Apostrophe

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Theapostrophe(or')characterisapunctuationmark,andsometimes
adiacriticalmark,inlanguagesthatusetheLatinalphabetandsome
otheralphabets.InEnglishitisusedforseveralpurposes:[1]

Themarkingoftheomissionofoneormoreletters(asinthe
contractionofdonottodon't).

Themarkingofpossessivecase(asintheeagle'sfeathers,orin Apostrophe
onemonth'stime).
Themarkingofpluralsofindividualcharacters(e.g.p'sandq's,
threea's,fouri's,andtwou's,OaklandA's). '
Typewriter
ApostrophecomesultimatelyfromGreek[](h apostrophe
apstrophos[prosida],"[theaccentof]'turningaway',orelision"),
throughLatinandFrench.[2][3]

Theapostrophelooksthesameasaclosingsinglequotationmark,althoughtheyhavedifferentmeanings.The
apostrophealsolookssimilarto,butisnotthesameas,theprimesymbol(),whichisusedtoindicate
measurementinfeetorarcminutes,aswellasforvariousmathematicalpurposes,andtheokina(),which
representsaglottalstopinPolynesianlanguages.Suchincorrectsubstitutesas(acute)and`(grave)arecommon
inunprofessionaltexts,whereanambiguoustreatmentoftheapostropheindigitaltypesetting(asexplainedbelow)
isamajorfactorofthisconfusion.

Contents
1 Englishlanguageusage
1.1 Historicaldevelopment
1.1.1 Frenchpractice
1.1.2 EarlyEnglishpractice
1.1.3 Standardisation
1.2 Possessiveapostrophe
1.2.1 Generalprinciplesforthepossessiveapostrophe
1.2.2 Singularnounsendingwithan"s"or"z"sound
1.2.3 Nounsendingwithsilents,x,orz
1.2.4 Possessivesingeographicnames
1.2.5 Possessivesinnamesoforganizations
1.2.6 Possessivesinbusinessnames
1.3 Apostropheshowingomission
1.4 Useinformingsomeplurals
1.5 UseinnonEnglishnames
1.6 Useintransliteration
1.7 NonstandardEnglishuse
1.7.1 Superfluousapostrophes("greengrocers'apostrophes")
1.7.2 Omission
1.7.3 Particularcases
1.7.4 Othermisuses
1.8 Criticism
2 NonEnglishuse
 2.1 Asamarkofelision
2.2 Asaglottalstop
2.3 Asamarkofpalatalizationornonpalatalization
2.4 Toseparatemorphemes
2.5 Miscellaneoususesinotherlanguages
3 Typographicform
4 Unicode
5 Computing
5.1 ASCIIencoding
5.2 Typographicapostrophein8bitencodings
5.3 Enteringapostrophes
5.4 Smartquotes
5.5 Programming
6 Seealso
7 Notes
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 Externallinks

Englishlanguageusage
Historicaldevelopment

TheapostrophewasfirstusedbyPietroBemboinhiseditionofDeAetna(1496).[4]ItwasintroducedintoEnglish
inthe16thcenturyinimitationofFrenchpractice.[5]

Frenchpractice

IntroducedbyGeoffroyTory(1529),[6]theapostrophewasusedinplaceofavowellettertoindicateelision(asin
lheureinplaceoflaheure).Itwasalsofrequentlyusedinplaceofafinale(whichwasstillpronouncedatthe
time)whenitwaselidedbeforeavowel,asinunheure.ModernFrenchorthographyhasrestoredthespellingune
heure.[7]

EarlyEnglishpractice

Fromthe16thcentury,followingFrenchpractice,theapostrophewasusedwhenavowelletterwasomittedeither
becauseofincidentalelision(ImforIam)orbecausetheletternolongerrepresentedasound(lovdforloved).
Englishspellingretainedmanyinflectionsthatwerenotpronouncedassyllables,notablyverbendings(est,eth,
es,ed)andthenounendinges,whichmarkedeitherpluralsorpossessives(alsoknownasgenitivessee
Possessiveapostrophe,below).Soapostrophefollowedbyswasoftenusedtomarkaplural,especiallywhenthe
nounwasaloanword(andespeciallyawordendingina,asinthetwocommas).[5]

Standardisation

Theuseofelisionhascontinuedtothepresentday,butsignificantchangeshavebeenmadetothepossessiveand
pluraluses.Bythe18thcentury,apostrophe+swasregularlyusedforallpossessivesingularforms,evenwhen
theletterewasnotomitted(asinthegatesheight).ThiswasregardedasrepresentingtheOldEnglishgenitive
singularinflectiones.Thepluralusewasgreatlyreduced,butaneedwasfelttomarkpossessiveplural.The
solutionwastouseanapostropheaftertheplurals(asingirlsdresses).However,thiswasnotuniversally
accepteduntilthemid19thcentury.[5]

Possessiveapostrophe

Theapostropheisusedtoindicatepossession.Thisconventiondistinguishespossessivesingularforms
(Bernadettes,flowers,glasss,ones)fromsimplepluralforms(Bernadettes,flowers,glasses,ones),andbothof
thosefrompossessivepluralforms(Bernadettes,flowers,glasses,ones).Forsingulars,themodernpossessive
orgenitiveinflectionisasurvivalfromcertaingenitiveinflectionsinOldEnglish,andtheapostropheoriginally
markedthelossoftheolde(forexample,lambesbecamelambs).

Generalprinciplesforthepossessiveapostrophe

Summaryofrulesformostsituations

Possessivepersonalpronouns,servingaseithernounequivalentsoradjectiveequivalents,donotusean
apostrophe,evenwhentheyendins.Thecompletelistofthoseendinginthelettersorthecorresponding
sound/s/or/z/butnottakinganapostropheisours,yours,his,hers,its,theirs,andwhose.
Otherpronouns,singularnounsnotendingins,andpluralnounsnotendinginsalltakesinthepossessive:
e.g.,someones,acatstoys,womens.
Pluralnounsalreadyendinginstakeonlyanapostropheafterthepreexistingswhenthepossessiveis
formed:e.g.,threecats'toys.

Basicrule(singularnouns)

Formostsingularnounstheending'sisaddede.g.,thecatswhiskers.

Ifasingularnounendswithanssound(spelledwiths,se,forexample),practicevariesastowhetherto
add'sortheapostrophealone.Awidelyacceptedpracticeistofollowwhicheverspokenformisjudged
better:thebosssshoes,MrsJoneshat(orMrsJonesshat,ifthatspokenformispreferred).Inmanycases,
bothspokenandwrittenformsdifferbetweenwriters.(Seedetailsbelow.)
Acronymsandinitialismsusedasnouns(CD,DVD,NATO,RADAR,etc.)followthesamerulesassingular
nouns:e.g.,"theTV'spicturequality".

Basicrule(pluralnouns)

Whenthenounisanormalplural,withanaddeds,noextrasisaddedinthepossessivesotheneighbours'garden
(wherethereismorethanoneneighbour)iscorrectratherthantheneighbours'sgarden.

Ifthepluralisnotonethatisformedbyaddings,ansisaddedforthepossessive,aftertheapostrophe:
childrenshats,womenshairdresser,somepeopleseyes(butcomparesomepeoplesrecentemergenceinto
nationhood,wherepeoplesismeantasthepluralofthesingularpeople).Theseprinciplesareuniversally
accepted.
AfewEnglishnounshavepluralsthatarenotspelledwithafinalsbutneverthelessendinan/s/ora/z/
sound:mice(pluralofmousealsoincompoundslikedormouse,titmouse),dice(whenusedasthepluralof
die),pence(apluralofpenny,withcompoundslikesixpencethatnowtendtobetakenassingulars).Inthe
absenceofspecificexceptionaltreatmentinstyleguides,thepossessivesofthesepluralsareformedby
addinganapostropheandansinthestandardway:seventitmicestailswerefound,thediceslastfallwasa
seven,hisfewpencesvaluewasnotenoughtobuybread.Thesewouldoftenberephrased,wherepossible:
thelastfallofthedicewasaseven.[a]

Basicrule(compoundnouns)
Compoundnounshavetheirsingularpossessivesformedwithanapostropheandanaddeds,inaccordancewith
therulesgivenabove:theAttorneyGeneralshusbandtheLordWardenoftheCinquePorts'sprerogativethis
MinisterforJusticesinterventionherfatherinlawsnewwife.

Insuchexamples,thepluralsareformedwithansthatdoesnotoccurattheend:e.g.,attorneysgeneral.A
problemthereforeariseswiththepossessivepluralsofthesecompounds.Sourcesthatruleonthematter
appeartofavourthefollowingforms,inwhichthereisbothansaddedtoformtheplural,andaseparates
addedforthepossessive:theattorneysgeneralshusbandssuccessiveMinistersforJusticesinterventions
theirfathersinlawsnewwives.[8]Becausetheseconstructionsstretchtheresourcesofpunctuationbeyond
comfort,inpracticetheyarenormallyreworded:interventionsbysuccessiveMinistersforJustice.[9][10]

Jointorseparatepossession

Fortwonouns(ornounphrases)joinedbyand,thereareseveralwaysofexpressingpossession,including:

1.markingofthelastnoun(e.g."JackandJill'schildren")
2.markingofbothnouns(e.g."Jack'sandJill'schildren").[11]

Somegrammarsmakenodistinctioninmeaningbetweenthetwoforms.[b]Somepublishers'styleguides,however,
makeadistinction,assigningthe"segregatory"(or"distributive")meaningtotheform"John'sandMary's"andthe
"combinatorial"(or"joint")meaningtotheform"JohnandMary's".[c]Athirdalternativeisaconstructionofthe
form"Jack'schildrenandJill's",whichisalwaysdistributive,i.e.itdesignatesthecombinedsetofJack'schildren
andJill'schildren.[11]

Whenacoordinatepossessiveconstructionhastwopersonalpronouns,thenormalpossessiveinflectionisused,
andthereisnoapostrophe(e.g."hisandherchildren").Theissueoftheuseoftheapostropheariseswhenthe
coordinateconstructionincludesanoun(phrase)andapronoun.Inthiscase,theinflectionofonlythelastitem
maysometimesbe,atleastmarginally,acceptable("youandyourspouse'sbankaccount").[11][12]Theinflectionof
bothisnormallypreferred(e.g.Jack'sandyourdogs),butthereisatendencytoavoidthisconstruction,too,in
favourofaconstructionthatdoesnotuseacoordinatepossessive(e.g.byusing"Jack'slettersandyours").[11]
Whereaconstructionlike"Jack'sandyourdogs"isused,theinterpretationisusually"segregatory"(i.e.notjoint
possession).[12]

Withotherpunctuationcompoundswithpronouns

Ifthewordorcompoundincludes,orevenendswith,apunctuationmark,anapostropheandansarestilladdedin
theusualway:"WestwardHo!srailwaystation""Awaye!sPauletteWhittenrecordedBobWilsonsstory"[16]
Washington,D.C.smuseums,[17]assumingthattheprevailingstylerequiresfullstopsinD.C.

