The Secret

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Contents
Articles
Law of Attraction Feeling Emotion Emotion classification Sociology of emotions H
appiness Philosophy of happiness Cosmic ordering Optimism Intuition (knowledge)
1 5 6 17 20 23 28 35 36 39
References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 44 47
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Law of Attraction
1
Law of Attraction
New Thought Beliefs
Divinity Omnipresent God Ultimate Spirit Divine Humanity Higher consciousness Belie
iversal law Law of Attraction Power of choice Metaphysics Life force Actions Affirmat
ons Affirmative prayer Creative visualization Healing Huna Personal magnetism P
ing
The Law of Attraction is a metaphysical New Thought belief that "like attracts l
ike", that positive and negative thinking bring about positive and negative phys
ical results, respectively.[1] [2] [3] [4] According to the Law of Attraction, t
he phrase "I need more money" allows the subject to continue to "need more money
". If the subject wants to change this they would focus their thoughts on the go
al (having more money) rather than the problem (needing more money). This might
take the form of phrases such as "I have as much money as I need" or "I have a j
ob that pays very well".
Interpretation
Skeptical Inquirer magazine criticized the lack of falsifiability and testabilit
y of these claims.[5] Critics have asserted that the evidence provided is usuall
y anecdotal and that, because of the self-selecting nature of the positive repor
ts, as well as the subjective nature of any results, these reports are susceptib
le to confirmation bias and selection bias.[6] Physicist Ali Alousi, for instanc
e, criticized it as unmeasurable and questioned the likelihood that thoughts can
affect anything outside the head.[1] The Law of Attraction has been popularized
in recent years by books and films such as The Secret. This film and the subseq
uent book use interviews with New Thought authors and speakers to explain the pr
inciples of an alleged metaphysical law that can attract anything that one think
s about consistently. Writing for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, Mary Carm
ichael and Ben Radford wrote that "neither the film nor the book has any basis i
n scientific reality", and that its premise contains "an ugly flipside: if you h
ave an accident or disease, it's your fault." They asked, "If an airplane crashe
s, does that mean that one or more of the passengers brought that on himself? Do
soldiers killed in Iraq simply not think enough positive thoughts?"[5]
As physical hypothesis
Others have questioned the references to modern scientific theory, and have main
tained, for example, that the Law of Attraction misrepresents the electrical act
ivity of brainwaves.[7] Victor Stenger and Leon Lederman are critical of attempt
s to use quantum physics to bridge any unexplained or seemingly implausible effe
cts, believing these to be traits of modern pseudoscience.[8] [9] [10] Writing i
n the New York Times, Virginia Heffernan characterised The Secret as "a series o
f misquotations ... and fraudulent maxims" that nonetheless "takes [her] to a ha
ppy place."[5]
Law of Attraction
2
In health science
The principles of the law of attraction have also been interpreted in the realm
of medicine and illness. The law of attraction has some parallels with the place
bo effect. In 1990, Bernie Siegel published a book, Love, Medicine and Miracles,
which asserted that the threat of disease was related to a person's imagination
, will, and belief.[6] Siegel primarily advocated "love" as the source of healin
g and longevity stating that "if you want to be immortal, love someone."[11] [12
] Siegel's description has been rejected by some from within the medical communi
ty.[13]
Personal responsibility
Robert Sapolsky, a professor and neuroendocrinologist, devoted a chapter in his
book, Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers, to Siegel. Sapolsky refers to Siegel's genera
l idea as "benign gibberish" but is particularly critical of what he sees as bla
ming patients for their illness, based only on anecdotal evidence.[14] Sapolsky
sums up his primary criticism as follows: Where the problems become appallingly
serious is when Siegel concentrates on the main point of his book. No matter how
often he puts in the disclaimers saying that he's not trying to make people fee
l guilty, the book's premise is that (a) cancer can be caused by psychosocial fa
ctors in the person; (b) cancer (or any other disease, as far as I can tell) is
curable if the patient has sufficient courage, love and spirit; (c) if the patie
nt is not cured, it is because of the insufficient amounts of those admirable tr
aits. As we have just seen, this is not how cancer works, and a physician simply
should not go about telling seriously ill people otherwise.[14]
History
The New Thought Movement, 19041910
Thomas Troward, who was a strong influence in the New Thought Movement, claimed
that thought precedes physical form and that "the action of Mind plants that nuc
leus which, if allowed to grow undisturbed, will eventually attract to itself al
l the conditions necessary for its manifestation in outward visible form."[15] I
n 1906, William Walker Atkinson (18621932) used the phrase in his New Thought Mov
ement book Thought Vibration or the Law of Attraction in the Thought World, stat
ing that "like attracts like."[16] The following year, Elizabeth Towne, the edit
or of The Nautilus Magazine, a Journal of New Thought, published Bruce MacLellan
d's prosperity theology book Prosperity Through Thought Force, in which he summa
rized the principle, stating: "You are what you think, not what you think you ar
e." [17] The book "The Science of Getting Rich" by Wallace D. Wattles espouses s
imilar principlesthat truly believing in the object of your desire and focusing o
nto it will lead to that object or goal being realized on the material plane (Wa
ttles indicates in the Preface and later chapters of this book that his premise
stems from the monistic Hindu view that God pervades everything and can deliver
that which we focus on). In addition, the book also indicates that negative thin
king will manifest negative results.[18] Richard Weiss explains in his book The
American Myth of Success that during the New Thought movement, the "principle of
"non-resistance" was a popular concept taught in conjunction with the Law of At
traction.[19]
Law of Attraction
3
The "law of attraction" in Theosophy, 19151919
The phrase "Law of Attraction" appeared in the writings of the Theosophical auth
ors William Quan Judge in 1915,[20] and Annie Besant in 1919.[21]
The Law of Success in 16 Lessons
Before the release of Think and Grow Rich, Napoleon Hill released The Law of Suc
cess in 16 Lessons (1928) which directly references the Law of Attraction, by na
me, repeatedly.
"Think and Grow Rich", 1937
In 1937, author Napoleon Hill published his book Think and Grow Rich which went
on to become one of the best selling books of all time, selling over 60 million
copies. In this book, he discusses the importance of controlling your own though
ts in order to achieve success, as well as the energy that thoughts have and the
ir ability to attract other thoughts. In the beginning of the book, Napoleon Hil
l mentions a "secret" to success, and promises to indirectly describe it at leas
t once in every chapter of the book. It is never named directly for he says that
discovering it on one's own is far more beneficial. Many people have argued ove
r what the secret actually is, with some arguing that it was the Law of Attracti
on. Hill states the "secret" to which he refers is mentioned no fewer than a hun
dred times, yet reference to "attract" is used less than 30 times in the text. M
ost students of the book claim the secret is hidden in its title: THINK (i.e., t
houghts)
Mid-1900s2000
By the mid 1900s, various authors addressed the topic and related ideas under a
range of religious and secular terms, such as "positive thinking", "mental scien
ce", "pragmatic Christianity", "New Thought", "practical metaphysics", "Science
of Mind" / "Religious Science", and "Divine Science".[1] [22] Among the mid 20th
century authors who used the term were Florence Scovel Shinn (1925), Sri K. Par
vathi Kumar (1942),[23] Alice Bailey (1942),[24] [25] [26] and Omraam Mikhal Avanh
ov (1968).[27] Author Louise Hay in 1976 released a pamphlet in which she links
various diseases and disorders to certain thoughts and states of minds. This lis
t was included in her 1984 best-seller book You Can Heal Your Life, in which she
promotes positive thinking as a healing method.[28] Other proponents of the Law
of Attraction included Wallace Wattles, Ernest Holmes, Charles Fillmore, Robert
Collier, Helen Wilmans, Charles Brodie Patterson, and Helena Blavatsky, who all
published books in the early 1900s.
