January 2017
1364-0321/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Khan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 590604
h=R
available in torrid and temperate zones between 30S and 30N
latitudes [9,8]. Tidal potential is evenly distributed worldwide, OTEC E = g hAdh
potential is high in equatorial regions, but wave energy potential is h =0 (1)
higher in the tropic zones. 2
where is sea water density (kg/m ) and g is gravitational constant
Tidal power generation sites occur naturally along the sea and (9.81 m/s2). The energy associated with a xed area estuary may be
oceans like coal, oil, gas, shale and mineral reserves. Worldwide tidal given by
power generation sites explored include4,200 MW Pent land Firth
(UK) [10,11] 818 to 1,320 MW Incheon and Red Tides Sihawa Bay 1
E= gAR2
2 (2)
(South Korea) [12], Kislaya Guba (Belgium) [13], 6500 MW Turnagain
(USA, 2,800 MW Walcott Inlet (Australia), 5338 MW Cobequid Taking P=E/t, the average power (in kW) comes out to be
(Canada), 7000 MW Khambat Gulf (India) and Johnstone Strait [14] 1
and Minas Passage Bay of Fundy (Canada) [15,16]. Some estuaries and 2
gR2 R2
P = = 1025 9. 81 A = 225AR2
channels, like Hudson Strait (Canada), are reported to be reminiscent time 44700 (3)
of half-wave resonant oscillations [16]. Ocean thermo-electric, under- Where 44,700 are seconds in 6 h and 12.5 min. In case of a double
water marine and surface wave generators have relatively smaller cycle tidal station producing electricity in forward and reverse direc-
outputs, but tidal power plants give o bulk powers. Old tidal current tions of water ows then the power potential increases to 450AR2 kW
power stations such as 3.2 MW Jiangxia Tidal Power Station (China), twice of the single cycle station. If the tidal range equal to dierence of
20 MW Annapolis Royal Generating Station (Canada), 240 MW Rance maximum and minimum levels in the basin, then at an average water
Tidal Power Station (France) and 250 MW Sihwa Lake power Station discharge rate (Q =AH/t) through the turbine the work done by falling
(South Korea) have relatively low to moderate power generation water through h height is given by
capacities, but recently planned large tidal power stations such
as2,200 MW Dalupiri Blue Energy Project (Philippines), 3640 MW P = Qh (4)
Tugurskaya Tidal Power Station (Russia), 8640 MW Seven Barrage Power generation potential for 705 tidal cycles by an eciency
(UK) and12,000 MW Mezenskaya Tidal Power Station (Russia) are turbine in a year is
large power stations.. India intends to construct a 50 MW tidal power
t t t
station in the Gulf of Kutch and there is unconrmed news of Qh
87,100 MW Penzhinskaya Tidal Power Station in Penzhin Bay Russia
Pyear = Pdt = 75
0. 736 705dtPyear = 7092. 3 Qhdt
0 0 0 (5)
[17].
There are hundreds of types of marine current turbines. The British Tidal power generation capacity increases with tidal range and
government has started an ambitious target of 200300 MW ocean minimum barrage, dam or dyke. A suitable storage may be achieved
energy by 2020. Denmark started a 3 million project for wave energy with an estuary, creek, channel, rut or runnel close to sea shore.
in 2012 under national initiative to produce 35% of electricity from Important components of tidal power stations are barrage to form a
renewable energy by 2020. As of 2012 Europe produced 246.20 MW basin or estuary, sluice gates to ll or empty basins, turbines to convert
compared to 259.20 MW by Asia. Global ocean energy production was kinetic energy into mechanical energy which can be converted to
527.70 MW by the end of 2012 which is likely increase many times by electricity by coupling generator. The dyke crest and slopes are
2020 due to multiple wave energy projects worldwide. Ireland has an constructed of rock lling to withstand water waves. The sluices are
estimated potential of 29 GW ocean energy [18]. Ocean thermal energy equipped with local as well as remote controlled gates. Sluice gates may
potential is much more than the tidal and wave power potentials [19]. be fabricated out of steel to withstand salty water.
