vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT iii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xix

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 PREAMBLE 1
1.2 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS 4
1.2.1 Method of Moments 5
1.2.2 Finite Element Method 6
1.2.3 Finite Difference Time Domain Method 8
1.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC CAD SIMULATION 10
1.4 EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES 14
1.5 MOTIVATION FOR PRESENT RESEARCH 15
1.6 SCOPE OF THE THESIS 16
1.7 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS 17

2 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF ANTENNA USING

SAMPLING BIORTHOGONAL TIME DOMAIN
(SBTD) METHOD 18
2.1 INTRODUCTION 18
2.2 SBTD FORMULATION 21
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

2.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 22

2.4 YEE ALGORITHM 25
2.5 SBTD REPRESENTATION AND
METHODOLOGY 27
2.6 STABILITY AND DISPERSION 31
2.7 SBTD ANALYSIS OF RECTANGULAR
PATCH ANTENNA 33
2.8 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36
2.9 SUMMARY 37

3 MINKOWSKI FRACTAL ANTENNA FOR

DUAL BAND WIRELESS APPLICATIONS 38
3.1 INTRODUCTION 38
3.2 MINKOWSKI FRACTAL GEOMETRY 40
3.3 SBTD ANALYSIS OF MINKOWSKI
FRACTAL ANTENNA 43
3.3.1 Antenna Structure Discretization 44
3.3.2 Boundary Conditions 45
3.3.3 Results and Discussion 45
3.4 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF
MINKOWSKI FRACTAL ANTENNA 48
3.4.1 Preamble 48
3.4.2 Influence of Minkowski fractal Iteration 48
3.4.3 Significance of Indentation Width 53
3.5 CUSTOMIZATION OF MINKOWSKI
FRACTAL ANTENNA FOR DUAL
BAND WIRELESS APPLICATION 55
3.6 SUMMARY 61
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

4 A CANTOR BASED PREFRACTAL

TRIBAND ANTENNA 62
4.1 INTRODUCTION 62
4.2 CANTOR FRACTAL GEOMETRY 63
4.3 TRIADIC CANTOR MONOPOLE ANTENNA 65
4.4 SBTD ANALYSIS OF CANTOR FRACTAL
ANTENNA 67
4.4.1 Antenna Structure Discretization 67
4.4.2 Boundary Conditions 68
4.4.3 Results and Discussion 70
4.5 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF
TRIADIC CANTOR FRACTAL ANTENNA 72
4.5.1 Effect of Iteration Levels 72
4.5.2 Experimental Validation 72
4.5.3 Results and Discussion 72
4.6 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF
PENTADIC CANTOR FRACTAL ANTENNA 78
4.6.1 Geometry of Pentadic Cantor 78
4.6.2 Experimental Validation 78
4.6.3 Results and Discussion 79
4.7 NONUNIFORM CANTOR SET
MONOPOLE ANTENNA 82
4.7.1 Non uniform Cantor Geometry 82
4.7.2 Experimental Validation 83
4.7.3 Results and Discussion 84
4.8 EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC PROPERTY ON
CANTOR MONOPOLE ANTENNA 85
4.9 SUMMARY 88
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

5 A MULTIFRACTAL CANTOR ANTENNA FOR

MULTIBAND WIRELESS APPLICATIONS 89
5.1 INTRODUCTION 89
5.2 MULTIFRACTALITY 92
5.3 MULTIFRACTAL CANTOR 94
5.4 MULTIFRACTAL CANTOR MONOPOLE
ANTENNA 96
5.5 SBTD ANALYSIS OF MULTIFRACTAL
CANTOR ANTENNA 98
5.5.1 Antenna Discretization 98
5.5.2 Boundary Conditions 99
5.5.3 Results and Discussion 100
5.6 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF
MULTIFRACTAL MONOPOLE ANTENNA 101
5.6.1 Effect of Fractal Iteration Levels 101
5.6.2 Effect of Changing Feed Location 105
5.6.3 Effect of Dielectric Substrate 110
5.6.4 Influence of Multifractal Structure
Parameter Variation 111
5.7 OPTIMIZED MULTIFRACTAL CANTOR
MONOPOLE ANTENNA 112
5.8 EFFECT OF GROUND PLANE ON THE
MONOPOLE CONFIGURATION 116
5.9 EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC SUBSTRATE
ON MULTIFRACTAL CANTOR
MONOPOLE ANTENNA 118
5.10 SUMMARY 121
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 122