21st century
The Law of Attraction was brought to hundreds of thousands of people for the fir
st time by Rhonda Byrne through the film The Secret(2006) which is based on the
"Law of Attraction" and includes many Experts in the Field of Personal Excellenc
e such as Bob Proctor, Jack Canfield, John Grey and Marci Schimoff as well as qu
antum physicists John Hagelin and Fred Alan Wolf. 'The Secret' was then develope
d into a book of the same title in 2007. The movie and book gained widespread at
tention in the media also from Saturday Night Live to The Oprah Winfrey Show in
the United States.[1] The same year Esther and Jerry Hicks (who provided much of
the original source material for The Secret)[29] released the bestseller, The L
aw of Attraction. The Law of Attraction's modern interpretation, as presented in
The Secret, is that physical reality is a reflection of inner (subjective) real
ity, summarized in the quote from The Secret, "your thoughts and your feelings c
reate your life." Author and business man Kevin Trudeau produced an audio compac
t disk program called "Your Wish Is Your Command" which deals with the same subj
ect of thoughts manifesting reality. The success of the film and various books l
ed to increased media coverage, both positive and negative. Oprah Winfrey devote
d two episodes of her show to discuss the film and the law of attraction.[3] [4]
Talk show host Larry
Law of Attraction King also discussed it on his show with Bob Solis but criticiz
ed it for several reasons. He pointed to the sufferings in the world and asked:
"If the Universe manifests abundance at a mere thought, why is there so much pov
erty, starvation, and death?" A common response to this question from those who
subscribe to the Law of Attraction's philosophy is that one's unconscious though
ts (which are more difficult to control) are attracting as well as one's conscio
us thoughts. In August 2008, Esther and Jerry Hicks's book Money and the Law of
Attraction: Learning to Attract Health, Wealth & Happiness appeared on the New Y
ork Times Best Seller list.[30]
4
Notes
[1] Whittaker, S. Secret attraction (http:/ / www. canada. com/ montrealgazette/
story. html?id=78fc94dd-c0b2-4ade-891d-98770bfae388& k=70777), The Montreal Gaz
ette, May 12, 2007. [2] Redden, Guy, Magic Happens: A New Age Metaphysical Myste
ry Tour, Journal of Australian Studies: 101 [3] "The Law of Attraction: Real-Lif
e Stories - Oprah.com" (http:/ / www. oprah. com/ spirit/ The-Law-of-Attraction-
Real-Life-Stories_1). oprah.com. . Retrieved November 8, 2010. [4] "Go Beyond 'T
he Secret' - Oprah.com" (http:/ / www. oprah. com/ spirit/ Go-Beyond-The-Secret_
1). oprah.com. . Retrieved November 8, 2010. [5] http:/ / www. csicop. org/ spec
ialarticles/ secrets. html [6] Kaptchuk, T., & Eisenberg, D. (1998). "The Persua
sive Appeal of Alternative Medicine". Annals of Internal Medicine 129 (12): 1061
. PMID9867762. [7] Scientific American; Jun2007, Vol. 296 Issue 6, p39-39: and th
e same article online Scientific American Magazine, June 2007; article entitled
"The (Other) Secret" page 1 http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article. cfm?id=the-other-
secret [8] Cosmic Mind pages 8 through 19 http:/ / www. colorado. edu/ philosoph
y/ vstenger/ Quantum/ 01CosmicMind. pdf [9] The God Particle: If the Universe is
the Answer, What is the Question - pages 189 to 198 by Leon Lederman with Dick
Teresi (copyright 1993) Houghton Mifflin Company [10] Non-science posing as scie
nce; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/
pseudo-science/ #NonSciPosSci [11] Woo, L. (1989, May 5). Doctor's prescription
: Love yourself Caring can cure when science can't, Siegel tells 1,300. The Oran
ge County Register. [12] Siegel, B. S. (1990). Love, Medicine and Miracles: Less
ons Learned about Self-Healing from a Surgeon's Experience with Exceptional Pati
ents. Harper Paperbacks. [13] Surviving terminal illness with big dose of optimi
sm Surgeon prescribes peace of mind. (1991, June 18).The Atlanta Journal, E1. [1
4] Sapolsky, R. M. (1998). Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers, 2nd Edition: An Updated
Guide To Stress, Stress Related Diseases, and Coping (2nd ed., p. 178-179). W. H
. Freeman. [15] Judge Thomas Troward, The Edinburgh Lectures on Mental Science, 19
04. [16] William Walker Atkinson. Thought Vibration or the Law of Attraction. Ad
vanced Thought Publishing. 1906. (http:/ / gitacademy. tripod. com/ GodsInTraini
ng/ ThoughtVibration. htm) Out of Copyright version [17] MacLelland, Bruce, Pros
perity Through Thought Force, Elizabeth Towne, 1907 [18] http:/ / en. wikisource
. org/ wiki/ The_Science_of_Getting_Rich [19] The American Myth of Success. Illi
ni Books. 1969. p.169. [20] Judge, William Quan (1915). The Ocean of Theosophy. U
nited Lodge of Theosophists. p.103. ISBN076610544X. [21] Popular Lectures on Theos
ophy. Theosophical Publishing House. 1919. p.79. ISBN0524034753. [22] Griffiths, L
. Law of attraction has long history in inspirational writing (http:/ / www. eastv
alleytribune. com/ story/ 88221) East Valley Tribune, April 21st 2007. [23] Kuma
r, Sri K. Parvathi (1942). Occult Meditations. Dhanishta. p.230. ISBN8189467042. [
24] Bailey, Alice A. (1942). Letters on Occult Meditation. Lucis Trust. pp.53, p2
65. ISBN0853301115. [25] Bailey, Alice A. (1942). Esoteric Psychology II. Lucis T
rust. pp.111113. ISBN0853301190. [26] Bailey, Alice A. (1973). A Treatise on Cosmic
Fire. Lucis Trust. pp.11661229. ISBN0853301174. "Section Two - Division F - The La
w of Attraction" [27] Avanhov, Omraam Mikhal (1968). Cosmic Moral Law. Prosveta. p
.384. ISBN2-85566-445-4. [28] Mark Oppenheimer (2008), The New York Times, The Que
en of the New Age (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 05/ 04/ magazine/ 04Hay-t.
html?_r=1), article retrieved January 26, 2008, [29] Jerry & Esther s Statement
on The Secret (http:/ / www. meetup. com/ Washington-Abraham-Hicks/ boards/ view
/ viewthread?thread=2283719) [30] NY Times Bestseller information August 31, 200
8 (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 08/ 31/ books/ bestseller/ bestpaperadvice.
html?_r=1& 8bu& emc=bu& oref=slogin)
Law of Attraction
5
Further reading
The Secret (November 28, 2006) Rhonda Byrne, Beyond Words Publishing, ISBN 978-1
582701707
Feeling
Feeling is the nominalization of "to feel". The word was first used in the Engli
sh language to describe the physical sensation of touch through either experienc
e or perception. The word is also used to describe experiences, other than the p
hysical sensation of touch, such as "a feeling of warmth".[1] In psychology, the
word is usually reserved for the conscious subjective experience of emotion.[2]
Phenomenology and heterophenomenology are philosophical approaches that provide
some basis for knowledge of feelings. Many schools of psychotherapy depend on t
he therapist achieving some kind of understanding of the client s feelings, for
which methodologies exist. Some theories of interpersonal relationships also hav
e a role for shared feelings or understanding of another person s feelings. Perc
eption of the physical world does not necessarily result in a universal reaction
among receivers (see emotions), but varies depending on one s tendency to handl
e the situation, how the situation relates to the receiver s past experiences, a
nd any number of other factors. Feelings are also known as a state of consciousn
ess, such as that resulting from emotions, sentiments or desires.
Gut feeling
A gut feeling, or gut reaction, is a visceral emotional reaction to something, a
nd often one of uneasiness. Gut feelings are generally regarded as not modulated
by conscious thought, and as a reflection of intuition rather than rationality.
The phrase "gut feeling" may also be used as a short-hand term for an individua
l s "common sense" perception of what is considered "the right thing to do"; suc
h as: helping an injured passerby, avoiding dark alleys and generally acting in
accordance with instinctive feelings about a given situation. It can also refer
to simple common knowledge phrases which are true no matter when said, such as "
Water is wet", "Fire is hot", or to ideas that an individual intuitively regards
as true, without proof (see "Truthiness" for examples). Gut feelings, like all
reflexive unconscious comparisons, can be re-programmed by practice or experienc
e.
Sensitive, sculpture by Miquel Blay (1910)
Feeling
6
Footnotes
[1] feeling - Dictionary definition and pronunciation - Yahoo! Education (http:/
/ education. yahoo. com/ reference/ dictionary/ entry/ feeling) [2] VandenBos,
Gary (2006) APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association
External links
A Dictionary of Feelings (http://www.feelingdictionary.com)
Emotion
Emotions Affection Anger Angst Annoyance Anxiety Apathy Awe Contempt Curiosity B
oredom Depression Desire Despair Disappointment Disgust Ecstasy Embarrassment Em
pathy Envy Euphoria Fear Frustration Gratitude Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Hope
Horror Hostility
Emotion
7
Hysteria Indifference Interest Jealousy Loathing Loneliness Love Lust Misery Pit
y Pride Rage Regret Remorse Sadness Satisfied Shame Shock Shyness Sorrow Sufferi
ng Surprise Wonder Worry
Emotion is the complex psychophysiological experience of an individual s state o
f mind as interacting with biochemical (internal) and environmental (external) i
nfluences. In humans, emotion fundamentally involves "physiological arousal, exp
ressive behaviors, and conscious experience."[1] Emotion is associated with mood
, temperament, personality and disposition, and motivation. Motivations direct a
nd energize behavior, while emotions provide the affective component to motivati
on, positive or negative.[2] No definitive taxonomy of emotions exists, though n
umerous taxonomies have been proposed. Some categorizations include: "Cognitive"
versus "non-cognitive" emotions Instinctual emotions (from the amygdala), versu
s cognitive emotions (from the prefrontal cortex). Categorization based on durat
ion: Some emotions occur over a period of seconds (for example, surprise), where
as others can last years (for example, love). A related distinction is between t
he emotion and the results of the emotion, principally behaviors and emotional e
xpressions. People often behave in certain ways as a direct result of their emot
ional state, such as crying, fighting or fleeing. If one can have the emotion wi
thout the corresponding behavior, then we may consider the behavior not to be es
sential to the emotion. The JamesLange theory posits that emotional experience is
largely due to the experience of bodily changes. The "functionalist" approach t
o emotions (for example, Nico Frijda and Freitas-Magalhaes) holds that emotions
have evolved for a particular function, such as to keep the subject safe.
Emotion
8
Etymology
The English word emotion is derived from the French word mouvoir. This is based o
n the Latin emovere, where e(variant of ex-) means "out" and movere means "move.
"[3] The related term "motivation" is also derived from the word movere.
Classification
There are basic and complex categories, where some basic emotions can be modifie
d in some way to form complex emotions (for example, Paul Ekman). In one model,
the complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combi
ned with the basic emotions. Alternatively, analogous to the way primary colors
combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotion
al experience. For example interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form c
ontempt. Robert Plutchik proposed a three-dimensional "circumplex model" which d
escribes the relations among emotions. This model is similar to a color wheel. T
he vertical dimension represents intensity, and the circle represents degrees of
similarity among the emotions. He posited eight primary emotion dimensions arra
nged as four pairs of opposites. Some have also argued for the existence of meta
-emotions which are emotions about emotions.
Examples of basic emotions.