Low temperature refrigerant based heat exchangers can to some extent Akin to run of river and dammed hydropower plants the ocean tidal
extract the ocean power, but ocean thermo-electric generators (OTEG) power stations may be categorized as tidal range and tidal current
can harvest this large natural potential if low thermal gradient high stations. Depending upon the situation the tidal power stations are
gure of merit materials become available. classied as single basin single operation, single basin double opera-
tion, double basin with the link's basin operation and double basin with
paired basin operation as shown in Fig. 2.
2. Tidal current power Single operation sluice opens during high tides, but remains closed
during emptying process. Tidal power turbine functions only during
Tidal power generation depends on the rise and fall of sea and emptying process. Single operation turbine generation period is 3.5 h.
ocean waters. About 412 m range spring and neap tides have an Double operation reversible turbine and sluice function during high
estimated potential of 110 MW/km along the seashores. Terrestrial tide, but sluice remains closed during emptying process. Output of
and celestial gravitational variations predictably aect power genera- double operation tidal plant is not twice, instead just 15% more than
tion capacities. Spring tides (high tides) occur on new as well as full the single operation turbine. Typical example of a double operation
moons and neap tides (low tides) occur in waxing or waning half moons turbine is 240 MW tidal station La Rance (France). Sluice of the high
due to misalignment of the earth with the moon and the sun. The Earth basin linked barrage opens during high tide for lling and low basin
rotates on its axis at speed of 16,500 km/h and revolves around the sun sluice opens during emptying process. The turbine is placed on Tied
at a speed of 107,000 km/y. Earth completes one rotation in one day barrage. In the case of double paired barrages upper sluice opens
(24 h) but moon completes one revolution around the earth in 29.53 during lling and lower sluice during emptying process. The tidal
days. A solar month has 30 days in a month, whereas lunar month has power stations are suitable for intermediate demands between base
29 days and 10 min, so the solar month is 50 min longer than lunar and peak loads. Tidal current turbines may be horizontal or vertical
month. In a solar month earth and moon twice become aligned to exert axis types like horizontal (HAWT) and vertical (VAWT) axis wind
a maximum gravity pull on ocean waters to create spring tides. A range turbines.
of water springs may be as high as 11.4 m (Penzhinsk, Russia) to Horizontal axis turbines were installed in the Bristol Channel
12.4 m (Cobequid, Canada). Ocean waters bulge out by lunar and solar between England and Wales, and vertical axis turbines are installed
gravitational forces at new moon and full moon as shown in Fig. 1. in Strait of Messina between Sicily and Italy. Marine current horizontal
Tidal power generation potential may be estimated by considering axis turbines include 12 MW Tidal Stream, Lunar energy, TidEL,
an estuary on sea shore. If the spring tide water level is R meters over Hydrovision, Sea Flow and Seagen (UK), 0.751 MW Blue Tide
the sea datum line, then energy potential is given by (Norway) and1MW HydroHelix (France). Vertical axis marine current
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Fig. 1. Natural evolution of spring and neap tides at sea and ocean surfaces.
turbines include 20 kW Enermar (Italy), 200 kW Blue Energy Wave farms energy density is 23 kW/m2 which is higher than solar
(Canada), 1801 MW Gorlov Helical (USA), 90250 kW Stingray parks (0.10.2 kW/m2) and wind farms (0.40.6 kW/m2). Ocean
(UK) and OpenCentre (Ireland) [5]. Tidal barrage design depends on waves have both potential and kinetic energies. Wave amplitude 2a
tidal ebb and ow of range greater than 5 m like conventional low head from crest to trough in vertical direction varies in a sinusoidal manner.
hydropower stations. Tidal current design depends on greater than The amplitude of a point on wave may be expressed by
1.5 m water waves. Tidal currents ow in horizontal as well as vertical
directions. Marine current designs are similar to tidal currents caused 2x 2t
y = asin
by the trade winds. Tidal power costs 165,000/MW whereas wave T (6)
power costs 175,000/MW [20,19]. Tidal and wave power farms
provide both electricity and jobs. Assuming 2/=M and 2/T= N we can rewrite
Fig. 2. Four categories of single, double linked and paired tidal power stations.