6.1 CONCLUSION 122
6.2 FUTURE WORK 123

REFERENCES 125

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 141

VITAE 143
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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

2.1 Values of wavelet coefficients ai 30

3.1 IFS Transformation coefficients for the
Minkowski fractal geometry 42
3.2 Resonant frequencies and scale factor between
adjacent bands in Minkowski fractal antenna 52
3.3 Minkowski fractal antenna fractal dimension and
respective indentation width scaling factor 55
3.4 IFS transformation coefficients for the optimized
Minkowski fractal geometry 56
4.1 IFS transformation coefficients for Cantor set fractal 65
4.2 Prefractal Cantor monopole antenna resonance 73
4.3 IFS transformation coefficients for the
non uniform Cantor set 82
5.1 IFS transformation coefficients for the
Multifractal Cantor set 95
5.2 Third iterated Multifractal Cantor set
antenna resonance 105
5.3 Proposed Multifractal antenna resonant frequencies
and scale factor between adjacent bands 114
5.4 Return loss with finite ground plane and Return loss
with electrically large ground plane 117
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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1.1 Set up for antenna measurements in

an anechoic chamber 15
1.2 Photograph of an anechoic chamber 15
2.1 PML boundary region 24
2.2 Yee cell geometry used in SBTD 25
2.3 Flow chart for Sampling biorthogonal time
domain method 32
2.4 Rectangular patch antenna 33
2.5 SBTD domain analysis layout with boundary condition 34
2.6 Positions of the E fields relative to the materials
being modelled 35
2.7 Return loss of a patch antenna obtained from FDTD
simulation, SBTD numerical analysis and
measured result 36
3.1 Generation of Minkowski fractal geometry 40
3.2 Generation of Minkowski fractal patch antenna
(a) Initiator patch (b) First iterated Minkowski fractal
patch (c) Second iterated Minkowski fractal patch
(d) Third iterated Minkowski fractal patch 43
3.3 Top view and the cross section of the second
iterated Minkowski microstrip fractal patch antenna 44
3.4 Reflected Voltage at the input port of the antenna 46
3.5 Prototype of the second iteration
Minkowski fractal antenna 46
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FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

3.6 Return loss (S11) of the Second iteration

Minkowski antenna 47
3.7 First three stages of Minkowski fractal antenna 48
3.8 Prototype of Minkowski microstrip fractal antenna
in different iteration 49
3.9 Comparison of simulated and measured return
loss of simple microstrip patch (K0) antenna 49
3.10 Comparison of simulated and measured return loss
of first iteration Minkowski fractal (K1) antenna 50
3.11 Comparison of simulated and measured return loss
of second iteration Minkowski fractal (K2) antenna 51
3.12 Comparison of return loss of Minkowski microstrip
fractal antenna at different stages of iteration 51
3.13 Radiation patterns of Square patch antenna (KO),
First iterated Minkowski fractal patch (K1) and
Second iterated Minkowski fractal patch (K2) 52
3.14 Minkowski fractal antenna showing
Indentation widths 53
3.15 Resonant frequency of a first iterated
Minkowski fractal patch for varying indentation
widths, SV and SH 54
3.16 Resonant frequency of a first iterated
Minkowski fractal patch for varying indentation
widths, SV and SH 54
3.17 Layout of first iterated Minkowski microstrip
fractal patch antenna 56
3.18 Prototype of the Minkowski antenna 57
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FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