Another important means of distinguishing emotions concerns their occurrence in
time. Some emotions occur over a period of seconds (for example, surprise), wher
eas others can last years (for example, love). The latter could be regarded as a
long term tendency to have an emotion regarding a certain object rather than an
emotion proper (though this is disputed). A distinction is then made between em
otion episodes and emotional dispositions. Dispositions are also comparable to c
haracter traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experienc
e certain emotions, though about different objects. For example an irritable per
son is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others
do. Finally, some theorists (for example, Klaus Scherer, 2005) place emotions wi
thin a more general category of "affective states" where affective states can al
so include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational sta
tes (for example, hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and traits. The neur
al correlates of hate have been investigated with an fMRI procedure. In this exp
eriment, people had their brains scanned while viewing pictures of people they h
ated. The results showed increased activity in the medial frontal gyrus, right p
utamen, bilaterally in the premotor cortex, in the frontal pole, and bilaterally
in the medial insula of the human brain. The researchers concluded that there i
s a distinct pattern of brain activity that occurs when people are experiencing
hatred (Zeki and Romaya, 2008).
Emotion
9
Theories
Theories about emotions stretch back at least as far as the stoics of ancient Gr
eece, as well as Plato and Aristotle. We also see sophisticated theories in the
works of philosophers such as Ren Descartes,[4] Baruch Spinoza[5] and David Hume.
Later theories of emotions tend to be informed by advances in empirical researc
h. Often theories are not mutually exclusive and many researchers incorporate mu
ltiple perspectives (theories) in their work.
Somatic theories
Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses rather than judgements a
re essential to emotions. The first modern version of such theories comes from W
illiam James in the 1880s. The theory lost favor in the 20th century, but has re
gained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as John Cacioppo,
Antnio Damsio, Joseph E. LeDoux and Robert Zajonc who are able to appeal to neurol
ogical evidence. JamesLange theory William James, in the article "What is an Emot
ion?",[6] argued that emotional experience is largely due to the experience of b
odily changes. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory
at around the same time, so this position is known as the JamesLange theory. Thi
s theory and its derivatives state that a changed situation leads to a changed b
odily state. As James says "the perception of bodily changes as they occur is th
e emotion." James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because
we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble b
ecause we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be."[6] This theory is s
upported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state, a desired emo
tion is induced.[7] Such experiments also have therapeutic implications (for exa
mple, in laughter therapy, dance therapy). Some people may believe that emotions
give rise to emotion-specific actions: e.g. "I m crying because I m sad," or "I
ran away because I was scared." The JamesLange theory, conversely, asserts that
first we react to a situation (running away and crying happen before the emotion
), and then we interpret our actions into an emotional response. In this way, em
otions serve to explain and organize our own actions to us. The JamesLange theory
has now been all but abandoned by most scholars.[8] Tim Dalgleish (2004)[9] sta
tes the following: The JamesLange theory has remained influential. Its main contr
ibution is the emphasis it places on the embodiment of emotions, especially the
argument that changes in the bodily concomitants of emotions can alter their exp
erienced intensity. Most contemporary neuroscientists would endorse a modified J
amesLange view in which bodily feedback modulates the experience of emotion." (p.
583) The issue with the JamesLange theory is that of causation (bodily states ca
using emotions and being a priori), not that of the bodily influences on emotion
al experience (which can be argued is still quite prevalent today in biofeedback
studies and embodiment theory).
Neurobiological theories
Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neuro
biological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleas
ant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If disti
nguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian e
laborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for
example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain
s activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures, and postures. For exa
mple, the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of paleocircuits of t
he mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate gyrus) which facilita
te the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platfo
rms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for
speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in th
e forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord.
Emotion The motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, to
uch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed po
stures. With the arrival of night-active mammals, smell replaced vision as the d
ominant sense, and a different way of responding arose from the olfactory sense,
which is proposed to have developed into mammalian emotion and emotional memory
. The mammalian brain invested heavily in olfaction to succeed at night as repti
les sleptone explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains are proporti
onally larger than in the reptiles. These odor pathways gradually formed the neu
ral blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain. Emotions are though
t to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention,
motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around
us. Pioneering work by Broca (1878), Papez (1937), and MacLean (1952) suggested
that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain cal
led the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippoc
ampi, and other structures. More recent research has shown that some of these li
mbic structures are not as directly related to emotion as others are, while some
non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance. Pre
frontal cortex There is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is activa
ted by stimuli that cause positive approach.[10] If attractive stimuli can selec
tively activate a region of the brain, then logically the converse should hold,
that selective activation of that region of the brain should cause a stimulus to
be judged more positively. This was demonstrated for moderately attractive visu
al stimuli[11] and replicated and extended to include negative stimuli.[12] Two
neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal cortex made opposing predict
ions. The Valence Model predicted that anger, a negative emotion, would activate
the right prefrontal cortex. The Direction Model predicted that anger, an appro
ach emotion, would activate the left prefrontal cortex. The second model was sup
ported.[13] This still left open the question of whether the opposite of approac
h in the prefrontal cortex is better described as moving away (Direction Model),
as unmoving but with strength and resistance (Movement Model), or as unmoving w
ith passive yielding (Action Tendency Model). Support for the Action Tendency Mo
del (passivity related to right prefrontal activity) comes from research on shyn
ess[14] and research on behavioral inhibition.[15] Research that tested the comp
eting hypotheses generated by all four models also supported the Action Tendency
Model.[16] [17] Homeostatic/primordial emotion Another neurological approach di
stinguishes two classes of emotion. "Classical" emotions including love, anger a
nd fear, are evoked by appraisal of scenarios fed by environmental stimuli via d
istance receptors in the eyes, nose and ears.[18] "Homeostatic"[19] or "primordi
al"[20] emotions are feelings such as pain, hunger, thirst and fatigue, evoked b
y internal body states, communicated to the central nervous system by interocept
ors, which motivate behavior aimed at maintaining the internal milieu at its ide
al state.[21] These demanding sensations that capture conscious attention are co
ordinated from the lower or basal regions of the brain and impact diverse region
s of the brain, including the frontal lobes.[20]
10
Emotion
11
Cognitive theories
Several theories argue that cognitive activityin the form of judgments, evaluatio
ns, or thoughtsis necessary for an emotion to occur. This, argued by Richard Laza
rus, is necessary to capture the fact that emotions are about something or have
intentionality. Such cognitive activity may be conscious or unconscious and may
or may not take the form of conceptual processing. An influential theory here is
that of Lazarus: emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order: 1
.) Cognitive appraisalThe individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues t
he emotion. 2.) Physiological changesThe cognitive reaction starts biological cha
nges such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response. 3.) ActionThe in
dividual feels the emotion and chooses how to react. For example: Jenny sees a s
nake. 1.) Jenny cognitively assesses the snake in her presence, which triggers f
ear. 2.) Her heart begins to race faster. Adrenaline pumps through her blood str
eam. 3.) Jenny screams and runs away. Lazarus stressed that the quality and inte
nsity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes. These processes un
derlie coping strategies that form the emotional reaction by altering the relati
onship between the person and the environment. George Mandler provided an extens
ive theoretical and empirical discussion of emotion as influenced by cognition,
consciousness, and the autonomic nervous system in two books (Mind and Emotion,
1975, and Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress, 1984) There are some
theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgements,
evaluations, or thoughts is necessary in order for an emotion to occur. A promin
ent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (for example, The Passions, Emot
ions and the Meaning of Life, 1993). The theory proposed by Nico Frijda where ap
praisal leads to action tendencies is another example. It has also been suggeste
d that emotions (affect heuristics, feelings and gut-feeling reactions) are ofte
n used as shortcuts to process information and influence behavior.[22] The affec
t infusion model (AIM) is a theoretical model developed by Joseph Forgas in the
early 1990s that attempts to explain how emotion and mood interact with one s ab
ility to process information. Perceptual theory A recent hybrid of the somatic a
nd cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. This theory is neo-Ja
mesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it emphasiz
es the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something,
as is recognized by cognitive theories. The novel claim of this theory is that
conceptually-based cognition is unnecessary for such meaning. Rather the bodily
changes themselves perceive the meaningful content of the emotion because of bei
ng causally triggered by certain situations. In this respect, emotions are held
to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which provide information
about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. A sophisti
cated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz s book Gut Reacti
ons and psychologist James Laird s book Feelings. Affective events theory This a
communication-based theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano
(1996), that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional expe
rience (especially in work contexts). This theory suggests that emotions are inf
luenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. Th
is theoretical frame also emphasizes time in that human beings experience what t
hey call emotion episodesa "series of emotional states extended over time and org
anized around an underlying theme." This theory has been utilized by numerous re
searchers to better understand emotion from a communicative lens, and was review
ed further by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article, "Reflections
on Affective Events Theory" published in Research on Emotion in Organizations in
2005.
Emotion CannonBard theory In the CannonBard theory, Walter Bradford Cannon argued
against the dominance of the JamesLange theory regarding the physiological aspect
s of emotions in the second edition of Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and
Rage. Where James argued that emotional behavior often precedes or defines the e
motion, Cannon and Bard argued that the emotion arises first and then stimulates
typical behavior. Two-factor theory Another cognitive theory is the SingerSchach
ter theory. This is based on experiments purportedly showing that subjects can h
ave different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiologic
al state with an injection of adrenaline. Subjects were observed to express eith
er anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation displ
ayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cog
nitive) and the participants reception of adrenaline or a placebo together dete
rmined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz s (2004)
Gut Reactions. Component process model A recent version of the cognitive theory
regards emotions more broadly as the synchronization of many different bodily a
nd cognitive components. Emotions are identified with the overall process whereb
y low-level cognitive appraisals, in particular the processing of relevance, tri
gger bodily reactions, behaviors, feelings, and actions.
12
Disciplinary approaches
Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. Human sciences st
udy the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms.
In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline s study and treat
ment of mental disorders in humans. Nursing studies emotions as part of its appr
oach to the provision of holistic health care to humans. Psychology examines emo
tions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and beh
avior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes.