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N. Khan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 590604
1
Table 1
PE =
2
gB 0 a2sin2 (MxNt ) dx
(9) Seabeable WEC parameters.
Integrating Eq. 9) at t=0 and applying Arae of the wave A=B, (9) Parameters Buoy (feet) Spar (feet)
can be written as
Diameter 5.08 2
1 Draft 6.00 8.17
PE = ga2A
4 (10) Depth 7.50 10.71
Water waves have kinetic energy due to wind ows over the ocean
surface. The kinetic energy of a water wave may be given by long distances with little energy loss. Global wave power capacities
1 1 from 1989 to 2010 are shown in Fig. 3.
KE = gBa2 = ga2A
4 4 (11) Interface of mechanical 0.1 Hz water wave energy to 50/60 Hz grid
needs ecient converters called wave power generators. Marine
Water wave energy is sum of potential and kinetic energies which
current turbines (1.2 MW Seagen) come in oating, sea oor moored
can be extracted by oscillating and the pitching wave energy converter
and spar versions. The oating system (SeaBeavl) consists of a
(WEC) devices
cylindrical spar moored by taut to a Taurus shaped buoy. Windings
1 1 may be placed on stationary part and permanent magnets on the
E= gBa2 = ga2A
2 2 (12) mobile unit. Typical buy and spar parameters for 10 kW SeaBeavl are
Wind wave power (P=E/t=Ef)) may be given by shown in Table 1 [24].
Manchester Bobbler consists of multiple vertical linear generators
1 [25]. Linear generators based wave energy converters are usually 10
P= ga2Af
2 (13)
100 kW devices which are used in farm design to increase overall
Wave height in terms of wind speed (U) may be given by the Scripps productivity. Multiple generators are placed so as to have a maximum
formula [21] wave range which is typically wavelengths. Linear generator wave
energy converters come in a range of designs and shapes, one
H = 0.085U2 (14)
commonly used design is shown in Fig. 4 [26].
The wave height is related to ocean depth (D), the angle between Wave energy potential [27], direct drive systems [28] and current
the wind and fetch (), unobstructed fetch (F) and the constant K wave energy converters designs [29] are described in literature. The
(=6.08103) by the Zuider Zee formula [22] power absorbed from wave depends on the excitation force (buoy
kU2Fcos assumed stationary), point absorber characteristics and power take o
H= (PTO) system. A wave has vertical as well as horizontal motions
D (15)
therefore ideal point wave energy converter (WEC) must have vertical
The general behavior of ocean waves can be studied under the small as well as horizontal power extraction devices as shown in Fig. 5.
amplitude wave theory. The Ocean wave can be dened as = CT, Wave energy converter power can be converted to DC using shunt
where is wavelength, C is the speed of the wave (celerity). Considering and resonant rectier circuits. A shunt rectier needs a shunt capacitor
the small amplitude wave theory, for deep water waves, the wave in an AC circuit to improve power factor and keep the AC voltage
celerity will be g [23] Subsequently the wavelength may be dened constant which is no more required in resonant rectiers as shown in
2
as Fig. 6.
= CT = 1.56T2 (16) Oshore wind warms and waver converter power is transferred by
cables to onshore grid system. Power transfer is done by a range of
Wave power intensity (kW/m) transferred at right angle is given by VSC-HVDC topologies to reduce power losses [30].
P = 0.96H2T (17) Direct drive 220 V/10 kW pendulum type wave energy conversion
system Seaquest Concept [31] like Seagen show the modern trend
Wave energy is available 90% of the time, whereas availabilities of
towards ocean energy. Pendulum type oscillating energy converters
solar and wind power are hardly 2030% times. Water waves can travel
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N. Khan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 590604
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N. Khan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 590604
Where wave vector k=2/, =2/T. For water depth d and wave Cg =
C
(1 +
2kd
)
horizontal position x 2 sinh2kd (23)
2 = gktanh (kd ) (19) Water wave velocity eld per unit width is given by [41]
1
gT 2 EKE = dxdz v2 (x, z)
= tanh(kd) 2 x,z (24)
2 (20)
Where v is velocity vector, dx and dz are width and height of water
Horizontal (u) and vertical (v) velocity components of water wave
pixel. Two dimensional vorticity may be given by
may be given by
1 dv du
Hcosh [k (z + d )] vor =
u= cos (kx At +B ) 2 dx dz (25)
T sinh (kd ) (21)
Wave power (eective energy ux per unit length) may be given by
Hcosh [k (z + d )]
v= sin (kx At +B ) [42]
T sinh (kd ) (22)
Ee = Cg (Ek +Ep ) (26)
Where z is the vertical water particle position relative to the datum line.