Ifthewordorcompoundalreadyincludesapossessiveapostrophe,adoublepossessiveresults:Toms
sisterscareerstheheadofmarketingshusbandspreferencethemasteroffoxhoundsbestdogsdeath.
Manystyleguides,whileallowingthattheseconstructionsarepossible,adviserephrasing:theheadof
marketingshusbandprefersthat....Ifanoriginalapostrophe,orapostrophewiths,occursattheend,itis
leftbyitselftododoubleduty:OuremployeesarebetterpaidthanMcDonaldsemployeesStandard&
Poorsindicesarewidelyused:thefixedformsofMcDonaldsandStandard&Poorsalreadyinclude
possessiveapostrophes.Forsimilarcasesinvolvinggeographicalnames,seebelow.
Similarly,thepossessivesofallphraseswhosewordingisfixedareformedinthesameway:
"UsandThem"sinclusiononthealbumTheDarkSideoftheMoon
YouAmIslatestCD
The69ersdrummer,TomCallaghan(onlythesecondapostropheispossessive)
HisnHerssfirsttrackiscalled"Joyriders".[18]
 WasShe'ssuccessgreater,orKingSolomonsMines's?[19]

Forcomplicationswithforeignphrasesandtitles,seebelow.
Time,money,andsimilar

Anapostropheisusedintimeandmoneyreferences,amongothers,inconstructionssuchasonehoursrespite,
twoweeksholiday,adollarsworth,fivepoundsworth,onemilesdrivefromhere.Thisislikeanordinary
possessiveuse.Forexample,onehoursrespitemeansarespiteofonehour(exactlyasthecatswhiskersmeans
thewhiskersofthecat).Exceptionsareaccountedforinthesameway:threemonthspregnant(inmodernusage,
onesaysneitherpregnantofthreemonths,noronemonth()spregnant).

Possessivepronounsandadjectives

Noapostropheisusedinthefollowingpossessivepronounsandadjectives:yours,his,hers,ours,its,theirs,and
whose.

Thepossessiveofitwasoriginallyits,andmanypeoplecontinuetowriteitthisway,thoughtheapostrophewas
droppedintheearly1800sandauthoritiesarenowunanimousthatitscanbeonlyacontractionofitisorit
has.[20][21]Forexample,U.S.PresidentThomasJeffersonuseditsasapossessiveinhisinstructionsdated20June
1803toLewisforhispreparationsforhisgreatexpedition.[22]

Allotherpossessivepronounsendinginsdotakeanapostrophe:oneseveryonessomebodys,nobodyelses,etc.
Withpluralforms,theapostrophefollowsthes,aswithnouns:theothershusbands(butcompareTheyalllooked
ateachothershusbands,inwhichbotheachandotheraresingular).

Importancefordisambiguation

Eachofthesefourphrases(listedinStevenPinkersTheLanguageInstinct)hasadistinctmeaning:

Mysistersfriendsinvestments(theinvestmentsbelongingtoafriendofmysister)
Mysistersfriendsinvestments(theinvestmentsbelongingtoseveralfriendsofmysister)
Mysistersfriendsinvestments(theinvestmentsbelongingtoafriendofseveralofmysisters)
Mysistersfriendsinvestments(theinvestmentsbelongingtoseveralfriendsofseveralofmysisters)

KingsleyAmis,onbeingchallengedtoproduceasentencewhosemeaningdependedonapossessiveapostrophe,
cameupwith:

Thosethingsovertherearemyhusbands.(Thosethingsovertherebelongtomyhusband.)
Thosethingsovertherearemyhusbands.(Thosethingsovertherebelongtoseveralhusbandsofmine.)
Thosethingsovertherearemyhusbands.(I'mmarriedtothosemenoverthere.)[23]

Singularnounsendingwithan"s"or"z"sound

Thissubsectiondealswithsingularnounspronouncedwithasibilantsoundattheend:/s/or/z/.Thespellingof
theseendswiths,se,z,ze,ce,x,orxe.

Manyrespectedauthoritiesrecommendthatpracticallyallsingularnouns,includingthoseendingwithasibilant
sound,havepossessiveformswithanextrasaftertheapostrophesothatthespellingreflectstheunderlying
pronunciation.ExamplesincludeOxfordUniversityPress,theModernLanguageAssociation,theBBCandThe
Economist.[24]Suchauthoritiesdemandpossessivesingularslikethese:SenatorJonessumbrellaTonyAdamss
friend.Rulesthatmodifyorextendthestandardprinciplehaveincludedthefollowing:
 Ifthesingularpossessiveisdifficultorawkwardtopronouncewithanaddedsibilant,donotaddanextras
theseexceptionsaresupportedbyTheGuardian,[25]Yahoo!StyleGuide,[26]andTheAmericanHeritage
BookofEnglishUsage.[27]Suchsourcespermitpossessivesingularslikethese:Socrateslatersuggestion
orAchillesheelifthatishowthepronunciationisintended.
Classical,biblical,andsimilarnamesendinginasibilant,especiallyiftheyarepolysyllabic,donottakean
addedsinthepossessiveamongsourcesgivingexceptionsofthiskindareTheTimes[28]andTheElements
ofStyle,whichmakegeneralstipulations,andVanderbiltUniversity,[29]whichmentionsonlyMosesand
Jesus.Asaparticularcase,Jesus'isverycommonlywritteninsteadofJesussevenbypeoplewhowould
otherwiseaddsin,forexample,JamessorChriss.Jesusisreferredtoas"anacceptedliturgicalarchaism"
inHartsRules.

Althoughlesscommon,somecontemporarywritersstillfollowtheolderpracticeofomittingtheextrasinall
casesendingwithasibilant,butusuallynotwhenwrittenxorxe.[30]Somecontemporaryauthoritiessuchasthe
AssociatedPressStylebook[31]recommendorallowthepracticeofomittingtheextra"s"inallwordsendingwith
an"s",butnotinwordsendingwithothersibilants("z"and"x").[32]The15theditionofTheChicagoManualof
Stylerecommendedthetraditionalpractice,whichincludedprovidingforseveralexceptionstoaccommodate
spokenusagesuchastheomissionoftheextrasafterapolysyllabicwordendinginasibilant,butthe16thedition
nolongerrecommendsomittingtheextra"s".[33]

Similarexamplesofnotablenamesendinginansthatareoftengivenapossessiveapostrophewithnoadditionals
includeDickensandWilliams.Thereisoftenapolicyofleavingofftheadditionalsonanysuchname,butthiscan
proveproblematicwhenspecificnamesarecontradictory(forexample,StJamesParkinNewcastle[thefootball
ground]andtheareaofSt.James'sParkinLondon).Havingsaidthat,therehasbeenongoingdebatearoundthe
punctuationofStJames'Park(Newcastle)forsometime,contrarytoStJames'sPark(London)whichistheless
contentiousversion.Formoredetailsonpracticewithgeographicnames,seetherelevantsectionbelow.

Somewritersliketoreflectstandardspokenpracticeincaseslikethesewithsake:forconvenience'sake,for
goodnesssake,forappearance'sake,forcompromisesake,etc.Thispunctuationispreferredinmajorstyle
guides.Othersprefertoadds:forconveniencessake.[34]Stillothersprefertoomittheapostrophewhenthereis
anssoundbeforesake:formoralityssake,butforconveniencesake.[35]

TheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesissplitonwhetherapossessivesingularnounthatendswithsshould
alwayshaveanadditionalsaftertheapostrophe,sometimeshaveanadditionalsaftertheapostrophe(forinstance,
basedonwhetherthefinalsoundoftheoriginalwordispronounced/s/or/z/),orneverhaveanadditionalsafter
theapostrophe.Theinformalmajorityview(54,basedonpastwritingsofthejustices)hasfavouredtheadditional
s,butastrongminoritydisagrees.[36]

Nounsendingwithsilents,x,orz

TheEnglishpossessiveofFrenchnounsendinginasilents,x,orzisaddressedbyvariousstyleguides.Certainly
asibilantispronouncedinexampleslikeDescartessandDumassthequestionaddressedhereiswhethersneeds
tobeadded.Similarexampleswithxorz:SaucePrigueuxsmainingredientistruffleHispincenezslosswent
unnoticed"Verreaux(s)eagle,alarge,predominantlyblackeagle,Aquilaverreauxi,..."(OED,entryfor
"Verreaux",withsilentxseeVerreauxseagle)ineachofthesesomewritersmightomittheaddeds.Thesame
principlesandresidualuncertaintiesapplywith"naturalised"Englishwords,likeIllinoisandArkansas.[37]

Forpossessivepluralsofwordsendinginsilentx,zors,thefewauthoritiesthataddresstheissueatalltypically
callforanaddedsandsuggestthattheapostropheprecedethes:TheLoucheuxshomelandisintheYukon
ComparethetwoDumassliteraryachievements.[d]ThepossessiveofacitedFrenchtitlewithasilentplural
endingisuncertain:"Troisfemmesslongandcomplicatedpublicationhistory",[38]but"Lesnoces'singulareffect
was'exoticprimitive'..."(withnearbysibilantsceinnocesandsinsingular).[39]Comparetreatmentofother
titles,above.

Guidestypicallyseekaprinciplethatwillyielduniformity,evenforforeignwordsthatfitawkwardlywith
standardEnglishpunctuation.