In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscienc
e, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience w
ith the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, t
he expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the
role of emotions in relation to learning are examined. Social sciences often exa
mine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions
. In sociology, emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, s
ocial patterns and interactions, and culture. In anthropology, the study of huma
nity, scholars use ethnography to undertake contextual analyses and cross-cultur
al comparisons of a range of human activities; some anthropology studies examine
the role of emotions in human activities. In the field of communication science
s, critical organizational scholars have examined the role of emotions in organi
zations, from the perspectives of managers, employees, and even customers. A foc
us on emotions in organizations can be credited to Arlie Russell Hochschild s co
ncept of emotional labor. The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet,[23] an e-ma
il distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates schola
rly discussion of all matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational
settings. The list was established in January 1997 and has over 700 members fro
m across the globe. In economics, the social science that studies the production
, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, emotions are analyzed in
some sub-fields of microeconomics, in order to assess the role of emotions on pu
rchase decision-making and risk perception. In criminology, a social science app
roach to the study of crime, scholars often draw on behavioral sciences, sociolo
gy, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such as anomie t
heory and studies of "toughness," aggressive behavior, and hooliganism. In law,
which underpins civil obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about
people s emotions is often raised in tort law claims for compensation and in cr
iminal law prosecutions against alleged lawbreakers (as evidence of the defendan
t s state of
Emotion mind during trials, sentencing, and parole hearings). In political scien
ce, emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis of vot
er decision-making. In philosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such as et
hics, the philosophy of art (for example, sensoryemotional values, and matters of
taste and sentimentality), and the philosophy of music (see also Music and emot
ion). In history, scholars examine documents and other sources to interpret and
analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of the authors of hi
storical documents is one of the tools of interpretation. In literature and film
-making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, m
elodrama, and romance. In communication studies, scholars study the role that em
otion plays in the dissemination of ideas and messages. Emotion is also studied
in non-human animals in ethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scien
tific study of animal behavior. Ethology is a combination of laboratory and fiel
d science, with strong ties to ecology and evolution. Ethologists often study on
e type of behavior (for example, aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.
13
Evolutionary psychology
Perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated in the late 19t
h century with Charles Darwin s book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and A
nimals.[24] Darwin s original thesis was that emotions evolved via natural selec
tion and therefore have cross-culturally universal counterparts. Furthermore, an
imals undergo emotions comparable to our own (see emotion in animals). In the ea
rly 1970s, Paul Ekman and colleagues began a line of research that suggests that
many emotions are universal.[2] He found evidence that humans share at least fi
ve basic emotions: fear, sadness, happiness, anger, and disgust.[2] Other resear
ch in this area focuses on physical displays of emotion including body language
of animals and humans (see affect display). The increased potential in neuroimag
ing has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brai
n. Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1
990s by, for example, Joseph E. LeDoux and Antnio Damsio.
Illustration from Charles Darwin s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Ani
mals.
Social emotions evidently evolved to motivate social behaviors that were adaptiv
e in the ancestral environment.[2] For example, spite seems to work against the
individual but it can establish an individual s reputation as someone to be fear
ed.[2] Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one s stand
ing in a community, and self-esteem is one s estimate of one s status.[2] [25]
Sociology
We try to regulate our emotions to fit in with the norms of the situation, based
on manysometimes conflictingdemands upon us which originate from various entities
studied by sociology on a micro levelsuch as social roles and "feeling rules" th
e everyday social interactions and situations are shaped byand, on a macro level,
by social institutions, discourses, ideologies, etc. For example, (post-)modern
marriage is, on one hand, based on the emotion of love and on the other hand th
e very emotion is to be worked on and regulated by it. The sociology of emotions
also focuses on general attitude changes in a population. Emotional appeals are
commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent
examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising
emphasizing the fear of terrorism.
Emotion
14
Psychotherapy
Depending on the particular school s general emphasis either on cognitive compon
ents of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial
expression components of emotion,[26] different schools of psychotherapy approa
ch human emotions differently. Cognitively oriented schools approach them via th
eir cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. Yet others
approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like i
n contemporary Gestalt therapy).[27]
Computer science
In the 2000s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neurosci
ence has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display an
d model emotions.[28] In computer science, affective computing is a branch of th
e study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of
systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions.
It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cog
nitive science.[29] While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as
to early philosophical enquiries into emotion,[6] the more modern branch of comp
uter science originated with Rosalind Picard s 1995 paper[30] on affective compu
ting.[31] [32] Detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which
capture data about the user s physical state or behavior without interpreting t
he input. The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emot
ions in others. Another area within affective computing is the design of computa
tional devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that
are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. Emotional speech processing rec
ognizes the user s emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. The detection a
nd processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detector
s and sensors.
Notable theorists
In the late 19th century, the most influential theorists were William James (184
21910) and Carl Lange (18341900). James was an American psychologist and philosoph
er who wrote about educational psychology, psychology of religious experience/my
sticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. Lange was a Danish physician and psyc
hologist. Working independently, they developed the JamesLange theory, a hypothes
is on the origin and nature of emotions. The theory states that within human bei
ngs, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system cre
ates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspi
ration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about
as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause. Some
of the most influential theorists on emotion from the 20th century have died in
the last decade. They include Magda B. Arnold (19032002), an American psychologis
t who developed the appraisal theory of emotions; Richard Lazarus (19222002), an
American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relat
ion to cognition; Herbert Simon (19162001), who included emotions into decision m
aking and artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik (19282006), an American psycho
logist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion; Robert Zajonc (19232
008) a PolishAmerican social psychologist who specialized in social and cognitive
processes such as social facilitation. In addition, an American philosopher, Ro
bert C. Solomon (19422007), contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emot
ions with books such as What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings (
Oxford, 2003). Influential theorists who are still active include psychologists,
neurologists, and philosophers including: Lisa Feldman Barrett Social philosoph
er and psychologist specializing in affective science and human emotion. John Ca
cioppo from the University of Chicago, founding father with Gary Berntson of soc
ial neuroscience. Antnio Damsio (born 1944) Portuguese behavioral neurologist and
neuroscientist who works in the US Richard Davidson (born 1951) American psychol
ogist and neuroscientist; pioneer in affective neuroscience. Paul Ekman (born 19
34) Psychologist specializing in study of emotions and their relation to facial
expressions
Emotion Barbara Fredrickson Social psychologist who specializes in emotions and
positive psychology. Nico Frijda (born 1927) Dutch psychologist who specializes
in human emotions, especially facial expressions Peter Goldie British philosophe
r who specializes in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character Arlie Russe
ll Hochschild (born 1940) American sociologist whose central contribution was in
forging a link between the subcutaneous flow of emotion in social life and the
larger trends set loose by modern capitalism within organizations. Joseph E. LeD
oux (born 1949) American neuroscientist who studies the biological underpinnings
of memory and emotion, especially the mechanisms of fear George Mandler (born 1
924) - American psychologist who wrote influential books on cognition and emotio
n Jaak Panksepp (born 1943) Estonian-born American psychologist, psychobiologist
and neuroscientist; pioneer in affective neuroscience. Jesse Prinz American phi
losopher who specializes in emotion, moral psychology, aesthetics and consciousn
ess Klaus Scherer (born 1943) Swiss psychologist and director of the Swiss Cente
r for Affective Sciences in Geneva; he specializes in the psychology of emotion
Ronald de Sousa (born 1940) EnglishCanadian philosopher who specializes in the ph
ilosophy of emotions, philosophy of mind and philosophy of biology.
15

References
Notes
[1] Myers, David G. (2004) "Theories of Emotion." Psychology: Seventh Edition, N
ew York, NY: Worth Publishers, p. 500. [2] Gaulin, Steven J. C. and Donald H. Mc
Burney. Evolutionary Psychology. Prentice Hall. 2003. ISBN 13: 9780131115293, Ch
apter 6, p 121-142. [3] Emotional Competency discussion of emotion (http:/ / www
. emotionalcompetency. com/ emotion. htm) [4] See Philip Fisher (1999) Wonder, T
he Rainbow and the Aesthetics of Rare Experiences for an introduction [5] See fo
r instance Antonio Damasio (2005) Looking for Spinoza. [6] James, William. 1884.
"What Is an Emotion?" (http:/ / psychclassics. yorku. ca/ James/ emotion. htm)
Mind. 9, no. 34: 188-205. [7] Laird, James, Feelings: the Perception of Self, Ox
ford University Press [8] jstor.com (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 185033),
Cornelius L. Golightly, The JamesLange Theory: A Logical Post-Mortem. [9] Dalglei
sh, T. (2004). The emotional brain. Nature: Perspectives, 5, 58289. [10] Kringelb
ach, M.L.; O Doherty, J.O.; Rolls, E.T.; & Andrews, C. (2003). Activation of the
human orbitofrontal cortex to a liquid food stimulus is correlated with its sub
jective pleasantness. Cerebral Cortex, 13, 10641071. [11] Drake, R.A. (1987). Eff
ects of gaze manipulation on aesthetic judgments: Hemisphere priming of affect.