3.19 Return loss of optimized Minkowski fractal antenna 57

3.20 Three dimensional view of 2 element
Minkowski microstrip fractal array 58
3.21 Prototype of 2 element Minkowski microstrip
fractal array 58
3.22 Return loss of the Minkowski microstrip fractal
array at both the input ports 1 and 2 59
3.23 Coupling coefficients between the elements of
Minkowski microstrip fractal array 60
3.24 Radiation pattern of Minkowski microstrip fractal
antenna array in H and E plane for 2.5GHz 60
4.1 Cantor bar fractal structure (a) Initiator K0
(b) First iteration K1 (c) Second iteration K2
(d) Third iteration K3 63
4.2 Basic monopole Initiator antenna 65
4.3 Prefractal Triadic Cantor bar fractal based antenna
K0 – Initiator bar, K1– First iterated Cantor bar,
K2 – Second iterated Cantor bar, K3 – Third iterated
Cantor bar antenna 66
4.4 Geometry of Prefractal Triadic Cantor fractal
monopole antenna 67
4.5 3D view of Prefractal Triadic Cantor fractal
monopole antenna in SBTD domain 70
4.6 Numerical analysis of the third iterated Cantor
fractal monopole antenna 71
4.7 Prototype of Triadic Cantor monopole antenna
(a) Simple monopole (b) First iteration
(c) Second iteration (d) Third iteration 72
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FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

4.8 Return loss of the Cantor fractal monopole antenna

at different iterations K0, K1 K2 and K3 73
4.9 Measured Return loss of the Third iterated Contor
on monopole 75
4.10 Radiation patterns of Triadic Cantor monopole
antenna at different stages of its fractal iteration
K0,K1,K2, and K3 at 6.9 GHz 76
4.11 Measured radiation patterns of prefractal Cantor
monopole antenna at 2.1GHz, 3.8GHz, 5.5GHz and
6.9GHz respectively. (Z-X plane and X-Y plane

polar coordinates (E co pol, E cross pol) 77

4.12 Generation of Pentadic Cantor monopole 78
4.13 Prototype of the Pentadic Cantor monople antenna 79
4.14 Layout of Pentadic Cantor set based fractal antenna 79
4.15 Simulated and measured return loss of
Pentadic Cantor monopole 80
4.16 Radiation patterns of first iterated (K1)
Pentadic Cantor monopole 81
4.17 Radiation patterns of second iterated (K2)
Pentadic Cantor monopole 81
4.18 Radiation patterns of third iterated (K3)
Pentadic Cantor monopole 81
4.19 Layout of non uniform Cantor fractal
monopole antenna 82
4.20 Layout of non uniform Cantor fractal
monopole antenna 83
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FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

4.21 Prototype of the Non uniform Cantor

monopole antenna 83
4.22 Return loss of non uniform Cantor fractal antenna
at different iteration 84
4.23 Comparison Return loss of Triadic, pentadic and
unequal 85
4.24 Return loss of the Triadic Cantor monopole antenna
for various dielectric substrate material
RT Duroid 5880, FR4 and Alumina 86
4.25 Return loss of Pentadic Cantor set based fractal
antenna on various dielectric support FR, RT Duroid
and Alumina 9.6 86
4.26 Radiation pattern of Triadic Cantor antenna on
RT Duroid at three resonant frequencies, 2.67GHz,
4.78GHz and 6.95GHz 87
4.27 Radiation pattern of Pentadic Cantor antenna on
Alumina 9.6 at four resonant frequencies, 1.53GHz,
3.99GHz, 5.31GHz and 6.31GHz 88
5.1 Multistandard Receiver Architecture 90
5.2 Multifractal Cantor set structure (a) Initiator K0
(b) First iteration K1 (c) Second iteration K2
(d) Third iteration K3 95
5.3 Multifractal Cantor monopole structure (a) Initiator K0
(b) First iteration K1 (c) Second iteration K2
(d) Third iteration K3 96
5.4 Structure of third iterated Multifractal Cantor
monopole antenna 97
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FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

5.5 Top view and side view of the Multifractal monopole

antenna for the analysis 98
5.6 Comparison of theoretical simulated and measured
Return loss of the Multifractal Cantor monopole 100
5.7 Simulated return Loss of the Multifractal
Cantor monopole 101
5.8 Prototype of the Multifractal Cantor monopole antenna 102
5.9 Return loss of the simple monopole antenna 102
5.10 Return loss of the first iterated monopole antenna 103
5.11 Return loss of the second iterated monopole antenna 103
5.12 Measured return loss of the third iterated
monopole antenna 104
5.13 Comparison of return loss of monopole antenna
at different iteration 104
5.14 Simulated return loss of the Cantor monopole antenna
with respect to variation in feed line position 106
5.15 Radiation patterns of first and second iterations of
Multifractal Cantor monopole antenna at the
resonant frequencies 5.7GHz 107
5.16 Radiation patterns of third and final iterations of
Multifractal Cantor monopole antenna at the resonant
frequency 5.7GHz 108
5.17 Radiation patterns of three iterations of multifractal
Cantor monopole antenna at resonant frequencies
2.2 GHz, 3 GHz, 5GHz and 6GHz respectively 109
5.18 Return loss of the Multifractal Cantor monopole antenna
for various dielectric substrate material RT Duroid 5880
( r =2.2), FR4 (4.4) and Alumina (9.8) 110
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FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