Possessivesingeographicnames

PlacenamesintheUnitedStatesdonotusethepossessiveapostropheonfederalmapsandsigns.[40]TheUnited
StatesBoardonGeographicNames,whichhasresponsibilityforformalnamingofmunicipalitiesandgeographic
features,hasdeprecatedtheuseofpossessiveapostrophessince1890soasnottoshowownershipofthe
place.[40][41]OnlyfivenamesofnaturalfeaturesintheUSareofficiallyspelledwithagenitiveapostrophe:
MarthasVineyardIkesPoint,NewJerseyJohnEsPond,RhodeIslandCarlosElmer'sJoshuaView,Arizona
andClark'sMountain,Oregon.[41][42]

AustraliasIntergovernmentalCommitteeonSurveyingandMappingalsohasanoapostrophepolicy,apracticeit
saysgoesbacktothe1900s[43]andwhichisgenerallyfollowedaroundthecountry.[44]

Ontheotherhand,theUnitedKingdomhasBishopsStortford,BishopsCastleandKingsLynn(amongmany
others)butStAlbans,StAndrewsandStHelens.LondonUndergroundsPiccadillylinehastheadjacentstations
ofEarlsCourtinEarlsCourtandBaronsCourt.Thesenamesweremainlyfixedinformmanyyearsbefore
grammaticalruleswerefullystandardised.WhileNewcastleUnitedplayfootballatastadiumcalledStJames
Park,andExeterCityatStJamesPark,LondonhasaStJamessPark(thiswholeareaofLondonisnamedafter
theparishofStJamessChurch,Piccadilly[45]). Thespecialcircumstancesofthelattercasemaybethis:the
customarypronunciationofthisplacenameisreflectedintheadditionofanextrassinceusageisfirmlyagainst
adoublingofthefinalswithoutanapostrophe,thisplacenamehasanapostrophe.Thiscouldberegardedasan
exampleofadoublegenitive:itreferstotheparkoftheparishofStJames.

Modernusagehasbeeninfluencedbyconsiderationsoftechnologicalconvenienceincludingtheeconomyof
typewriterribbonsandfilms,andsimilarcomputercharacter"disallowance"whichtendtoignoretraditional
canonsofcorrectness.[46]PracticeintheUnitedKingdomandCanadaisnotsouniform.[47]

Possessivesinnamesoforganizations

Sometimestheapostropheisomittedinthenamesofclubs,societies,andotherorganizations,eventhoughthe
standardprinciplesseemtorequireit:CountryWomensAssociation,butInternationalAviationWomens
Association[48]MagistratesCourtofVictoria,[49]butFederatedShipPaintersandDockersUnion.Usageis
variableandinconsistent.Styleguidestypicallyadviseconsultinganofficialsourceforthestandardformofthe
name(asonewoulddoifuncertainaboutotheraspectsofthespellingofthename)sometendtowardsgreater
prescriptiveness,fororagainstsuchanapostrophe.[e]Asthecaseofwomensshows,itisnotpossibletoanalyze
theseformssimplyasnonpossessiveplurals,sincewomenistheonlycorrectpluralformofwoman.

Possessivesinbusinessnames

Whereabusinessnameisbasedonafamilynameitshouldintheorytakeanapostrophe,butmanyleaveitout
(contrastSainsburyswithHarrods).Inrecenttimestherehasbeenanincreasingtendencytodroptheapostrophe.
Namesbasedonafirstnamearemorelikelytotakeanapostrophe,butthisisnotalwaysthecase.Somebusiness
namesmayinadvertentlyspelladifferentnameifthenamewithansattheendisalsoaname,suchasParson.A
smallactivistgroupcalledtheApostropheProtectionSociety[50]hascampaigned
forlargeretailerssuchasHarrods,Currys,andSelfridgestoreinstatetheirmissing
punctuation.AspokespersonforBarclaysPLCstated,"Ithasjustdisappearedover
theyears.Barclaysisnolongerassociatedwiththefamilyname."[51]Further
confusioncanbecausedbybusinesseswhosenameslookasiftheyshouldbe
pronounceddifferentlywithoutanapostrophe,suchasPaulosCircus,andother
companiesthatleavetheapostropheoutoftheirlogosbutincludeitinwrittentext,
suchasCadwaladers.

Apostropheshowingomission

Anapostropheiscommonlyusedtoindicateomittedcharacters,normallyletters:

Itisusedincontractions,suchascan'tfromcannot,itsfromitisorithas,
andIllfromIwillorIshall.[52]
Itisusedinabbreviations,asgovtforgovernment.Itmayindicateomitted SigntoGreenCraigs
numberswherethespokenformisalsocapableofomissions,as70sfor housingdevelopment
1970srepresentingseventiesfornineteenseventies.Inmodernusage,
apostrophesaregenerallyomittedwhenlettersareremovedfromthestartofaword,particularlyfora
compoundword.Forexample,itisnotcommontowritebus(foromnibus),phone(telephone),net
(Internet).However,iftheshorteningisunusual,dialectalorarchaic,theapostrophemaystillbeusedto
markit(e.g.,boutforabout,lessforunless,twasforitwas).Sometimesamisunderstandingofthe
originalformofawordresultsinanincorrectcontraction.Acommonexample:tilforuntil,thoughtillisin
facttheoriginalform,anduntilisderivedfromit.
Thespellingfocsle,contractedfromthenauticaltermforecastle,isunusualforhavingthree
apostrophes.Thespellingbosns(fromboatswains),asinBosnsMate,alsohasthreeapostrophes,
twoshowingomissionandonepossession.Focslemayalsotakeapossessivesasinthefocsles
timbersgivingfourapostrophesinoneword.[53]Awordwhichformerlycontainedtwoapostrophes
issha'n'tforshallnot,examplesofwhichmaybefoundintheolderworksofPGWodehouseand
"FrankRichards"(CharlesHamilton),butthishasbeensupersededbyshan't.
Itissometimesusedwhenthenormalformofaninflectionseemsawkwardorunnaturalforexample,KOd
ratherthanKOed(whereKOisusedasaverbmeaning"toknockout")"asparepincenezdman"(citedin
OED,entryfor"pincenez"pincenezedisalsoincitations).
Anapostrophesfunctionaspossessiveorcontractivecandependonthegrammaticalcontext:
WerehearsedforFridaysopeningnight.(WerehearsedfortheopeningnightonFriday.)
WerehearsedbecauseFridaysopeningnight.(WerehearsedbecauseFridayisopeningnight.
"Fridays"hereisacontractionof"Fridayis.")
Eyedialectsuseapostrophesincreatingtheeffectofanonstandardpronunciation.
ApostrophestoomitlettersinplacenamesarecommononBritishroadsignswhenspacedoesnotallowfor
thefullname(e.g.Wolverhamptonabbreviatedas"Whampton"andKidderminsteras"Kminster",as
shownonthissign(https://www.google.com/maps/@52.5285894,2.3816704,3a,75y,283.86h,85.53t/data=!3
m4!1e1!3m2!1stlcDS82yOTOXHKVwGQdc6g!2e0)).

Useinformingsomeplurals

Thepluralofsinglelowercaselettersisusuallyindicatedbyaddinganapostropheandans,asin

"dotthei'sandcrossthet's"[54][55]

Theapostrophemayalsobeusedforclarityinothercasesofsinglelettersordigits,asin

"Findallthenumber7's."
 "Shecan'ttellherM'sfromherN's."[55]

Anapostropheisusedbysomewriterstoformapluralforabbreviations,initialsincludingacronyms,and
symbols,especiallywhereaddingjustsratherthan'smayleavemeaningambiguousorpresentationinelegant.
Somespecificcases:

Forgroupsofyears,somestyleguidesprefer1960sto1960s[56]and90sor90sto90sor90's.Thisuseof
anapostrophemaybemoreacceptableinAmericanthaninBritishEnglish.[57]
Theapostropheissometimesusedinformingthepluralofnumbers,forexample1000sofyears.An
alternativeistowriteoutthenumbersaswords.[57]
Theapostropheisoftenusedinpluralsofsymbols,forexample"thatpagehastoomany&sand#sonit".
Somestyleguidesstatethattheapostropheisunnecessarysincethereisnoambiguitybutthatsomeeditors
andteacherspreferthisusage.[56]Theadditionofan's'withoutanapostrophemaymakethetextdifficultto
read.[57]

Forabbreviations,acronyms,etc.,useofswithoutanapostropheisnowmorecommonthanitsusewithan
apostrophe,butforsinglelowercaseletters,pluralizationwith'sisusual.[58][59][60]

UseinnonEnglishnames

NamesthatarenotstrictlynativetoEnglishsometimeshaveanapostrophesubstitutedtorepresentother
characters(seealsoAsamarkofelision,below).

AnglicisedversionsofIrishsurnamesoftencontainanapostropheafteranO,forexampleODoole.
SomeScottishandIrishsurnamesuseanapostropheafteranM,forexampleMGregor.Theapostrophehere
maybeseenasmarkingacontractionwheretheprefixMcorMacwouldnormallyappear.However,itmay
alsoarisefromconfusionof(turnedcommaor"6quote"),whichwasusedasasubstituteforsuperscriptc
whenprintingwithhandsetmetaltype.Compare:MLean,McLean,MLean.[61]

Useintransliteration

Intransliteratedforeignwords,anapostrophemaybeusedtoseparatelettersorsyllablesthatotherwisewould
likelybeinterpretedincorrectly.Forexample:

intheArabicwordmus'haf,atransliterationof,thesyllablesareasinmushaf,notmushaf
intheJapanesenameShin'ichi,theapostropheshowsthatthepronunciationisshinichi(hiragana
),wherethelettersn()andi()areseparatemorae,ratherthanshinichi().
intheChinesePinyinromanization,whentwohanziarecombinedtoformoneword,iftheresultingPinyin
representationcanbemisinterpretedtheyshouldbeseparatedbyanapostrophe.Forexample,(xin)
(x'n).