Acta Psychologica, 65, 9199. [12] Merckelbach, H.; & van Oppen, P. (1989). Effect
s of gaze manipulation on subjective evaluation of neutral and phobia-relevant s
timuli: A comment on Drake s (1987) Effects of gaze manipulation on aesthetic j
udgments: Hemisphere priming of affect. Acta Psychologica, 70, 147151. [13] Harm
on-Jones, E.; Vaughn-Scott, K.; Mohr, S.; Sigelman, J.; & Harmon-Jones, C. (2004
). The effect of manipulated sympathy and anger on left and right frontal cortic
al activity. Emotion, 4, 95101. [14] Schmidt, L.A. (1999). Frontal brain electric
al activity in shyness and sociability. Psychological Science, 10, 316320. [15] G
aravan, H.; Ross, T.J.; & Stein, E.A. (1999). Right hemispheric dominance of inh
ibitory control: An event-related functional MRI study. Proceedings of the Natio
nal Academy of Sciences, 96, 83018306. [16] Drake, R.A.; & Myers, L.R. (2006). Vi
sual attention, emotion, and action tendency: Feeling active or passive. Cogniti
on and Emotion, 20, 608622. [17] Wacker, J.; Chavanon, M.-L.; Leue, A.; & Stemmle
r, G. (2008). Is running away right? The behavioral activationbehavioral inhibiti
on model of anterior asymmetry. Emotion, 8, 232249. [18] Derek A. Denton (8 June
2006). The primordial emotions: the dawning of consciousness. Oxford University
Press. p.10. ISBN9780199203147. [19] Craig (http:/ / www. cba. arizona. edu/ Peopl
e/ Faculty/ Craig-A. htm), A.D. (Bud) (2003). "Interoception: The sense of the p
hysiological condition of the body" (http:/ / www. jsmf. org/ meetings/ 2007/ oc
t-nov/ CONB Craig 2003. pdf). Current Opinion in Neurobiology 13 (4): 500505. doi
:10.1016/S0959-4388(03)00090-4. PMID12965300. . [20] Derek A. Denton (8 June 2006
). The primordial emotions: the dawning of consciousness. Oxford University Pres
s. p.7. ISBN9780199203147. [21] Craig (http:/ / www. cba. arizona. edu/ People/ Fa
culty/ Craig-A. htm), A.D. (Bud) (2008). "Interoception and emotion: A neuroanat
omical perspective" (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=DFK1QwlrOUAC& pg=
PA272). In Lewis, M.; Haviland-Jones, J.M.; Feldman
Emotion
Barrett, L.. Handbook of Emotion (3 ed.). New York: The Guildford Press. pp.272288
. ISBN978-1-59385-650-2. . Retrieved 6 September 2009. [22] see the HeuristicSyste
matic Model, or HSM, (Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989) under attitude change. A
lso see the index entry for "Emotion" in "Beyond Rationality: The Search for Wis
dom in a Troubled Time" by Kenneth R. Hammond and in "Fooled by Randomness: The
Hidden Role of Chance in Life and in the Markets" by Nassim Nicholas Taleb. [23]
EmoNet (http:/ / www. uq. edu. au/ emonet/ ) [24] Darwin, Charles (1872). The E
xpression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Note: This book was originally publish
ed in 1872, but has been reprinted many times thereafter by different publishers
[25] Wright, Robert. Moral animal. [26] Freitas-Magalhes, A., & Castro, E. (2009
). Facial Expression: The effect of the smile in the Treatment of Depression. Em
pirical Study with Portuguese Subjects. In A. Freitas-Magalhes (Ed.), Emotional E
xpression: The Brain and The Face (pp. 127140). Porto: University Fernando Pessoa
Press. ISBN 978-989-643-034-4 [27] On Emotion an article from Manchester Gestal
t Centre website (http:/ / www. 123webpages. co. uk/ user/ index. php?user=mgc&
pn=10713) [28] Fellous, Armony & LeDoux, 2002 [29] Tao, Jianhua; Tieniu Tan (200
5). "LNCS". Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction. 3784. Springer. pp.9
81995. doi:10.1007/11573548. [30] "Affective Computing" (http:/ / affect. media.
mit. edu/ pdfs/ 95. picard. pdf) MIT Technical Report #321 ( Abstract (http:/ /
vismod. media. mit. edu/ pub/ tech-reports/ TR-321-ABSTRACT. html)), 1995 [31] K
leine-Cosack, Christian (October 2006). "Recognition and Simulation of Emotions"
(http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080528135730/ http:/ / ls12-www. cs. tu-dor
tmund. de/ ~fink/ lectures/ SS06/ human-robot-interaction/ Emotion-RecognitionAn
dSimulation. pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http:/ / ls12-www. cs. tu-d
ortmund. de/ / ~fink/ lectures/ SS06/ human-robot-interaction/ Emotion-Recogniti
onAndSimulation. pdf) on May 28, 2008. . Retrieved May 13, 2008. "The introducti
on of emotion to computer science was done by Pickard (sic) who created the fiel
d of affective computing." [32] Diamond, David (December 2003). "The Love Machin
e; Building computers that care." (http:/ / www. wired. com/ wired/ archive/ 11.
12/ love. html). Wired. . Retrieved May 13, 2008. "Rosalind Picard, a genial MI
T professor, is the field s godmother; her 1997 book, Affective Computing, trigg
ered an explosion of interest in the emotional side of computers and their users
."
16
Further reading
Dana Sugu & Amita Chaterjee "Flashback: Reshuffling Emotions" (https://sites.goo
gle.com/site/sugudana/ articles-1), International Journal on Humanistic Ideology
, Vol. 3 No. 1, SpringSummer 2010. Cornelius, R. (1996). The science of emotion.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Freitas-Magalhes, A. (Ed.). (2009). Emotional Expressi
on: The Brain and The Face. Porto: University Fernando Pessoa Press. ISBN 978-98
9-643-034-4. Freitas-Magalhes, A. (2007). The Psychology of Emotions: The Allure
of Human Face. Oporto: University Fernando Pessoa Press. Ekman, P. (1999). " Bas
ic Emotions (http://www.paulekman.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/ Basic-Emotions
.pdf)". In: T. Dalgleish and M. Power (Eds.). Handbook of Cognition and Emotion.
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Sussex, UK:. Frijda, N.H. (1986). The Emotions. Maison d
es Sciences de l Homme and Cambridge University Press. (http:// www.cambridge.or
g/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521316006) Hochschild, A.R. (1983). The manag
ed heart: Commercialization of human feelings. Berkeley: University of Californi
a Press. LeDoux, J.E. (1986). The neurobiology of emotion. Chap. 15 in J.E. LeDo
ux & W. Hirst (Eds.) Mind and Brain: dialogues in cognitive neuroscience. New Yo
rk: Cambridge. Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emoti
on. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research, and experie
nce: Vol. 1. Theories of emotion (pp.333). New York: Academic. Ridley-Duff, R.J. (
2010). Emotion, Seduction and Intimacy: Alternative Perspectives on Human Behavi
our (Third Edition), Seattle: Libertary Editions. http://www.libertary.com/book/
emotion-seduction-intimacy Scherer, K. (2005). What are emotions and how can the
y be measured? (http://www.affective-sciences.org/ system/files/2005_Scherer_SSI
.pdf) Social Science Information Vol. 44, No. 4: 695729. Solomon, R. (1993). The
Passions: Emotions and the Meaning of Life. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
Emotion Zeki, S. & Romaya, J.P. (2008), "Neural correlates of hate", PloS one, v
ol. 3, no. 10, pp. 3556. Wikibook Cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscienc
e (http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/ Cognitive_Psychology_and_Cognitive_Neuroscience
/Motivation_and_Emotion) Hogan, Patrick Colm, What Literature Teaches Us about E
motion (http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/ What-literature-teaches-us-about-
emotion.php) (Cambridge University Press, 2011)
17
External links
Online Demo: Emotion recognition from speech, University of Patras, Wire Communi
cation Lab (http://www. wcl.ece.upatras.gr/ai/resources/demo-emotion-recognition
-from-speech) Facial Emotion Expression Lab (http://feelab.ufp.pt/index.swf) CNX
.ORG: The Psychology of Emotions, Feelings and Thoughts (free online book) (http
://www.cnx.org/ content/m14358/latest) Queen Mary Centre for the History of the
Emotions (http://www.qmul.ac.uk/emotions/) Humaine Emotion-Research.net: The Hum
aine Portal: Research on Emotions and Human-Machine Interaction (http://emotion-
research.net/) PhilosophyofMind.net: Philosophy of Emotions portal (http://www.p
hilosophyofmind.net) Swiss Center for Affective Sciences (http://www.affective-s
ciences.org/) The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Theories of Emotion (http
://www.iep.utm.edu/e/emotion.htm) The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Emoti
on (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/emotion/) University of Arizona: Salk Inst
itute: (http://emotion.nsma.arizona.edu/emotion.html)
Emotion classification
The means by which we distinguish one emotion from another is a hotly contested
issue in emotion research and affective science. This page summarises some of th
e major theories.
Basic and Complex Emotions
Many theorists define some emotions as basic where others are complex. Basic emo
tions are claimed to be biologically fixed, innate and as a result universal to
all humans and many animals as well. Complex emotions are then either refined ve
rsions of basic emotions, culturally specific or idiosyncratic. A major issue is
to define which emotions are basic and which are complex. One of the problems h
ere is that there is no consensus on the method by which basic emotions can be d
etermined. Theorists can point to universals in facial expression (e.g. Ekman),
distinctive physiological symptoms (e.g. the blush of embarrassment), or labels
common to different languages. Moreover there should be some plausible developme
ntal story concerning how the various non-basic emotions can be grounded in the
basic ones. The Li Chi: Joy, anger, sadness, fear, love, disliking and liking (1
st Century BC Chinese encyclopedia, cited in Russell 1991: 426). The Stoics: Ple
asure/delight, distress, appetite and fear (Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, iv: 1
3-15). Ren Descartes: Wonder, love, hatred, desire, joy and sadness (Passions, 35
3). Baruch Spinoza: Pleasure, pain and desire (Ethics, pt. III, prop. 59). Thoma
s Hobbes: Appetite, desire, love, aversion, hate, joy and grief (Leviathan, pt.
I, ch. 6). Paul Ekman (1972): Anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surpr
ise. Paul Ekman (1999): Amusement, anger, contempt, contentment, disgust, embarr
assment, excitement, fear, guilt, happiness, pride in achievement, relief, sadne
ss/distress, satisfaction, sensory pleasure, shame, and surprise.