Wave group velocity in terms of celerity (C=/2) may be given by [40] Kinetic and potential energies per unit surface area are given by
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N. Khan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 590604
Fig. 9. Location, technology and working principle based types of wave converters.
Table 2
Analogies of various engineering systems [46,47].
Flow Current (I) A Volume (Q) m3/s Transfer (Q) W Velocity () m/s Velocity () rad/s
Across Voltage (V) V Pressure (P) J/m3 Temperature (T) Q/K Force (F) N Torque (T) Nm
Depot Capacitor (C) F Lake (Ct) m3 Object (Cr) Ct/la Spring (K) Torsion (k) Nrad
Storage Inductor (L) H Channel (Lt) m3 Tank (Lt) Lt/la Mass (M) kg Inertia (I) Nm
Dissipation Resistance (R) Orifice (Rt) m3/s Resistance (1/K) C/W Damper (c) Ns/m Damper (c) Ns/rad
a
Ewa and Andrzejic et al. (see reference for detail)
b
Mechanical linear and rotary systems
F Fd W
Engineering discoveries come from mind-on and hands-on prac- P= = = J / m3
A Ad V (30)
tices, simulation modeling, measurements, technical communications
and professional teamwork. Innovatory engineering products take An orice in a pipe constricts pressure to zero as electrical
inputs from physics, chemistry, math and social sciences to make it resistance impedes the current ow to cause electric potential to zero.
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N. Khan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 590604
Vp I p = Vs I s = VA (32)
Where s and p voltages (V), turns (N) and currents (I) relate to primary
and secondary respectively. Performance equations of heat exchanger
are [44]
Q = US (T1T2 ) = UST Primary to secondary (33)
q = CV (35)
elevation above mean water level, t is resistance introduced by sluice
di and turbine due to power production, h is average water depth in
V =L
dt (36) channel, Cd is drag of the channel friction and A is channel cross-
The hydraulic equivalent of electrical RLCmay be given by [9,10] section area. Average power generation over a tidal period T is given by
1 T
Ch = S / g (37) P = 0 t Q 3 dt
T (43)
l
Lh = c = 0 A1dx
(38)
Integration of a along channel length gives [10,11]
dQ 1 1 l Cd
Rh = Q (39) g0 = c
dt
+t Q Q + 2 + 2 +
2Aend 2Astart
0 dx Q Q
hA2 (44)
Where A is large body area, S is the estuary surface area and is
l
turbine resistance to water ow. Several researchers tried to dene the Where c = is channel geometry parameter, o=(0, t) - (l, t)
A1dx
0
equivalent of electrical C and L since the 1940s, but no such is the time varying free surface elevation dierence either side of the
phenomenon was noted in thermodynamic systems. Phase change channel, Astart and Aend are channel cross-section areas at the start and
materials (PCM) and accumulators may be taken equivalent to end of the channel. Taking integral in () equal to the overall ow
electrical C and L parameters. The thermal capacitance (Ct) may be through the channel may be expressed by
dened as the product of mass and specic heat, which increases the
dQ
heat quantity (Q) with a rate of change of temperature. Thermal g0 = c +(t Q + Q ) Q
dt (45)
capacitance may be given by
Usingo =l - bas the dierence of time varying water levels in large
dT
Q = Ct bodies and the bay under conservation of volume [49]
dt (40)
The thermal inductance may be estimated by product of tempera- b (t ) = Q Q (t ) dt (46)
ture dierence and time divided by entropy (s) [45,46]
Where S is the surface area of the enclosed bay or estuary. The
T t overall tidal barrage model may be given by [10,11,48] [48]
Lt =
S (41)
dQ g
When the temperature rises the energy is stored in kinetic energy of gl = c
dt
+(t + ) Q Q+
S
Qdt (47)
molecules. Generally good electrical conductors are also good thermal
conductors. Thermal conductivities of copper and air are 385 and Maximum extractable average power from the tidal current barrage
0.024 W/m-k respectively. It is very interesting to develop equivalent is given by
circuits of the tidal current stations to estimate the lake hydrody- P = b ga1 Qo, max (48)
namics. A few studies have been reported on designing equivalent
electrical analogy circuits for sea connected estuaries like Pentland Where b is a multiplier which depends on the geometry of bay relative
Firth, UK [47]. Equivalent electric circuits of tidal stream stations allow to channel [49] and a1 is the amplitude of tide dened by
estimation of maximum power capacities [48]. A tidal current station l = a1 cos (t ).