Furthermore,anapostrophemaybeusedtoindicateaglottalstopintransliterations.Forexample:

intheArabicwordQur'an,acommontransliterationof(partof) alqur'n,theapostrophecorresponds
tothediacriticMaddahoverthe'alif,oneofthelettersintheArabicalphabet

Ratherthantheapostropheissometimesusedtoindicateavoicedpharyngealfricativeasitsoundsandlookslike
theglottalstoptomostEnglishspeakers.Forexample:

intheArabicwordKa'abaforalkabah,theapostrophecorrespondstotheArabicletterayn.
NonstandardEnglishuse

Failuretoobservestandarduseoftheapostropheiswidespreadandfrequentlycriticisedasincorrect,[62][63]often
generatingheateddebate.TheBritishfounderoftheApostropheProtectionSocietyearneda2001IgNobelprize
for"effortstoprotect,promoteanddefendthedifferencesbetweenpluralandpossessive".[64]A2004reportby
BritishexaminationboardOCRstatedthat"theinaccurateuseoftheapostropheissowidespreadastobealmost
universal".[65]A2008surveyfoundthatnearlyhalfoftheUKadultspolledwereunabletousetheapostrophe
correctly.[63]

Superfluousapostrophes("greengrocers'apostrophes")

Apostrophesusedinanonstandardmannertoformnounpluralsare
knownasgreengrocers'apostrophesorgrocers'apostrophes,oftencalled
(spelled)greengrocer'sapostrophes[66]andgrocer'sapostrophes.[67]They
aresometimeshumorouslycalledgreengrocersapostrophe's,rogue
apostrophes,oridiot'sapostrophes(aliteraltranslationoftheGerman
wordDeppenapostroph,whichcriticisesthemisapplicationofapostrophes
inDenglisch).Thepractice,oncecommonandacceptable(seeHistorical
development),comesfromtheidenticalsoundofthepluralandpossessive
formsofmostEnglishnouns.Itisoftencriticisedasaformof
hypercorrectioncomingfromawidespreadignoranceoftheproperuseof
theapostropheorofpunctuationingeneral.LynneTruss,authorofEats,
Shoots&Leaves,pointsoutthatbeforethe19thcentury,itwasstandard
orthographytousetheapostrophetoformapluralofaforeignsounding
wordthatendedinavowel(e.g.,banana's,folio's,logo's,quarto's,pasta's,
ouzo's)toclarifypronunciation.Trusssaysthisusageisnolonger
consideredproperinformalwriting.[68]
AsignpointingtotaxisatLeeds
Thetermisbelievedtohavebeencoinedinthemiddleofthe20thcentury railwaystation,England,withthe
byateacheroflanguagesworkinginLiverpool,atatimewhensuch extraneousapostrophecrossedoutby
mistakeswerecommoninthehandwrittensignsandadvertisementsof anunknowncopyeditor
greengrocers(e.g.,Apple's1/apound,Orange's1/6dapound).Some
havearguedthatitsuseinmasscommunicationbyemployeesofwell
knowncompanieshasledtothelessliterateassumingittobecorrectandadoptingthehabitthemselves.[69]

ThesameuseofapostrophebeforenounpluralsformsissometimesmadebynonnativespeakersofEnglish.For
example,inDutch,theapostropheisinsertedbeforetheswhenpluralisingmostwordsendinginavoweloryfor
example,baby's(Englishbabies)andradio's(English"radios").Thisoftenproducessocalled"Dunglish"errors
whencarriedoverintoEnglish.[70]Hyperforeignismhasbeenformalisedinsomepseudoanglicisms.Forexample,
theFrenchwordpin's(fromEnglishpin)isused(withtheapostropheinbothsingularandplural)forcollectable
lapelpins.Similarly,thereisanAndorranfootballclubcalledFCRnger's(aftersuchBritishclubsasRangers
F.C.),aJapanesedancegroupcalledSuperMonkey's,andaJapanesepoppunkbandcalledtheTitanGoKing's.[71]

Omission

IntheUKthereisatendencytodropapostrophesinmanycommonlyusednamessuchasStAnnes,StJohns
Lane,[72]andsoon.
In2009aresidentinRoyalTunbridgeWellswasaccusedofvandalismbyoneneighbourafterhepainted
apostrophesonroadsignsthathadspelledthestreetnameasStJohnsClose.[73]

UKsupermarketchainTescoomitsthemarkwherestandardpracticewouldrequireit.SignsinTescoadvertise
(amongotheritems)"mensmagazines","girlstoys","kidsbooks"and"womensshoes".InhisbookTroublesome
Words,authorBillBrysonlambastesTescoforthis,statingthat"themistakeisinexcusable,andthosewhomakeit
arelinguisticNeanderthals."[74]

Particularcases

GeorgeBernardShaw,aproponentofEnglishspellingreformonphoneticprinciples,arguedthattheapostrophe
wasmostlyredundant.Hedidnotuseitforspellingcant,hes,etc.,inmanyofhiswritings.Hedid,however,allow
Imandits.[75]HubertSelby,Jr.usedaslashinsteadofanapostrophemarkforcontractionsanddidnotusean
apostropheatallforpossessives.LewisCarrollmadegreateruseofapostrophes,andfrequentlyusedshant,with
anapostropheinplaceoftheelided"ll"aswellasthemoreusual"o".[76][77]Theseauthorsusageshavenot
becomewidespread.

Othermisuses

TheBritishpopgroupHearSayfamouslymadeunconventionaluseofanapostropheinitsname.Trusscomments
that"thenamingofHearSayin2001was[...]asignificantmilestoneontheroadtopunctuationanarchy".[78]
DexysMidnightRunners,ontheotherhand,omittheapostrophe(though"dexys"canbeunderstoodasaplural
formof"dexy",ratherthanapossessiveform).

AnapostrophewronglythoughttobemisusedisinthenameofrockbandTheLas.Thisapostropheisoften
thoughttobeamistakebutinfactitmarksomissionoftheletterd.ThenamecomesfromtheScouseslangfor
"TheLads".

TheoveruseofapostrophesinnamesinfantasyliteraturewassatirisedbyNealStephensoninReamde.

Criticism

Overtheyears,theuseofapostropheshasbeencriticised.GeorgeBernardShawcalledthem"uncouthbacilli".In
hisbookAmericanSpeech,linguistStevenByingtonstatedoftheapostrophethat"thelanguagewouldbenonethe
worseforitsabolition."AdrianRoominhisEnglishJournalarticle"AxingtheApostrophe"arguedthat
apostrophesareunnecessaryandcontextwillresolveanyambiguity.[79]InalettertotheEnglishJournal,Peter
Brodiestatedthatapostrophesare"largelydecorative...[and]rarelyclarifymeaning".[80]Dr.JohnC.Wells,
EmeritusProfessorofPhoneticsatUniversityCollegeLondon,saystheapostropheis"awasteoftime".[79]

NonEnglishuse
Asamarkofelision

Inmanylanguages,especiallyEuropeanlanguages,theapostropheisusedtoindicatetheelisionofoneormore
sounds,asinEnglish.

InAlbaniantheapostropheisusedtoshowthatavowelhasbeenomittedfromwords,especiallyindifferent
formsofverbsandinsomeformsofpersonalpronoun.Forexample,tithem(fromt+ithem),mimori
(fromm+imori).Itisusedtooinsomeoftheformsofpossessivepronouns,forexample:sms(froms
ms).
InAfrikaanstheapostropheisusedtoshowthatlettershavebeenomittedfromwords.Themostcommon
useisintheindefinitearticlen,whichisacontractionofeenmeaning"one"(thenumber).Astheinitialeis
omittedandcannotbecapitalised,ifasentencebeginswithnthesecondwordinthesentenceiscapitalised.
Forexample:nBoomisgroen,"Atreeisgreen".Inaddition,theapostropheisusedforpluralsand
diminutiveswheretherootendswithlongvowels,e.g.fotos,taxis,Lulus,Lulutjie,etc.[81]
InDanish,apostrophesaresometimesseenoncommercialmaterials.OnemightcommonlyseeTa'migmed
("Takemewith[you]")nexttoastandwithadvertisementleafletsthatwouldbewrittenTagmigmedin
standardorthography.AsinGerman,theapostrophemustnotbeusedtoindicatethepossessive,except
whenthereisalreadyans,xorzpresentinthebaseform,asinLukasbog("theGospelofLuke").
InDutch,theapostropheisusedtoindicateomittedcharacters.Forexample,theindefinitearticleeencanbe
shortenedto'n,andthedefinitearticlehetshortenedto't.Whenthishappensinthefirstwordofasentence,
thesecondwordofthesentenceiscapitalised.Ingeneral,thiswayofusingtheapostropheisconsidered
nonstandard,exceptin'smorgens,'smiddags,'savonds,'snachts(fordesmorgens,desmiddags,des
avonds,desnachts:"atmorning,atafternoon,atevening,atnight").Inaddition,theapostropheisusedfor
pluralswherethesingularsendwithlongvowels,e.g.fotos,taxisandforthegenitiveofpropernames
endingwiththesevowels,e.g.Annas,Ottos.Theseareinfactelidedvowelsuseoftheapostropheprevents
spellingslikefotoosandAnnaas.
InEsperanto,theFundamentolimitstheelisionmarktothedefinitearticlel(fromla)andsingular
nominativenouns(korfromkoro,"heart").Thisismostlyconfinedtopoetry.Idiomaticphrasessuchas
dankal(from(kun)dankoal,"thanksto")anddel(fromdela,"ofthe")arenonethelessfrequent.Inword
elisionisusuallymarkedwithahyphen,asinDro(fromdoktoro,"Dr").Someearlyguidesusedand
advocatedtheuseofapostrophesbetweenwordparts,toaidrecognitionofsuchcompoundwordsas
gitaristo,"guitarist".
InCatalan,French,Italian,Ligurian,andOccitanwordsequencessuchas(coup)dtat,(matre)dhtel
(oftenshortenedtomatred,whenusedinEnglish),LAquilaandLHospitaletdeLlobregatthefinalvowel
inthefirstword(de"of",la"the",etc.)iselidedbecausethewordthatfollowsitstartswithavowelora
muteh.Similarly,Frenchhasquilinsteadofqueil("thathe"),cestinsteadofceest("itisorits"),andso
on.Catalan,French,Italian,andOccitansurnamessometimescontainapostrophesofelision,e.g.
dAlembert,DAngelo.
Frenchfemininesingularpossessiveadjectivesdonotundergoelision,butchangetothemasculineform
instead:maprecedingglisebecomesmonglise("mychurch").[f]
Quebec'sBill101,whichdictatestheuseofFrenchintheprovince,prohibitstheuseofapostrophesin
propernamesinwhichitwouldnotbeusedinproperFrench(thustheinternationaldonutchainTim
Hortons,originallyspelledwiththepossessiveapostropheasTimHortons,wasrequiredtodropthe
apostropheinQuebectocomplywithBill101).[82]
Galicianlanguagestandardadmitstheuseofapostrophe(apstrofo)forcontractionsthatnormallydontuse
(e.g.:de+a=da)itbutwhenthesecondelementisapropernoun,mostlyatitle:oheroedAOdisea(the
heroeoftheOdyssey).Theyarealsousedtoreproduceoralellisionsand,asstatedbelow,tojoin(orsplit)
commercialnamesofpopularpublicestablishments,namelybarsandinmasculine(OPote,Thepot),
maybepretendingtoremindanglicisedversionsofIrishsurnames.
InGanda,whenawordendingwithavowelisfollowedbyawordbeginningwithavowel,thefinalvowel
ofthefirstwordiselidedandtheinitialvowelofthesecondwordlengthenedincompensation.Whenthe
firstwordisamonosyllable,thiselisionisrepresentedintheorthographywithanapostrophe:intaata
wabaana"thefatherofthechildren",wa("of")becomeswinyani?("whoisit?"),ye("who")
becomesy.Butthefinalvowelofapolysyllableisalwayswritten,evenifitiselidedinspeech:omusajja
oyo("thisman"),not*omusajjoyo,becauseomusajja("man")isapolysyllable.