Emotion classification Jesse Prinz (2004): Frustration, panic, anxiety, physical
disgust, separation distress, aversive self-consciousness, satisfaction, stimul
ation and attachment.[1]
18
Social v Non-social Distinction
Emotions can also be classified according to those that can occur when the indiv
idual is alone and not thinking about others, and those that seem more essential
ly socially directed. Examples of proposed social emotions include jealousy, lov
e, hatred, guilt and gratitude. A current work by Rechter, Levontin and Kluger f
rom the Hebrew University is done classifying and grouping social emotions, whil
e relating and distinguishing them from non-social, or general, emotions.
Dimensional Models of Emotion
For both theoretical and practical reasons some researchers define emotions acco
rding to one or more dimensions. A popular version of this is Russell s (1979) d
imensional, or circumplex model, which uses the models of arousal and valence. O
ther dimensions have more recently been suggested, for example potency or powe
r.
Plutchik s Model
Robert Plutchik offers a three-dimensional model that is a hybrid of both basic-
complex categories and dimensional theories. It arranges emotions in concentric
circles where inner circles are more basic and outer circles more complex. Notab
ly outer circles are also formed by blending the inner circle emotions.[2]
Culturally specific emotions
One of the barriers to establishing a taxonomy of the emotions is that different
cultures do not always recognise the same emotions in their languages. In some
cases, the expressive behaviours, judgements or appropriate reactions associated
with an emotion term are different. Moreover, a number of cultures have terms f
or emotions that have no direct equivalent in the English language. The followin
g is a list of emotion terms that are deemed culturally specific in this sense:
Acedia (Europe Middle Ages and Renaissance): Spiritual torpor or aversion to rel
igious imagery, suggested as arising from boredom induced by repetitive nature o
f worship, (Harre 1986 cited in Prinz 2004: 148). Amae (Japan): Feeling of depen
dency akin to what infants feel towards their mothers. Important for bonding ind
ividuals to each other and cherished institutions. (Prinz 2004: 131). Awumbuk (B
aining of Papua New Guinea): Sadness, tiredness or boredom caused by the departu
re of visitors, friends or relatives, (Russell 1991: 432). Fago (Ifaluk): A comb
ination of love, compassion and sadness, (Lutz 1988, cited in Prinz 2004: 147).
Gezellig (the Netherlands): Similar meaning to English word cozy , but occurrin
g in the presence of other people, (Harre, 1986, Doi, 1973 cited in Prinz 2004:
131). Very similar the German word Gemtlich. Ijirashii (Japan): Arising when seei
ng someone praiseworthy overcome an obstacle, (Matsumoto 1994 cited in Prinz 200
4: 140). Ker (Ifaluk): Pleasant surprise, (cited in Goldie 2000: 91). Liget (Ilo
ngot people): Aroused by situations of grief but closely related to anger, can i
nspire headhunting expeditions, (Rosaldo 1980 cited in Prinz 147). Malu (Dusun B
aguk, Malaysia): Overlapping of shame and embarrassment, can be elicited by bein
g in the presence of a person of higher rank, (Fessler 1999 cited in Prinz 2004:
156) Nginyiwarrarringu (Pintupi Aborigines of the Western Australian Desert): A
sudden fear that leads one to stand up to see what caused it, (Russell 1991: 43
1) Rus (Ifaluk): Unpleasant surprise, cited in Goldie 2000: 91).
Emotion classification Schadenfreude (Germany): Feeling of joy triggered by perc
eption of someone suffering. Song (Ifaluk people, Micronesia): Close to anger, o
r admonition, with moralistic overtones and no disposition to revenge. (Lutz 198
8 cited in Prinz 2004: 147). Sram (Russia): Shame specifically focused on sexual
indecency, originating in religious discoursealso used as a noun denoting pudend
a, or to prefix a location name in which sexual activity occurs (such as a red l
ight district) Vergenza Ajena / Pena Ajena: Also known as Spanish Shame sense of
shame on behalf of another person, even though that person may not experience sh
ame themselvesfor example, cringing when watching a very bad comicgenerally more i
ntense when the other is well known to you, though possible even when you dislik
e the other personsimilar to the Dutch term plaatsvervangende schaamte and the Ge
rman term Fremdschmen external shame or vicarious embarrassment , being vicario
usly embarrassed by someone else. The humor enacted by video clips of very bad a
uditions for televised talent shows leverage the vicarious pain of this emotion.
Prinz 2004 also cites patriotism as an emotion specific to Western cultures.
19
Culturally specific phobias or emotion syndromes
Koro (Assam and South Chinese): An intense anxiety that penis, breasts or vulva
may retract into the body, (Yap 1965, cited in Prinz 2004: 136). Latah (Malaysia
): Affecting middle aged women, an exaggerated startle reflex, outbursts of prof
anity and disposition to repeat whatever they hear. Cf. Mali-Mali in Philippines
, yuan in Burma, ikota in Siberia, jumping mania in French Canadians of Main (Si
mons 1996, cited in Prinz 2004: 136). Pa-leng (China): A morbid fear of the cold
even in hot weather, associated with a yin-yang imbalance (too little yang), (K
leinman 1980, cited in Prinz 2004: 136). Pibloktoq (Greenland Intuits): A fear c
ausing sufferers to scream, tear off their clothing, break things, eat feces bef
ore collapsing into seizures, followed by deep sleep and loss of memory of the i
ncident, (Yap 1974 cited in Prinz 2004: 135). Cf. amok in Malaysia and phii bod
in Thailand. (Simons and Hughes 1993 cited in Prinz 2004: 136). Wild pig syndrom
e (Gururumba, New Guinea): Said to be caused when bitten by the ghosts of their
ancestors, this syndrome affects young men entering maturity who begin running w
ild, stealing and shooting arrows for a few days. Cure involves being held over
a smoking fire (Averill 1980, Griffiths 1997, Newman 1965, cited in Prinz 2004:
136). Witiko/Windigo (Algonquian Indians): A fear that one has been transformed
into a cannibalistic monster, (Trimble, Monson, Dinges & Medicine 1984, cited in
Prinz 2004: 135). Prinz, 2004, also cites anorexia nervosa as a culture specifi
c syndrome found in Western cultures. See also this list of phobias, some of whi
ch may be culturally specific.
Bibliography
Ekman, P. (1972). Universals and Cultural Differences in Facial Expression of Em
otion. In J. Cole ed. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln, Nebraska: Unive
rsity of Nebraska Press: 207-283. Ekman, P. (1992). "An argument for basic emoti
ons". Cognition and Emotion 6: 169200. doi:10.1080/02699939208411068. Ekman, P. (
1999). Basic Emotions. In T. Dalgleish and T. Power (Eds.) The Handbook of Cogni
tion and Emotion Pp.4560. Sussex, U.K.: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Fontaine, J. et al
.; Scherer, KR; Roesch, EB; Ellsworth, PC (2007). "The world of emotions is not
two-dimensional". Psychological Science 18 (12): 10501057. doi:10.1111/j.1467-928
0.2007.02024.x. PMID18031411. Freitas-Magalhes, A. (2009). Emotional expression: T
he brain and the face. Porto: University Fernando Pessoa Press.
Emotion classification Prinz, J. (2004). Gut Reactions: A Perceptual theory of E
motions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dana Sugu & Amita Chaterjee Flashback:
Reshuffling Emotions, International Journal on Humanistic Ideology, Vol. 3 No. 1,
Spring-Summer 2010 [3] Russell, J.A. (1979). "Affective space is bipolar". Jour
nal of Personality and Social Psychology 37: 345356. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.3.3
45. Russell, JA (1991). "Culture and the categorization of emotions.". Psycholog
ical bulletin 110 (3): 42650. PMID1758918.
20
Notes and references
[1] Jesse Prinz Gut Reactions: A Perceptual Theory of Emotion (Oxford: Oxford Un
iversity Press, 2004): page 157. [2] Plutchik, R. "The Nature of Emotions" (http
:/ / replay. waybackmachine. org/ 20010716082847/ http:/ / americanscientist. or
g/ articles/ 01articles/ Plutchik. html). American Scientist. . Retrieved 14 Apr
il 2011. [3] https:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ sugudana/ articles-1
Sociology of emotions
The sociology of emotion applies sociological theorems and techniques to the stu
dy of human emotions. As sociology emerged primarily as a reaction to the negati
ve affects of modernity, many normative theories deal in some sense with emotio
n without forming a part of any specific subdiscipline: Marx described capitali
sm as detrimental to personal species-being , Simmel wrote of the deindividuali
zing tendencies of the metropolis , and Weber s work dealt with the rationalizi
ng effect of modernity in general.
Theory
Emotions are on one hand constitutive of, embedded in, and on the other hand man
ipulated or instrumentalized by entities that are studied by sociology on a micr
o level, such as social roles and norms and feeling rules the everyday social
interactions and situations are shaped by, and, on a macro level, by social inst
itutions, discourses, ideologies etc. For example, (post-)modern marriage is, on
one hand, based on the emotion of love and on the other hand the very emotion i
s to be worked on and regulated by it. Likewise, modern science could not exist
without the emotion of curiosity but it does narrow it leading sometimes to over
-specialization of science. Many forms of cultural stratification could not exis
t without disgust and contempt, and there are politics that could not exist with
out fear, as many civil and ethnic wars could not take place without hate. We tr
y to regulate our feelings to fit in with the norms of the situation, based on m
any - sometimes conflicting demands upon us. Systematic observations of group in
teraction found that a substantial portion of group activity is devoted to the s
ocio-emotional issues of expressing affect and dealing with tension.[1] Simultan
eously, field studies of social attraction in groups revealed that feelings of i
ndividuals about each other collate into social networks,[2] a discovery that st
ill is being explored in the field of social network analysis. Ethnomethodology
revealed emotional commitments to everyday norms through purposeful breaching of
the norms. For example, students acting as boarders in their own homes reported
others astonishment, bewilderment, shock, anxiety, embarrassment, and anger; f
amily members accused the students of being mean, inconsiderate, selfish, nasty,
or impolite. Actors who breach a norm themselves feel waves of emotion, includi
ng apprehension, panic, and despair.[3] However, habitual rule breaking leads to
declining stress, and may eventually end in enjoyment. T. David Kemper[4] propo
sed that people in social interaction have positions on two relational dimension
s: status and power. Emotions emerge as interpersonal events change or maintain
individuals status and power. For example, affirming someone else s exalted sta
tus produces love-related emotions. Increases or decreases in one s own and othe
r s status or power generate specific emotions whose quality depends on the patt
erns of change.