dQ
may consist of the sea connected to a long channel or sea connected Assuming, hydraulic parameters, gl = V , c dt = L, (t + ) Q = R ,
g 1
through a short channel to an enclosed estuary. In case of a sea Q = I and = We can write equivalent electric circuit as [10,11]
S C
connected through channel to an estuary the actual hydraulic and
dI 1
equivalent electric circuits are shown in Fig. 10. V = L +RI +
dt C
Idt (49)
Conservation of momentum to water ow across the channel is
given by [10,11]. Assuming tidal wave equivalent complex voltage vector
V = a1 eit the complex impedance is
Q Q Q C
+ +g + d2 +t Q Q = 0
t A A x A x hA (42) Z = (L )2 (1 )2 + R2 (50)
Where Q(x,t) is ow rate through channel, (x,t) is the free surface Where resonance parameter =1/ LC = g/ Sc. The natural impe-
2 2
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N. Khan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 590604
1 1
P= ga1 Qo . max
4 1+R / Z (52)
Electrical analogy circuits and optimum power extraction condi-
tions were attempted on the Cook Strait and Kaipara Harbour in New
Zealand [50] Vennell tidal station power estimation calculation ow
diagram is shown in Fig. 11.
Detailed study of bay power potential estimation using electrical
analogy circuits was carried on the Pentland Firth in UK [10,11], for Fig. 13. Schematic close cycle OTEC system its T-s diagram [64].
maximum power extraction from multiple channels in Pentland Firth
[51] and their environmental impacts on water ow [52].
normal operation. If OTEC is integrated to recycle its waste water then
it can enhance coal and nuclear plant output by 2537 MW as shown in
5. Ocean thermal energy converters Fig. 12 [57].
OTEC coal plants hybrid systems enhance power production and
Ocean thermal energy may be harnessed by ocean thermal energy reduce CO2 by 12.42 kgCO2 per MWhusing ash evaporators. A typical
converters (OTEC), Ocean thermo-electric generators (OTEG) and OTEC may use natural or low global warming potential (GWP)
salinity gradient osmotic power plants at points where rivers fall into refrigerants like ammonia, liquid hydrogen, carbon dioxide, or metha-
the oceans. Sun shines uniformly over land masses and ocean waters. nol [58,59] to drive a vapor turbine as shown in Fig. 13 [60].
Glaciers reect the sunlight, but oceans absorb it to heat the water. The Performance of ocean surface temperature based OTEC system is
oceans being over 70% of the earth absorb solar energy equivalent to low. The vapor pressure inside the canister at 15 C is about 15kPa
250 billion barrels oil equivalent. Ocean annual power production which too low to produce large power [61]. The turbine inlet
using OTEC systems is estimated to be 30TW [53]. Net ocean thermal temperature may be increased from 25 to 70 Cby integrating solar
power may be estimated by preheating or superheating. The thermodynamic eciency of an OTEC
3cp th T2 cptg system at 2025 C ocean temperature dierence is hardly 35% [62].