InmodernprintingsofAncientGreek,apostrophesarealsousedtomarkelision.SomeAncientGreekwords
thatendinshortvowelselidewhenthenextwordstartswithavowel.Forexample,manyAncientGreek
authorswouldwrite(dllos)for(dllos)and(rou)for(raou).Such
 modernusageshouldbecarefullydistinguishedfrompolytonicGreek'snativeroughandsmoothbreathing
marks,whichusuallyappearasaformofroundedapostrophe.
InHebrew,thegeresh(),oftentypedasanapostrophe,isusedtodenoteinitialisms.Adoublegeresh(),
knownbythepluralformgershayim,isusedtodenoteacronymsitisinsertedbefore(i.e.,totherightof)
thelastletteroftheacronym.Examples:(abbreviationfor,"profesor",'professor')("nun
bet",'P.S.').Thegereshisalsousedtoindicatetheelisionofasoundhowever,thisuseismuchless
frequent,andconfinedtothepurposeofimitatinganatural,informalutterance,forexample:("anlo"
shortfor,"anilo",'Iam/donot').
InIrish,thepasttenseofverbsbeginningwithanForvowelbeginswithd'(elisionofdo),forexampledo
oscailbecomesdoscail("opened")anddofhillbecomesdfhill("returned").Thecopulaisisoftenelidedto
's,anddo("to"),mo("my")etc.areelidedbeforefandvowels.
InItalianitisusedforelisionwithpronouns,asinlhainsteadoflaha,articles,asinloperainsteadofla
opera,andfortruncation,asinpoinsteadofpoco.
InmodernNorwegian,theapostrophemarksthatawordhasbeencontracted,suchas"hakke"from"har
ikke"(have/hasnot).UnlikeEnglishandFrench,suchelisionsarenotacceptedaspartofstandard
orthographybutareusedtocreateamore"oralstyle"inwriting.Theapostropheisalsousedtomarkthe
genitiveforwordsthatendinanssound:wordsendingins,x,andz,somespeakersalsoincluding
wordsendinginthesound[].AsNorwegiandoesn'tformthepluralwiths,thereisnoneedtodistinguish
betweenansformingthepossessiveandthesformingtheplural.Therefore,wehave"mann"(man)and
"manns"(mans),withoutapostrophe,but"los"(navalpilot)and"los"(navalpilots).Indicatingthe
possessiveforformerAmericanPresidentsGeorgeBush,whosenamesendin[],couldbewrittenasboth
Bushs(simplyaddinganstothename)andBush(addinganapostrophetotheendofthename).
InPortuguesetheapostropheisalsousedinafewcombinations,suchascaixadgua("watertower"),
galinhadangola("guineafowl"),paudalho("Gallesiaintegrifolia"),etc.Portuguesehasmany
contractionsbetweenprepositionsandarticlesorpronouns(likenaforem+a),butthesearewrittenwithout
anapostrophe.
ModernSpanishnolongerusestheapostrophetoindicateelisioninstandardwriting,althoughitcan
sometimesbefoundinolderpoetryforthatpurpose.[g]InsteadSpanishwritesoutthespokenelisioninfull
(deenero,mihijo)exceptforthecontractiondelforde+el,whichusesnoapostrophe.Spanishalso
switchestoaformthatisidenticaltothemasculinearticle(butisactuallyavariantofthefemininearticle)
immediatelybeforeafemininenounbeginningwithastressedainsteadofwriting(orsaying)anelision:un
guilablanca,elguilablanca,andelaguapurabutuna/lablancaguilaandlapuraagua.Thisreflects
theoriginoftheSpanishdefinitearticlesfromtheLatindemonstrativesille/illa/illum.
InSwedish,theapostrophemarksanelision,suchas"pstan",shortfor"pstaden"("inthecity"),tomake
thetextmoresimilartothespokenlanguage.Thisisrelaxedstyle,fairlyrarelyused,andwouldnotbeused
bytraditionalnewspapersinpoliticalarticles,butcouldbeusedinentertainmentrelatedarticlesandsimilar.
TheformalwaytodenoteelisioninSwedishisbyusingcolon,e.g.S:tErikforSanktErikwhichisrarely
spelledoutinfull.Theapostrophemustnotbeusedtoindicatethepossessiveexceptalthoughnot
mandatorywhenthereisalreadyans,xorzpresentinthebaseform,asinLukasbok.
Germanusageisverysimilar:anapostropheisusedalmostexclusivelytoindicateomittedletters.Itmust
notbeusedforpluralsormostofthepossessiveforms(Theonlyexceptionbeingthepossessivecasesof
namesendinginanssoundasinMaxVater,or"topreventambiguities"inallotherpossessivecasesof
namesasAndreasBlumenladen.Thelatteruseisdiscouraged,whilebeingformallycorrect)althoughboth
usagesarewidespread,theyaredeemedincorrect.TheGermanequivalentofgreengrocersapostrophes
wouldbethederogatoryDeppenapostroph("idiotsapostrophe"seethearticleApostrophitisinGerman
Wikipedia).
Welshusestheapostrophetomarkelisionofthedefinitearticleyr("the")followingavowel(a,e,i,o,u,y,
winWelsh),suchasirt"tothehouse".Itisalsousedwiththeparticleyn,suchaswithmaehin"sheis".

Asaglottalstop

Severallanguagesandtransliterationsystemsusetheapostropheorsomesimilarmarktoindicateaglottalstop,
sometimesconsideringitaletterofthealphabet:
 InseveralFinnoUgriclanguages,suchasEstonianandFinnish.
InGuarani,itiscalledpuso/puso/,andusedinthewordse(language,tospeak),kaa(grass),a
(sterile).
InHawaiian,theokina,aninvertedapostrophe,isoftenrenderedas'.Itisconsideredaletterofthe
alphabet.
Mayan.
IntheTonganlanguage,theapostropheiscalledafakauaandisthelastletterofthealphabet.Itrepresents
theglottalstop.Liketheokina,itisinverted.
VariousotherAustronesianlanguages,suchasSamoan,Tahitian,andChamorro.
Tetum,oneoftheofficiallanguagesofEastTimor.
TheBraziliannativeTupilanguage.
InVro,theapostropheisusedinparallelwiththeletter"q"assymbolofplural.
SeveralfictionallanguagessuchasKlingon,Dni,MandoaorNavi.[83]

TheapostropherepresentssoundsresemblingtheglottalstopintheTurkiclanguagesandinsomeromanizationsof
Semiticlanguages,includingArabic.Intypography,thisfunctionmaybeperformedbytheclosingsingle
quotationmark.Inthatcase,theArabicletterayn()iscorrespondinglytransliteratedwiththeopeningsingle
quotationmark.

Asamarkofpalatalizationornonpalatalization

Somelanguagesandtransliterationsystemsusetheapostrophetomarkthepresence,orthelackof,palatalization:

InBelarusianandUkrainian,theapostropheisusedbetweenaconsonantandafollowing"soft"(iotified)
vowel(Be.:,,,Uk.:,,,)toindicatethatnopalatalizationoftheprecedingconsonanttakes
place,andthevowelispronouncedinthesamewayasatthebeginningoftheword.Itthereforemarksa
morphemeboundarybefore/j/,andinUkrainian,isalsooccasionallyasa"quasiletter".Itappears
frequentlyinUkrainian,as,forinstance,inthewords:<'>[p"jat']'five',<'>[vid'jizd]'departure',
<'>[ob'jednanyj]'united',<'>[z'jasuvaty]'toclearup,explain',<'>[p'jesa]play
(drama),etc.[84][85]
InRussianandsomederivedalphabetsthesamefunctionisservedbythehardsign(,formerlycalledyer).
Buttheapostrophesawsomeuseasasubstituteafter1918,whenSovietauthoritiesenforcedan
orthographicreformbyconfiscatingtypebearingthat"letterparasite"fromstubbornprintinghousesin
Petrograd.[86]
InsomeLatintransliterationsofcertainCyrillicalphabets(forBelarusian,Russian,andUkrainian),the
apostropheisusedtoreplacethesoftsign(,indicatingpalatalizationoftheprecedingconsonant),e.g.,
istransliteratedRusaccordingtotheBGN/PCGNsystem.(Theprimesymbolisalsousedforthesame
purpose.)Someofthesetransliterationschemesuseadoubleapostrophe(")torepresenttheapostrophein
UkrainianandBelarusiantext,e.g.Ukrainian("Slavic")istransliteratedasslov"yanske.
SomeKarelianorthographiesuseanapostrophetoindicatepalatalization,e.g.n'evvuo("togiveadvice"),
d'uuri("just(like)"),el'vtti("torevive").