5.19 Comparison of return loss of third iterated

Multifractal Cantor monopole antenna for various
IFS probabilities (p1,p2) 111
5.20 Geometry of an optimized Multifractal Cantor antenna 112
5.21 Prototype of an optimized Multifractal Cantor antenna 113
5.22 Return loss of an optimized Multifractal Cantor antenna 114
5.23 Measured and the Simulated radiation patterns of
third iterated Multifractal Cantor antenna at 900 MHz,
1.8 GHz, 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz respectively
(Z-X plane and X-Y plane polarization comparison)
where , are standard polar coordinates 115
5.24 Multifractal Cantor monopole with an
orthogonal ground plane 116
5.25 Comparison of return loss for the cases namely,
a monopole antenna with parallel ground plane and
monopole with an orthogonal electrically large
(200mm×200mm) ground plane 117
5.26 Gain of the antenna in X-Y plane 118
5.27 Return loss of the Mutifractal antenna for various
values of Dielectric constant of the substrate 119
5.28 Radiation patterns of Multifractal Cantor monopole
antenna at resonant frequencies with various substrates 120
 xix

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

SYMBOLS

- Angular frequency
- Conductivity in W-m/K
- Conical angle
x,y,z - Direction
- Divergence operator

E - Electric field vector

0 - Free space permittivity

- Free space wavelength
f - Frequency in hertz
- Integration
- Intrinsic Impedance

H - Magnetic field vector

- Partial derivative
- Permeability of free space
- Planar Angle
- Reflection coefficient

r - Relative dielectric constant

- Relative permeability
S11, S21 - Scattering parameters
- Set theoretic union
- Square root
j - Square root of - 1
 xx

- Summation
- Symmetric difference
c - Velocity of light

ABBREVIATIONS

AAS - Advanced Antenna Systems

ABC - Absorbing Boundary Condition
ADC - Analog to Digital Converter
BEM - Boundary-Element Method
CAD - Computer Aided Design
CPU - Central Processing Unit
DAC - Digital to Analog Converter
DC - Direct Current
DCS - Digital Personal Communications System
EBG - Electronic Band Gap
FDTD - Finite Difference Time Domain Method
FEM - Finite Element Method
FETM - Finite-Element Time Domain Method
4G - Fourth Generation
GSM - Global System for Mobile communications
HIPERLAN - HIgh PErformance Radio LAN
HTS - High Temperature Superconductive
IC - Integrated Circuit
IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IFS - Iterated Function Systems
LNA - Low Noise Amplifier
LTCC - Low Temperature Co-fired Ceramic
MIC - Microwave Integrated Circuits
MIMO - Multiple-Input-Multiple-Output
 xxi

MLFMA - Multilevel Fast Multipole Algorithm

MLMDA - Multi Level Matrix Decomposition Algorithm
MMIC - Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits
MOM - Method of Moments
MRTD - Multiresolution Time Domain
NEC - Numerical Electromagnetic Codes
ORBC - Outer Radiation Boundary Condition
PCS - Personal Communication Services
PEC - Perfect Electric Conductor
PIFA - Planar Inverted F Antenna
PMC - Perfect Magnetic Conductor
PML - Perfectly Matched Layer
PML - Perfectly Matched Layer
RF - Radio Frequency
RFIC - Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits
SB-ADI - Sampling Bi-orthogonal Alternating Direction Implicit
SBTD - Sampling Biorthogonal Time Domain
SBTD - Sampling Biorthogonal Time Domain Method
SISO - Single Input Single Output
TARC - Thiagarajar Advanced Research Center
UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
VGA - Voltage Gain Amplifier
VSWR - Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
WCDMA - Wavelength Code Division Multiple Access
WGTD - Wavelet-Galerkin Time-Domain
WiMAX - Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network