Sociology of emotions Arlie Hochschild[5] proposed that individuals manage their
feelings to produce acceptable displays according to ideological and cultural s
tandards. Hochschild showed that jobs often require such emotional labor. Her cl
assic study of emotional labor among flight attendants found that an industry sp
eed-up, reducing contact between flight attendants and passengers, made it impos
sible for flight attendants to deliver authentic emotional labor, so they ended
up surface-acting superficial smiles. Peggy Thoits[6] divided emotion management
techniques into implementation of new events and reinterpretation of past event
s. Thoits noted that emotions also can be managed with drugs, by performing faux
gestures and facial expressions, or by cognitive reclassifications of one s fee
lings. Students from the University of California are studying Arlie Hochschilds
theory of heart management. Hochschild states that the ways we manage our emotio
ns is based on our expectations of others, the expectations of others toward us,
and earlier experiences. Therefore, there are no ups and downs to emotions as l
ong as we manage them. Here are a few examples: An upside to emotion is a better
understanding of one another. A better understanding of one another would resul
t in less conflict, for example, listening to a persons opinion and showing empat
hy towards him or her for any public or private circumstances. A second upside t
o emotion is no health problems.[7] This is also shown in Chris Lucernes theory.
Sociologist Chris Lucerne states in her article titled Emotions! Good or Bad, tha
t there are neither good nor bad emotions. However, you can judge emotions as su
ch. According to Lucerne s theory emotion is believed to help humans express the
ir feelings. Therefore emotions are a part of human nature to help us communicat
e. In addition to Chris Lucernes theory, when humans experience a situation good
or bad an emotion is triggered. As a result of emotion an action is followed. Fo
r example, here are a few emotions listed in Lucernes article in which people exp
erience daily. The first is the emotion of happiness, which can ignite the sensa
tion to dance. A second emotion is anger, in which the person begins to feel hot
causing him or her to perspire. Finally is the emotion of sadness, which create
s a sensation of feeling closed in. As a consequence of feeling closed in the pe
rson may react irrationally to make them comfortable. Chris Lucerne also states
in her article "that no matter what you cannot control your reactions to emotion
." In conclusion to Lucernes theory reaction is random in expressing your feelin
gs.[8] David Straker states that "we should watch our own emotions", likewise in
Arlie Hochschilds theory of emotions. Straker talks about how emotions are sign
als that tell you something about what is happening in the inner you. Sometimes
bad emotions can be misleading because of the reaction often causing conflict. T
o conclude based on Strakers theory, you can use emotions for good or bad. An ex
ample Straker talked about was the use of emotion to motivate others.[9] Thomas
J. Scheff[10] established that many cases of social conflict are based on a dest
ructive and often escalating, but stoppable and reversible shame-rage cycle: whe
n someone results or feels shamed by another, their social bond comes under stre
ss. This can be cooperatively acknowledged, talked about and most effectively wh
en possible laughed at so their social bond may be restored. Yet, when shame is
not acknowledged, but instead negated and repressed, it becomes rage, and rage m
ay drive to aggressive and shaming actions that feed-back negatively on this sel
f-destructive situation. The social management of emotions might be the fundamen
tal dynamics of social cooperation and conflict around resources, complexity, co
nflict and moral life. It is well-established sociological fact that expression
and feeling of the emotion of anger, for example, is strongly discouraged (repre
ssed) in girls and women in many cultures, while fear is discouraged in boys and
men. Some cultures and sub-cultures encourage or discourage happiness, sadness,
jealousy, excitedness, and many other emotions. The free expression of the emot
ion of disgust is considered socially unacceptable in many countries. Sociologis
t Randall Collins has stated that emotional energy is the main motivating force
in social life, for love and hatred, investing, working or consuming, rendering
cult or waging war.[11] Emotional energy ranges from the highest heights of enth
usiasm, self-confidence and initiative to the deepest depths of apathy, depressi
on and retreat. Emotional energy comes from variously successful or failed chain
s of interaction rituals, that is, patterned social encounters from conversation
or sexual flirtation through Christmas family dinners or office work to mass dem
onstrations, organizations or revolutions. In the latter, the coupling of partic
ipants behavior synchronizes their
21
Sociology of emotions nervous systems to the point of generating a collective ef
fervescence, one observable in their mutual focus and emotional entraining, as w
ell as in their loading of emotional and symbolic meaning to entities which subs
equently become emblems of the ritual and of the membership group endorsing, pre
serving, promoting and defending them. Thus social life would be most importantl
y about generating and distributing emotional energy. Affect Control Theory, ori
ginated by David R. Heise, proposes that social actions are designed by their ag
ents to create impressions that befit sentiments reigning in a situation. Emotio
ns are transient physical and subjective states depending on the current impress
ion of the emoting person, and on the comparison of that impression with the sen
timent attached to the person s identity. As such, emotions are visceral signals
to self and observable signals to others about the individual s identity in the
situation, and about the individual s understanding of events in the situation.
Heise developed a simulation program for analyzing affect-control processes in
social interaction, and for predicting moment-to-moment emotions of interactants
. The program specifies emotions in terms of numerical profiles, emotion words,
and cartoon-like drawings of interactants facial expressions. A complete review
of affect control theory is provided in Heise s 2007 book, Expressive Order.[12
]
22
Empirical Applications
Workplaces. Following Hochschild s lead, the sociology of emotions has been appl
ied extensively to a variety of workplace interactions. Jennifer Pierce, a stude
nt of Hocschild s, has examined law firms, for instance, and Robin Leidner the e
motion work in fast food outlets. Social Movements. Inspired by James M. Jasper
s cultural work in the late 1990s, especially The Art of Moral Protest, a number
of scholars of protest and social movements have begun to examine the emotions
involved. They include Erika Summers Effler, a student of Randall Collins who ex
amines how emotions inform a sense of time in Laughing Saints and Righteous Hero
es; Lynn Owens, who documents the emotions of a declining social movement, Amste
rdams s squatters, in Cracking under Pressure; and Verta Taylor, whose book, Roc
k-a-Bye Baby documents struggles over the feelings new mothers are supposed to f
eel. Deborah Gould traces a number of emotional processes throughout the rise an
d fall of ACT UP in a series of articles and a book, Moving Politics. A 1999 con
ference, organized by James M. Jasper, Jeff Goodwin, and Francesca Polletta, hel
ped spur this new development in social movement theory and research. Scholars w
orldwide have taken up the challenge to study the emotions of social movements,
including a cluster of French researchers such as Olivier Fillieule, Isabelle So
mmier, and Christophe Traini.
Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Hare, A. P. (1976). Handbook of small group research (2n
d ed.). New York: Free Press, Chapter 3 Hare, A. P. (1976). Handbook of small gr
oup research (2nd ed.). New York: Free Press, Chapter 7 Milgram, S. (1974, ). An
interview with Carol Tavris. Psychology Today, pp. 70-73 Kemper, T. D. (1978).
A social interactional theory of emotion. New York: Wiley Hochschild, A. R. (198
3). The managed heart: The commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley: Univers
ity of California Press Thoits, P. A. (1990). Emotional deviance: research agend
as. T. D. Kemper (Ed.), Research agendas in the sociology of emotions (pp. 180203
). Albany: State University of New York Press [7] Sociology 250 (http:/ / uregin
a. ca/ ~gingrich/ n1302. htm) [8] Microso (http:/ / www. chrislucerne. com/ pdfs
/ emotions. pdf) [9] Purpose of emotions (http:/ / www. changeminds. org/ explan
ations/ emotions/ emotion_purpose. htm) [10] Scheff, Thomas J, and Retzinger, Su
zanne. (1991) Emotions and violence : shame and rage in destructive conflicts. L
exington, Mass: Lexington Books [11] Collins, Randall. (2004) Interaction Ritual
Chains. Princeton University Press [12] Heise, David. (2007) Expressive Order:
Confirming Sentiments in Social Actions. New York: Springer
Happiness
23
Happiness
Happiness is a mental state of well-being characterized by positive emotions ran
ging from contentment to intense joy.[1] A variety of biological, psychological,
religious, and philosophical approaches have striven to define happiness and id
entify its sources. Positive psychology endeavors to apply the scientific method
to answer questions about what "happiness" is, and how we might attain it. Phil
osophers and religious thinkers often define happiness in terms of living a good
life, or flourishing, rather than simply as an emotion. Happiness in this older
sense was used to translate the Greek Eudaimonia, and is still used in virtue e
thics. Happiness economics suggests that measures of public happiness should be
used to supplement more traditional economic measures when evaluating the succes
s of public policy.
The smiley face is a well-known symbol of happiness
Scientific views
Happiness is a very fuzzy concept and can mean many things to many people. Part
of the challenge of the science of happiness is to identify all the different us
es of the word "happiness", or else to understand its various components. Studie
s have found that things like money, education, or the weather do not affect hap
piness the way one might expect. There are various habits that have been correla
ted with happiness. Psychologist Martin Seligman provides the acronym PERMA to s
ummarize many of Positive Psychology s findings: humans seem happiest when they
have Pleasure (tasty foods, warm baths, etc.), Engagement (or flow, the absorpti
on of an enjoyed yet challenging activity), Relationships (social ties have turn
ed out to be extremely reliable indicator of happiness), Meaning (a perceived qu
est or belonging to something bigger), and finally Accomplishments (having reali
zed tangible goals).