Toseparatemorphemes

Somelanguagesusetheapostrophetoseparatetherootofawordanditsaffixes,especiallyiftherootisforeign
andunassimilated.(Foranotherkindofmorphemicseparationseepinyin,below.)

InDanishanapostropheissometimesusedtojointheencliticdefinitearticletowordsofforeignorigin,or
tootherwordsthatwouldotherwiselookawkward.Forexample,onewouldwriteIP'entomean"theIP
address".Thereissomevariationinwhatisconsidered"awkwardenough"towarrantanapostrophefor
instance,longestablishedwordssuchasfirma("company")orniveau("level")mightbewrittenfirma'etand
niveau'et,butwillgenerallybeseenwithoutanapostrophe.DuetoDanishinfluence,thisusageofthe
 apostrophecanalsobeseeninNorwegian,butisnonstandardahyphenshouldbeusedinstead:e.g.CD
en(theCD).
InEstonian,apostrophescanbeusedinthedeclensionofsomeforeignnamestoseparatethestemfromany
declensionendingse.g.,Monet'(genitivecase)orMonet'sse(illativecase)ofMonet(nameofthefamous
painter).
InFinnish,apostrophesareusedinthedeclensionofforeignnamesorloanwordsthatendinaconsonant
whenwrittenbutarepronouncedwithavowelending,e.g.show'ssa("inashow"),Bordeaux'hun("to
Bordeaux").ForFinnishaswellasSwedish,thereisacloselyrelateduseofthecolon.
InPolish,theapostropheisusedexclusivelyformarkinginflectionsofwordsandwordlikeelements(but
notacronymsahyphenisusedinstead)whosespellingconflictswiththenormalrulesofinflection.This
mainlyaffectsforeignwordsandnames.Forinstance,onewouldcorrectlywriteKampaniaAlaGore'afor
"AlGore'scampaign".Inthisexample,Alaisspeltwithoutanapostrophe,sinceitsspellingand
pronunciationfitintonormalPolishrulesbutGore'aneedstheapostrophe,becauseedisappearsfromthe
pronunciation,changingtheinflectionpattern.Thisruleisoftenmisunderstoodascallingforanapostrophe
afterallforeignwords,regardlessoftheirpronunciation,yieldingtheincorrectKampaniaAl'aGore'a,for
example.Theeffectisakintothegreengrocersapostrophe(seeabove).
InTurkish,propernounsarecapitalisedandanapostropheisinsertedbetweenthenounandanyfollowing
suffix,e.g.stanbulda("inIstanbul"),contrastingwithokulda("inschool").
InWelshtheapostropheisusedwithinfixedpronounsinordertodistinguishthemfromtheprecedingword
(e.g.amchwaer"andmysister"asopposedtoamchwaer"aboutasister").

Miscellaneoususesinotherlanguages
InBreton,thecombinationc'hisusedfortheconsonant/x/(likechinEnglishLochNess),whilechisused
fortheconsonant//(asinFrenchchatorEnglishshe).
InCzech,anapostropheisusedforwritingtoindicatespokenorinformallanguagewherethewriterwants
toexpressthenaturalwayofinformalspeech,butitshouldnotbeusedinformaltextortextofaserious
nature.E.G:Insteadof"etl"("heread"),thewordform"et'"isused."et'"istheinformalvariantofthe
verbform"etl",atleastinsomevarieties.[87]Thesetwowordsarethesameinmeaning,buttousethe
informalformgivesthetextamorenaturaltone,asthoughafriendweretalkingtoyou.Furthermore,the
sameasintheSlovakcaseaboveholdsforlowercasetandd,andforthetwodigityearnotation.
InFinnish,oneoftheconsonantgradationpatternsisthechangeofakintoahiatus,e.g.kekokeon("a
pileapile's").Thishiatushastobeindicatedinspellingwithanapostropheifalongvowelora
diphthongwouldbeimmediatelyfollowedbythefinalvowel,e.g.ruokoruo'on,vaakavaa'an.(This
isincontrasttocompoundwords,wheretheequivalentproblemissolvedwithahyphen,e.g.maaala,"land
area".)Similarly,theapostropheisusedtomarkthehiatus(contraction)thatoccursinpoetry,e.g.misson
formisson("whereis").
InGanda,ng'(pronounced//)isusedinplaceofonkeyboardswherethischaracterisnotavailable.The
apostrophedistinguishesitfromthelettercombinationng(pronounced[]),whichhasseparateuseinthe
language.ComparethiswiththeSwahiliusagebelow.
InHebrew,thegeresh(adiacriticsimilartotheapostropheandoftenrepresentedbyone)isusedforseveral
purposesotherthantomarkanelision:
AsanadjacenttoletterstoshowsoundsthatarenotrepresentedintheHebrewalphabet.Soundssuch
as/d/(Englishjasin"job"),//(Englishthasin"thigh"),and/t/(Englishchasin"check")are
indicatedusing,,andwithageresh(informally"chupchik").Forexample,thenameGeorgeis
spelledinHebrew(withrepresentingthefirstandlastconsonants).
TodenoteaHebrewnumeral(e.g.,,whichstandsfor"50").
TodenoteaHebrewletterwhichstandsforitself(e.g.,theletterMem).
Gershayim(adoublegeresh)todenoteaHebrewlettername(e.g.,theletterLamed).
Another(rarer)useofgereshistodenotethelastsyllable(whichinsomecases,butnotall,isasuffix)
insomewordsofYiddishorigin(e.g.,,).
IntheMiddleAgesandtheEarlymodernperiod,gershayimwerealsousedtodenoteforeignwords,
aswellasameansofemphasis.
 InItalian,anapostropheissometimesusedasasubstituteforagraveoranacuteaccentafterafinalvowel:
incapitals,orwhentheproperformoftheletterisunavailable.SoNiccolmightberenderedasNiccolo',or
NICCOLO'perch,asperche',orPERCHE'.Thisappliesonlytomachineorcomputerwriting,inthe
absenceofasuitablekeyboard.Thisusageisconsideredincorrect,oratleastinelegant,bymany.
InJrriais,oneoftheusesoftheapostropheistomarkgemination,orconsonantlength.Forexample,tt
represents/t/,ss/s/,nn/n/,thth//,andchch//(contrastedwith/t/,/s/,/n/,//,and//).
InstandardLojbanorthography,theapostropheisaletterinitsownright(calledy'y[h])thatcanappear
onlybetweentwovowels,andisphonemicallyrealisedaseither[h]or,morerarely,[].
InMacedoniantheapostropheissometimesusedtorepresentthesoundschwa,whichcanbefoundon
dialectallevels,butnotintheStandardMacedonian.
InSlovak,thecaronoverlowercaset,d,l,anduppercaseLconsonantsresemblesanapostrophe:,,,.
Thisisespeciallysoincertaincommontypographicrenderings.Butitisnonstandardtouseanapostrophe
insteadofthecaron.Thereisalsolwithanacuteaccent:,.InSlovaktheapostropheisproperlyusedonly
toindicateelisionincertainwords(tys',asanabbreviatedformoftysi("youare"),orhor'forhore("up"))
however,theseelisionsarerestrictedtopoetry(withafewexceptions).Moreover,theapostropheisalso
usedbeforeatwodigityearnumber(toindicatetheomissionofthefirsttwodigits):'87(usuallyusedfor
1987).
InSwahili,anapostropheafterngshowsthatthereisnosoundof//afterthe//soundthatis,thatthengis
pronouncedasinEnglishsinger,notasinEnglishfinger.
InthenewUzbekLatinalphabetadoptedin2000,theapostropheservesasadiacriticalmarktodistinguish
differentphonemeswrittenwiththesameletter:itdifferentiateso'(correspondingtoCyrillic)fromo,and
g'(Cyrillic)fromg.Thisavoidstheuseofspecialcharacters,allowingUzbektobetypedwitheasein
ordinaryASCIIonanyLatinkeyboard.Inaddition,apostvocalicapostropheinUzbekrepresentstheglottal
stopphonemederivedfromArabichamzahorayn,replacingCyrillic.
Inthepinyin(hnypnyn)systemofromanizationforStandardChinese,anapostropheisoftenloosely
saidtoseparatesyllablesinawordwhereambiguitycouldarise.Example:thestandardromanizationforthe
nameofthecityX'nincludesanapostrophetodistinguishitfromasinglesyllablewordxian.More
strictly,however,itiscorrecttoplaceanapostropheonlybeforeeverya,e,orothatstartsanewsyllable
afterthefirstifitisnotprecededbyahyphenoradash.Examples:Tin'nmn,Y'nbutsimplyJnn,in
whichthesyllablesarejiandnan,sincetheabsenceofanapostropheshowsthatthesyllablesarenotjinand
an(contrastJn'n).[88]Thisisakindofmorphemeseparationmarking(seeabove).
InthelargelysupersededWadeGilesromanizationforStandardChinese,anapostrophemarksaspirationof
theprecedingconsonantsound.Example:ints(pinyinze)theconsonantrepresentedbytsisunaspirated,
butints(pinyince)theconsonantrepresentedbyts'isaspirated.
InsomesystemsofromanizationfortheJapanese,theapostropheisusedbetweenmorasinambiguous
situations,todifferentiatebetween,forexample,naandn+a.(ThisissimilartothepracticeinPinyin
mentionedabove.)
InEnglishYorkshiredialect,theapostropheisusedtorepresentthewordthe,whichiscontractedtoamore
glottal(or"unreleased")/t/sound.Mostuserswillwriteint'barn("inthebarn"),ont'step("onthestep")
andthoseunfamiliarwithYorkshirespeechwilloftenmakethesesoundlikeintuhbarnandontuhstep.A
moreaccuraterenditionmightbein'tbarnandon'tstep,thougheventhisdoesnottrulyconveycorrect
Yorkshirepronunciationasthetismorelikeaglottalstop.
GalicianrestaurantssometimesuseO'intheirnamesinsteadofthestandardarticleO("The").[89]
InSwitzerland,theapostropheisusedasthousandsseparatoralongsidethefixedspace(e.g.,2'000'000or
2 000 000fortwomillion)inallfournationallanguages.
Insciencefictionandfantasy,theapostropheisoftenusedinfictionalnames,sometimestoindicateaglottal
stop(forexampleMitth'raw'nuruodoinStarWars),butalsosometimessimplyfordecoration.