P = wcw 0. 3wcw OTEC eciency may be increased by integrating solar energy with
16(1+ ) T 4(1+ ) (53)
ocean thermal energy [63]. OTEC systems use Rankine based Kalina
The parameters are dened in reference [54]. Dierent researchers and Wehara cycles for 34 MW power plants. OTEC system consists of
guess the OTEC power varies from 30 to 80 kW/km2 of ocean surface two heat exchangers for evaporator and condenser, water pump and a
areas [55]. This energy may be extracted from various types of OTEC turbine. Aydin et al. [60] have recently carried out performance
devices [56]. Coal and nuclear power plants need lots of water for their analysis of a solar preheating based close cycle OTEC system using
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N. Khan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 590604
diuoromethane refrigerant which is adapted here with a minor change Wp , r = mr v4 (P4P3)/ p, f (65)
of subscripts, to stay consistent with the above diagram, for guidance of
readers to the current state of the art ocean thermal technology. Where p,r is the eciency of the working uid. The eciency of
mediating uid (R-32) in this case is assumed to be 0.75 (75%), the
assumption is also supported by work done [60,63].
5.1. Evaporator
Eective thermal conductance may be given by where N is turbine RPM. Net output power may be given by
1 1 1 WN = WTG
Wp , f Wp , whWp , wc (75)
= +
UC AC hr AC h w AC (63)
Net thermal eciency is given by
th = WN / QE (76)
5.3. Fluid pump
In case of solar preheating the net thermal eciency becomes
The pressurized working uid is pumped into the evaporator. The
th = WN /(QE +QS ) (77)
energy balance equation for the working uid pump is given by
Where QS is the absorbed solar energy. If solar energy is equal to the
Wp , r = mr (h4 h3) = mr v (P4P3) (64)
power supplied to pumps then the net cycle eciency may be given by
The specic volume 4 =3 = as pump increases pressure at
NC = WN / WTG
(78)
constant temperature. Work done by pump may be given by
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N. Khan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 590604
Table 3 Table 4
Capital costs per MW for hydrolysis of hydrogen [72]. Seebeck coefficients of common materials.
Ammonia (NH3) 1240 980015,100 Names V/K Names V/K Names V/K
Methanol (CH3OH) 1800 637010.000
Hydrogen (Liquid H2) 1330 63,50093,000 Antimony 47 Selenium 900 Bi2Te3 230
Cu, Ag, Au 6.5 Tellurium 500 Sb2Te3 +185
Nickel 15 Silicon 440 Pb15Ge37Se58 1990
Bismuth 72 Germanium 300 Pb0.3Ge39Se58 +1670
given by
V = (TH TC ) (79)
Typical values of in commercial thermo-electric generators range
from 200 to +200 V/K. Seebeck coecients for common metals,
semiconductors and alloys used in TEGs are shown in Table 4 [75].
P-type thermo-electric materials having a high gure of merit (zT,
for both power generation and cooling) [76] may include Sb2Te3 for
low temperatures (50100 C) and PbTe for high temperature (400
600 C). N-type thermo-electric materials may include Bi2Te3 for low
temperature (7590 C) and PbTe for high temperature (200600 C).
Fig. 14. Comparison of production costs of NH3, LH2 and CH3OH. P-type and n-type thermo-electric materials for very high temperature
(600800 C) designs may include SiC, Yb14MnSb11 and SiGe respec-
An OTEC plant at a rate of $16 millions/MW requires $1.6 billion tively [77]. Tellurium and antimony oxidize at high temperatures.
investment for 100 MW power generations. The OTEC energy may be Researchers propose to go for the metal oxide p and n materials.