Typographicform
Theformoftheapostropheoriginatesinmanuscriptwriting,asapointwithadownwardstailcurvingclockwise.
Thisformwasinheritedbythetypographicapostrophe(),alsoknownasthetypesetapostrophe,or,informally,
thecurlyapostrophe.Latersansseriftypefaceshadstylisedapostropheswithamoregeometricorsimplifiedform,
butusuallyretainingthesamedirectionalbiasasaclosingquotationmark.

Withtheinventionofthetypewriter,a"neutral"quotationmarkform(')wascreatedtoeconomizeonthe
keyboard,byusingasinglekeytorepresent:theapostrophe,bothopeningandclosingsinglequotationmarks,
singleprimes,andonsometypewriterstheexclamationpointbyoverprintingwithaperiod.Thisisknownasthe
typewriterapostropheorverticalapostrophe.Thesameconventionwasadoptedforquotationmarks.

BothsimplificationscarriedovertocomputerkeyboardsandtheASCIIcharacterset.However,althoughtheseare
widelyusedduetotheirubiquityandconvenience,theyaredeprecatedincontextswherepropertypographyis
important.[90]

Unicode
Unicodedefinesthreeapostrophecharacters:[91]

U+0027'APOSTROPHE

Typewriterapostrophe.

U+2019RIGHTSINGLEQUOTATIONMARK

Punctuationapostrophe.Servesasbothanapostropheandclosingsinglequotationmark.Thisisthe
preferredcharactertouseforapostropheaccordingtotheUnicodestandard.[91][92]

U+02BCMODIFIERLETTERAPOSTROPHE

ModifierlettersinUnicodegenerallyareconsideredpartofaword,thisispreferredwhentheapostropheis
consideredasaletterinitsownright,ratherthanpunctuationthatseparatesletters.[91]Thusthisletter
apostrophemaybeused,forexample,inthetransliterationoftheArabicglottalstop(hamza)ortheCyrillic
"softsign",orinsomeorthographiessuchaschofBreton,wherethiscombinationisanindependent
trigraph.[91]Someconsider,though,thatthischaractershouldbeusedfortheapostropheinEnglishinstead
ofU+0027orU+2019.[93]AlsoICANNconsidersU+02BCasapropercharacterforUkrainianapostrophe
withinIDNs.[94]ThischaracterisrenderedidenticallytoU+2019intheUnicodecodecharts.Asthe
distinctionbetweentheletterapostropheandthepunctuationapostrophemaynotbeusedinpractice,the
Unicodestandardcautionsthatoneshouldneverassumetextiscodedthus.[91]

Characterssimilartoapostrophe:

U+0060`GRAVEACCENT
U+00B4ACUTEACCENT
U+02B9MODIFIERLETTERPRIME
U+02BBMODIFIERLETTERTURNEDCOMMAHawaiianokinaandforthetransliterationofArabicand
Hebrewayn.[92]
U+02BDMODIFIERLETTERREVERSEDCOMMA
U+02BEMODIFIERLETTERRIGHTHALFRINGArabichamzaandHebrewalef.[92]
U+02BFMODIFIERLETTERLEFTHALFRINGArabicandHebrewayin.[92]
U+02C8MODIFIERLETTERVERTICALLINEStressaccentordynamicaccent.
U+02CAMODIFIERLETTERACUTEACCENT
 U+02EEMODIFIERLETTERDOUBLEAPOSTROPHEOneoftwocharactersforglottalstopinNenets.
U+0313COMBININGCOMMAABOVEAlsoknownascombiningGreekpsili.[92]
U+0314COMBININGREVERSEDCOMMAABOVEAlsoknownascombiningGreekdasia.[92]
U+0315 COMBININGCOMMAABOVERIGHT
U+0343COMBININGGREEKKORONISIdenticaltoU+0313.[92]
U+0374GREEKNUMERALSIGNAlsoknownasGreekdexiakeraia.[92]
U+0384GREEKTONOS
U+055AARMENIANAPOSTROPHE
U+1FBDGREEKKORONIS
U+1FBFGREEKPSILI
U+2032PRIME
U+A78BLATINCAPITALLETTERSALTILLOSaltilloofthelanguagesofMexico.
U+A78CLATINSMALLLETTERSALTILLO
U+FF07FULLWIDTHAPOSTROPHEFullwidthformofthetypewriterapostrophe.

Computing

Typographic(green)andtypewriter(red)apostrophe,followedbyaprime(blue),between
lettersI,iwithacuteaccent,usingthefonts:Arial,Calibri,Tahoma,TimesNewRoman,and
LinuxLibertine

ASCIIencoding

Thetypewriterapostrophe(')wasinheritedbycomputerkeyboards,andistheonlyapostrophecharacteravailable
inthe(7bit)ASCIIcharacterencoding,atcodevalue0x27(39).Assuch,itisahighlyoverloadedcharacter.In
ASCII,itrepresentsaleftsinglequotationmark,rightsinglequotationmark,apostrophe,verticallineorprime
(punctuationmarks),oranacuteaccent(modifierletters).

Manyearlier(pre1985)computerdisplaysandprintersrenderedtheASCIIapostropheasatypographic
apostrophe,andrenderedtheASCIIgraveaccent(`)U+0060asamatchingleftsinglequotationmark.This
allowedamoretypographicappearanceoftext:``Ican't''wouldappearasIcantonthesesystems.Thiscanstill
beseeninmanydocumentspreparedatthattime,andisstillusedintheTeXtypesettingsystemtocreate
typographicquotes.

Typographicapostrophein8bitencodings

Supportforthetypographicapostrophe()wasintroducedinseveral8bitcharacterencodings,suchastheApple
MacintoshoperatingsystemsMacRomancharacterset(in1984),andlaterintheCP1252encodingofMicrosoft
Windows.ThereisnosuchcharacterinISO88591.
MicrosoftWindowsCP1252(sometimesincorrectlycalledANSIorISOLatin)containsthetypographic
apostropheat0x92.Dueto"smartquotes"inMicrosoftsoftwareconvertingtheASCIIapostrophetothisvalue,
othersoftwaremakershavebeenforcedtoadoptthisasadefactoconvention.ForinstancetheHTML5standard
specifiesthatthisvalueisinterpretedasCP1252.[95]SomeearliernonMicrosoftbrowserswoulddisplaya'?'for
thisandmakewebpagescomposedwithMicrosoftsoftwaresomewhathardtoread.

Enteringapostrophes

Althoughubiquitousintypesetmaterial,thetypographicapostrophe()isratherdifficulttoenteronacomputer,
sinceitdoesnothaveitsownkeyonastandardkeyboard.Outsidetheworldofprofessionaltypesettingand
graphicdesign,manypeopledonotknowhowtoenterthischaracterandinsteadusethetypewriterapostrophe
(').ThetypewriterapostrophehasalwaysbeenconsideredtolerableonWebpagesbecauseoftheegalitarian
natureofWebpublishing,thelowresolutionofcomputermonitorsincomparisontoprint,andlegacylimitations
providedbyASCII.

Morerecently,thecorrectuseofthetypographicapostropheisbecomingmorecommonontheWebduetothe
wideadoptionoftheUnicodetextencodingstandard,higherresolutiondisplays,andadvancedantialiasingoftext
inmodernoperatingsystems.Becausetypewriterapostrophesarenowoftenautomaticallyconvertedto
typographicapostrophesbywordprocessinganddesktoppublishingsoftware(seebelow),thetypographic
apostrophedoesoftenappearindocumentsproducedbynonprofessionals.

Howtoentertypographicapostrophesonacomputer(USkeyboardlayout)
Windows1252Alt HTML
Unicode (Decimal) Macintosh Linux/X
code entity
AltGr + Shift + N or

Alt + 0 1 4 6 on Compose ' > or

U+2019 8217 Option + Shift + ]
Ctrl + Shift + U then
&rsquo
numberpad
2 0 1 9 Enter [96]

XML(andhenceXHTML)definesan&aposcharacterentityreferencefortheASCIItypewriterapostrophe.No
equivalententityisdefinedintheHTML4standard,[97]despitealltheotherpredefinedcharacterentitiesfrom
XMLbeingdefinedinHTML.IfitcannotbeenteredliterallyinHTML,anumericcharacterreferencecouldbe
usedinstead,suchas&#x27or&#39.&aposisofficiallysupportedinHTMLsinceHTML5.

IntheHTMLentity&rsquothersquoisshortforrightsinglequotationmark.

Smartquotes

Tomaketypographicapostropheseasiertoenter,wordprocessingandpublishingsoftwareoftenconverts
typewriterapostrophestotypographicapostrophesduringtextentry(atthesametimeconvertingopeningand
closingsingleanddoublequotestotheircorrectlefthandedorrighthandedforms).Asimilarfacilitymaybe
offeredonwebserversaftersubmittingtextinaformfield,e.g.onweblogsorfreeencyclopedias.Thisisknown
asthesmartquotesfeatureapostrophesandquotationmarksthatarenotautomaticallyalteredbycomputer
programsareknownasdumbquotes.

Suchconversionisnotalwaysdoneinaccordancewiththestandardsforcharactersetsandencodings.
Additionally,manysuchsoftwareprogramsincorrectlyconvertaleadingapostrophetoanopeningquotationmark
(e.g.,inabbreviationsofyears:29ratherthanthecorrect29fortheyears1929or2029(dependingoncontext)
ortwasinsteadoftwasasthearchaicabbreviationofitwas).Smartquotefeaturesalsooftenfailtorecognise
situationswhenaprimeratherthananapostropheisneededforexample,incorrectlyrenderingthelatitude
495308as495308".

InMicrosoftWorditispossibletoturnsmartquotesoff(insomeversions,bynavigatingthroughTools,
AutoCorrect,AutoFormatasyoutype,andthenuncheckingtheappropriateoption).Alternatively,typingControl
Z(forUndo)immediatelyafterenteringtheapostrophewillconvertitbacktoatypewriterapostrophe.In
MicrosoftWordforWindows,holdingdowntheControlkeywhiletypingtwoapostropheswillproduceasingle
typographicapostrophe.

Programming

Someprogramminglanguages,likePascal,usetheASCIIapostrophetodelimitstringliteral.InJavaScript(and
ECMAScript,whichisnearlyidentical),Perl,PHP,andPython,andmanyotherlanguageseithertheapostropheor
thedoublequotemaybeused,allowingstringliteralstocontaintheothercharacter(butnottocontainboth
withoutusinganescapecharacter).

TheCprogramminglanguage(andmanyrelatedlanguageslikeC++,Java,C#,andScala)usesapostrophesto
delimitacharacterliteral.Intheselanguagesacharacterisadifferentobjectthana1letterstring.

InVisualBasic(andearlierMicrosoftBASICdialectssuchasQuickBASIC)anapostropheisusedtodenotethe
startofacomment.[h]

Seealso
Apologeticapostrophe
Caron
Contraction(grammar)
Elision
Genitivecase
Modifierletterdoubleapostrophe
Possessivecase
WikipediaManualofStyleApostrophesfortheuseofdifferentapostrophecharacterswithinWikipedia

Notes
a.Peaseasanoldpluralofpeaisindeterminate:Lentilsandpease[s]useinsuchdisheswasoptional.Nounsborrowed
fromFrenchendingineau,eu,au,orousometimeshavealternativepluralsthatretaintheFrenchx:beauxorbeaus
bureauxorbureausadieuxoradieusfabliauxorfabliauschouxorchous.Thexinthesepluralsisoftenpronounced.If
itis,then(intheabsenceofspecificrulingsfromstyleguides)thepluralpossessivesareformedwithanapostrophe
alone:thebeaux'[orbeaus']appearanceattheballthebureaux'[orbureaus']responsesdiffered.Ifthexisnot
pronounced,thenintheabsenceofspecialrulingsthepluralsareformedwithanapostrophefollowedbyans:thebeauxs
appearancethebureauxsresponsestheiradieuxseffectwasthateveryonewept.SeealsoNounsendingwithsilent"s",
"x"or"z",below,andattachednotes.
b.Forinstance:
TheCambridgeGrammaroftheEnglishLanguage,explicitlystates

"TypesI[JackandJill's]andII[Jack'sandJill's]arenotsemanticallycontrastive.Bothalloweitherajoint
ordistributiveinterpretationofthegenitiverelation."[11]

AComprehensiveGrammaroftheEnglishLanguageexplicitlystates
 "AcoordinationofgenitivessuchasJohn'sandMary'schildrenmaybeinterpretedineitheracombinatory
orasegregatoryfashion:

combinatorymeaning:

'thechildrenwhoarejointoffspringofJohnandMary'

segregatorymeaning:

'John'schildandMary'schild'

OR'John'schildrenandMary'schild'
OR'John'schildandMary'schildren'
OR'John'schildrenandMary'schildren'"[12]

c.Forinstance:
TheChicagoManualofStyle(16thed.)states:

"Closelylinkednounsareconsideredasingleunitinformingthepossessivewhenthethingbeing'possessed'is
thesameforbothonlythesecondelementtakesthepossessiveform.

myauntanduncle'shouse[...]

Whenthethingspossessedarediscrete,bothnounstakethepossessiveform.

myaunt'sanduncle'smedicalprofiles[...]"[13]

NewHart'sRulesstates

"Use'safterthelastofasetoflinkednounswherethenounsareactingtogether[...]butrepeat'saftereachnoun
inasetwherethenounsareactingseparately"[14]

Garner'sModernAmericanUsagestates

"Forjointpossession,anapostrophegoeswiththelastelementinaseriesofnames.Ifyouputanapostrophewith
eachelementintheseries.yousignalindividualpossession."[15]

d.AnapparentexceptionisTheCompleteStylist,SheridanBaker,2ndedition1972,p.165:"...citizensrights,theJoneses
possessions,andsimilarlyTheBeauxStratagem."Butinfactthexinbeaux,asinothersuchpluralsinEnglish,isoften
alreadypronounced(seeanotetoBasicrule(pluralnouns),above)TheBeauxStratagem,thetitleofaplaybyGeorge
Farquhar(1707),originallylackedtheapostrophe(seethetitlepage(https://books.google.com/books?id=6AgJAAAAQA
AJ&printsec=frontcover)ofa1752edition)anditiscomplicatedbythefollowingsinstratagem.Somemoderneditions
addtheapostrophe(somewithansalso),someomititandsomemakeacompoundwithahyphen:TheBeaux
Stratagem.Farquharhimselfusedtheapostropheelsewhereinthestandardways,forbothomissionandpossession.
e.GreggReferenceManual,10thedition,2003,distinguishesbetweenwhatitcallspossessiveanddescriptiveforms,and
usesthisdistinctioninanalyzingtheproblem.Fromparagraph628:"a.Donotmistakeadescriptiveformendinginsfor
apossessiveform[:]saleseffort(salesdescribesthekindofeffort)...b.Somecasescanbedifficulttodistinguish.Isit
thegirlsbasketballteamorthegirlsbasketballteam?Trysubstitutinganirregularplurallikewomen.Youwouldnot
saythewomenbasketballteamyouwouldsaythewomensbasketballteam.Byanalogy,thegirlsbasketballteamis
correct"[italicsgivenexactlyasinoriginal,includingfollowingpunctuation].(Howeverinthiscasethephrasein
questionisnotpartofthename:thewordsarenotcapitalised!)Andthenthisprincipleisappliedtoorganizationsat
paragraph640,whereexamplesaregiven,includingthenonconformingChildrensHospital,(inLosAngeles):"The
namesofmanyorganizations,products,andpublicationscontainwordsthatcouldbeconsideredeitherpossessiveor
descriptiveterms...c.Inallcasesfollowtheorganizationspreferencewhenknown."
f.InearlyFrenchsuchelisionsdidoccur:mespe(ma+espe,modernFrenchmonpe:"mysword"),senfance
(sa+enfance,sonenfance:"hisorherchildhood").Buttheonlymodernsurvivalsofthiselisionwithapostropheare
mamieandmamour,asarchaicandidiomaticalternativestomonamieandmonamour("my[female]friend","my
love")formswithouttheapostrophealsoused:mamieormamie,mamour.
 g.ExamplesincludeNuestrasvidassonlosros/quevanadarenlamar,/queselmorir.meaning"Ourlivesarethe
rivers/thatflowtogivetothesea,/whichisdeath."(fromCoplasdeDonJorgeManriqueporlamuertedesupadre,
1477)and...qumehadeaprovecharverlapintura/d'aquelqueconlasalasderretidas...?meaning"...whatcouldit
helpmetoseethepaintingofthatonewiththemeltedwings...?"(fromthe12thsonnetofGarcilazodelaVega,c.1500
36).
h.AsacommentcharacterinMSBASIC,theapostropheisinmostcasesanabbreviationoftheREMstatement,whichcan
beappendedtotheendofalmostanylinewithacolon(:).Thecaseswheretheapostropheisnotanabbreviationfor
REMwouldbethosewheretheapostropheisallowedbutaREMstatementisnot.Notethattherearealsocasesofthe
reverseconstraintforexample,inQuickBASIC,acommentattheendofaDATAstatementlinecannotstartwithan
apostrophebutmustuse":REM".

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London&NewYork,ISBN0582517346.
2.OxfordEnglishDictionary
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edition,1987.CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,p.100,note13).
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9.CMOS,7.25:"Ifpluralcompoundsposeproblems,optforof....theprofessionsofbothmydaughtersinlaw."
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ChicagoManualofStyle,7.18.
17.ThisexampleisquotedfromTheGreggReferenceManual,10thedition,2005,paragraph641.
18.Thisiscorrecteventhoughthepossessivewordhersisusuallyspelledwithoutanapostropheseebelowinthissection
HisnHerssfirsttrackistheoreticallypossiblebutunlikelyunlessanextrasibilantisactuallypronouncedafterhers.
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ofnouns(e.g."thefoxsfur")wereusuallyspelledastodaywithafinal"s".
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endinginshence"DylanThomaspoetry","MariaCallassinging",and"thatbusinessmainconcern".Thougheasyto
apply,thatusagedisregardspronunciationandthusseemsunnaturaltomany.
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35."Practicevarieswidelyinforconsciencesakeandforgoodnesssake,andtheuseofanapostropheinthemmustbe
regardedasoptional"TheNewFowlersModernEnglishUsage,ed.Burchfield,RW,3rdedition,1996,entryfor"sake",
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settleonceandforallthatthecorrectpossessiveshouldnotbeArkansas'butArkansass(ArkansasHousetoargueover
apostrophes(http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2007/02/27/arkansas_house_to_argue_over_apostrophes/)).
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Bibliography
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ed.).Toronto:GothamBooks.ISBN1592400876.

Externallinks
"ObsessedwithPossessives"(http://stccarolina.org/newsletter/tikiindex.ph
p?page=Obsessed+with+Possessives)TheCarolinaChapteroftheSociety Lookupapostrophein
forTechnicalCommunicationarticleonapostropheusewithpossessives. Wiktionary,thefree
Theapostrophecharacter(http://snowball.tartarus.org/texts/apostrophe.html) dictionary.
Problemsrepresentingapostrophesoncomputers
TheApostropheProtectionSociety(http://www.apostrophe.org.uk/)
ASCIIandUnicodequotationmarks(http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/ucs/quotes.html)
TheDreadedApostrophe:Anapproachusingasingleruleonly(http://www.dreadedapostrophe.com/)
Howtouseanapostrophe(http://theoatmeal.com/comics/apostrophe)TheOatmeal

"HowthePastAffectstheFuture:TheStoryoftheApostrophe"(http://observer.american.edu/cas/tesol/reso
urces/workingpaper2.cfm)byChristinaCavellaandRobinA.Kernodle
Ahumorousguidetoproperandimproperusageoftheapostrophe(http://www.angryflower.com/bobsqu.gif)
HumbleapostrophereprievedincouncilUturn|TheTimes(http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/uk/article37
16566.ece),18March2013

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