used to produce on-board refrigerants. Capital costs per MW of various Typical examples of p and n type oxides include Ca3Co4O9 or NaxCoO2
products produced on board by OTEC system are given in Table 3. and SrTiO3, CaMnO3 and ZnO etc. Oxides based thermo-electric
OTEC production costs compared to market prices are shown in generator eciency may be as high as 1015% [78]. PbTe, PbSe, PbS
Fig. 14. and AgSbTe2 and Bi2Te3 nanomaterials have long been used in thermo-
The OTEC system can be used to produce electricity or any other electric generators, but Half- Heusier alloys ABX, Skutterudites MX3
energy carrier. It uses normally low temperature boiling refrigerants (M=Co, Rh and X=P,As,Sb) nanomaterials are now attracting more
like ammonia or CO2 (at high pressure) to drive vapor turbine and then attention [79]. TEG eciency is usually less than 10%, which should be
condense in the closed loop cycle. There is extensive research on 2030% for competing PV market. When current ows through
hydrogen production using OTEC electricity driven electrolyzers [68]. external load resistor R then the output voltage is given by
V = TIR (80)
6. Ocean thermo-electric generators (OTEG)
Seebeck coecient decreases with carrier concentration in
semiconductors and increases exponentially for metals. It optimizes
Ocean thermo-electric generators (OTEG) need usually over 100 C
to maximum in the heavily doped semiconductor materials. For wire
temperature gradient to produce reasonable electric power. TEGs are
length L, cross-sectional area A and resistivity the resistance is given
used with incinerators to convert waste heat to electricity. They are also
by
used on poles to convert large negative temperature dierence between
the ice (0 C) and air (50 C) which twice than maximum ocean R = L/A (81)
temperature. They can also convert concentrated solar energy into 2
Thermo-electric power (P= V /R) for electrical conductivity is
electricity [69]. Regarding ocean energy OTEGs may be used by coal
given by
power plants to convert the waste energy into electricity [70] as well as
subsea oil wellheads to power the submerged instruments [71]. 2A 2A
P = T 2 = T 2
Temperature dierence between the ocean oor water and deeper well L L (82)
head is high enough to power thermo-electric generators. OTEC energy
Thermo-electric materials manufacturers, like Hi-Z technologies,
was conceived in1970s [72] and OTEG energy in 1980s [73]. OTEG
provoke the parameter gure of merit (Z) given by
may supply power in the range of 110 W watts to subsea control
electronics for oil wellheads [74]. In a TEG the temperature gradient 2
Z =
causes charged carriers to diuse from the hot to the cold side. The k (83)
eect can be used to measure temperature, cause cooling/heating and
Where k is thermal conductivity. Another parameter thermo-electric
generate electricity. Thermo-electric generators are based on the
gure of merit (ZT) may be obtained by multiplying Z with the
Seebeck eect caused by charge carriers diusion and phonon drag.
temperature dierence T (=TH TC) or average temperature T
Temperature gradient causes high densities of electrons in n-type
[=(TH + TC)/2]
materials and holes in p-type materials. Charge carriers diuse within
thermo-electric materials from hot to cold sides. Phonons move against 2T
ZT =
the thermal gradient interacting with electrons to push them to one end k (84)
of the material, thereby losing momentum contributing to the electric
eld building. Phonon-electron scattering occurs at TTD/5, where TD Alternately;
is Debye temperature. A TEG can convert waste heat from thermal ( p n ) 2 T
power plants, engine exhaust and ue gases into power. ZT =
[(p kp )1/2 + (n k n )1/2]2 (85)
Thermoelectricity (V) produced by thermo-electric materials having
Seebeck coecient (V/K) under temperature gradient (T) may be Where k is thermal conductivity. Semiconductors are ideal thermo-
600
N. Khan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 590604
Fig. 15. A model of cascaded TEG units thermally in parallel and electrically in series.
601
N. Khan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 590604
Where kh, cu and kh, ce are thermal conductivities of hot side, copper 7. Environmental impacts of ocean energy
and ceramic plates and Rh, sc, Rh, cc and Rh, ch are thermal resistances of
hot side semiconductor pallet, copper-ceramic, ceramic and hot plate Oshore and onshore wind farms create a noise so nobody wants to
junctions. Values of cold side may also be explained similarly. All have them in their backyard (NIMBY). Ocean transport, tidal and wave
pellets are thermally in parallel, but hot and cold junctions of one power generation activities aect marine organisms [82]. Oshore
element are in series. The conductance of TEG consisting of N couples wind turbines create risks of collisions, disturbance and bird migration.
will be Electromagnetic elds and underwater noise disturb marine life [83].
1 1 1 1 1 1 When shes pass through the turbine blades, they are injured in tidal
= + ....... .... =
k kP1 kP2 kpi kpN i=N
2 i = 1 kpi (107) and wave power plants. The tidal power plants change and modify wave
602
N. Khan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 590604
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