Martin Seligman asserts that happiness is not just [2] external, momentary pleas
ures. Flow (engagement) and general life satisfaction are parts of happiness too
, for example.
There is evidence suggesting that people can improve their happiness. Mood disor
ders like depression are often understood through a biopsychosocial model, meani
ng biological, psychological, and social factors all contribute to mood (i.e. th
ere is no single cause). The diathesisstress model further argues that a diathesi
s (a biological vulnerability due to genes) to certain moods are worsened or imp
roved by the environment and upbringing. The idea is that individuals with high
vulnerability,
Happiness
24
especially if their early environment worsened depressive tendencies, may need a
ntidepressants. Furthermore, the model suggests that everyone can benefit, to va
rying degrees, from the various habits and practices identified by positive psyc
hology. There have also been some studies of religion as it relates to happiness
, as well as religious or generally philosophical notions of happiness. Research
has generally found that religion may help make people happier by providing var
ious important components (e.g. PERMA) in countries where there are many who sha
re that religion.
Hotei, god of happiness in East Asian folklore
Religious perspectives
Buddhism
Happiness forms a central theme of Buddhist teachings. For ultimate freedom from
suffering, the Noble Eightfold Path leads its practitioner to Nirvana, a state
of everlasting peace. Ultimate happiness is only achieved by overcoming craving
in all forms. More mundane forms of happiness, such as acquiring wealth and main
taining good friendships, are also recognized as worthy goals for lay people (se
e sukha). Buddhism also encourages the generation of loving kindness and compass
ion, the desire for the happiness and welfare of all beings.[3] [4]
A smiling 95-year-old man from Santa Cruz, Chile.
Catholicism
In Catholicism, the ultimate end of human existence consists in felicity (Latin
equivalent to the Greek eudaimonia), or "blessed happiness", described by the 13
th-century philosopher-theologian Thomas Aquinas as a Beatific Vision of God s e
ssence in the next life.[5]
Philosophical views
The Chinese Confucian thinker Mencius, who 2300 years ago sought to give advice
to the ruthless political leaders of the warring states period, was convinced th
at the mind played a mediating role between the "lesser self" (the physiological
self) and the "greater self" (the moral self) and that getting the priorities r
ight between these two would lead to sage-hood. He argued that if we did not fee
l satisfaction or pleasure in nourishing one s "vital force" with "righteous dee
ds", that force would shrivel up (Mencius,6A:15 2A:2). More specifically, he men
tions the experience of intoxicating joy if one celebrates the practice of the g
reat virtues, especially through music.[6] Al-Ghazali (10581111) the Muslim Sufi
thinker wrote the Alchemy of Happiness, a manual of spiritual instruction throug
hout the Muslim world and widely practiced today. The Hindu thinker Patanjali, a
uthor of the Yoga Sutras, wrote quite exhaustively on the psychological and onto
logical roots of bliss.[7] In the Nicomachean Ethics, written in 350 BCE, Aristo
tle stated that happiness (also being well and doing well) is the only thing tha
t humans desire for its own sake, unlike riches, honor, health or friendship. He
observed that men sought riches, or honor, or health not only for their own sak
e but also in order to be happy. Note that eudaimonia, the term we translate as
"happiness", is for Aristotle an activity rather than an emotion or a state.[8]
Happiness is
Happiness characteristic of a good life, that is, a life in which a person fulfi
lls human nature in an excellent way. People have a set of purposes which are ty
pically human: these belong to our nature. The happy person is virtuous, meaning
they have outstanding abilities and emotional tendencies which allow him or her
to fulfill our common human ends. For Aristotle, then, happiness is "the virtuo
us activity of the soul in accordance with reason": happiness is the practice of
virtue. Many ethicists make arguments for how humans should behave, either indi
vidually or collectively, based on the resulting happiness of such behavior. Uti
litarians, such as John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, advocated the greatest h
appiness principle as a guide for ethical behavior.
25
Economic views
Common market health measures such as GDP and GNP have been used as a measure of
successful policy. On average richer nations tend to be happier than poorer nat
ions, but this effect seems to diminish with wealth.[9] [10] This has been expla
ined by the fact that the dependency is not linear but logarithmic, i.e., the sa
me percentual increase in the GNP produces the same increase in happiness for we
althy countries as for poor countries.[11] [12] [13] [14] Economic freedom corre
lates strongly with happiness[15] preferably within the context of a Newly commi
ssioned officers celebrate their new positions by throwing their midshipmen cove
rs into the air as part of the U.S. Naval Academy class western mixed economy, w
ith free press and a of 2005 graduation and commissioning ceremony. democracy. "
Socialist" East European countries were less happy than Western ones, even less
happy than other equally poor countries.[16] It would be inaccurate to consider
the ex-Soviet states as socialist, however, as socialism indicates that the work
ers own the means of production, which under the Soviet Union was not the case.[
17] It has been argued that happiness measures could be used not as a replacemen
t for more traditional measures, but as a supplement.[18] According to professor
Edward Glaeser, people constantly make choices that decrease their happiness, b
ecause they have also more important aims. Therefore, the government should not
decrease the alternatives available for the citizen by patronizing them but let
the citizen keep a maximal freedom of choice.[19] It has been argued that happin
ess at work is the one of the driving forces behind positive outcomes at work, r
ather than just being a resultant product.[20]
Happiness
26
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w (s rt
cl).
Nw Yrk: Oxfr U
vrs
ty Prss; 2001. Brbr A K
pfr, 14,000 Th
gs t B
Hppy Abut, Wrkm, 1990/2007, ISBN 978-0761147213. Stf Kl
, Th Sc
c
f Hpp
ss, Mrlw, 2006, ISBN 1-56924-328-X. R
chr Lyr, Hpp
ss: Ls
ss Frm A Nw Sc
c, Pgu
, 2005, ISBN 978-0-141-01690-0. Dv
 G. Myrs,
Ph. D., Th Pursu
t f Hpp
ss: Wh
s Hppy Why, W
ll
m Mrrw  C., 19
92, ISBN 0-688-10550-5.
 Mrt
 E.P. Sl
gm, Ph. D., Autht
c Hpp
ss, Fr Prss, 2002, ISBN 0-7432
-2298-9. Wysw Ttrk
w
cz, Alys
s f Hpp
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us N
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Publ
shrs, 1976
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c 2000, ls l
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f Hppy Psts  M
srbl M
ll

rs", OUP Oxfr, 2009. ISBN 978-01995
49054 (fvrbl rv
w
 Sc
c 6 August 2010) W. Dyl Gtry "Hpp
ss fr
umm
s", 2008 J
mmy DMs, M.D. "BHppy!: Yur Gu
 t th Hpp
st Pss
bl
 L
f", 2006 Er
c G. W
ls "Ag
st hpp
ss", 2008 Sj Lyubm
rsky "Th h
w f hpp
ss", 2007 N
k Prs "Hpp
ss s't just hpp", 2006 R
chr
Lyr "Hpp
ss", 2005 Dsm Mrr
s "Th tur f hpp
ss", 2004 Grgg E
strbrk "Th prgrss prx hw l
f gts bttr wh
l ppl fl wrs",
2003 B Rshw "Th scrts f hpp
ss", 2003 Mrt
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gm "Autht

c hpp
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g hpp
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, 2002 Rbrt Hl "Hpp
ss w!", 1998 Jp Hrtg & Hssl Ostrbk "H
lth, wlth  hpp
ss", 1997 Ruut Vhv "B
bl
grphy f hpp
ss wrl
tbs f hpp
ss : 2472 stu
s  subjct
v pprc
t
 f l
f", 1993
N
l Kufm "Hpp
ss
s  ch
c", 1991 M
chl W. Eysck "Hpp
ss fcts 
 myths", 1990 Ly McFll "Hpp
ss", 1989 M
chl Argyl "Th psychlgy f
hpp
ss", 1987 Ruut Vhv "C
t
s f hpp
ss", 1984 El
zbth Tlf
r "Hpp
ss :  xm
t
 f  h
st
c   um
st
c ccpt f hp
p
ss  f th rlt
s btw thm...", 1980 Nrm M. Brbur "Th struc
tur f psychlg
cl wll-b
g", 1969 Brtr Russll "Th cqust f hpp

ss", r
g. 1930 (my rpr
ts) Jms Mcky "Ecmy f hpp
ss", 1906 Sr
Ahm, "Th Prm
s f Hpp
ss", 2010
27
Extrl l
ks
H
stry f Hpp
ss (http://pursu
t-f-hpp
ss.rg/pursu
t-f-hpp
ss/h
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s survy f
flut
l thr
s Th Stfr Ecyclp

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lsphy try "Plsur" (http://plt.stfr.u/tr
s/plsur/) 
c
t  mr ph
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Wrl Dtbs f Hpp
ss (http://wrltbsfhpp
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r/ 214/) Ol
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cl tst t msur yur hpp
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kumr R: Plu
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rt_sks_why_r_w_hppy.html) V
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lbrt ur hw
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gs t
go as planned.
Philosophy of happiness
28
Philosophy of happiness
The philosophy of happiness is a direction by which philosophical inquiry approa
ches the nature of happiness and the ways by which to attain it. Both the classi
c Western philosophy (Ancient philosophy) and the Eastern philosophy since its i
nception deal with the subject of happiness.
Greek philosophers (Sokrates, Antisthenes, Chrysippos, Epicurus).
Happiness in the philosophy of the ancient world
Socrates
Socrates (* 469 BC in Athens, 399 BC) is fundamental for Western thinking. Almos
t all the major philosophical schools of antiquity have to rely on Socrates. Mic
hel de Montaigne called him the "master of masters" and Karl Jaspers wrote, "Soc
rates to have in mind is one of the essential conditions of our philosophy".[1]
Socrates was a mystic. There are many accounts of his extraordinary abilities. H
e could fall for hours in meditation, go barefoot in winter and consume excessiv
e amounts of alcohol, without ever showing signs of intoxication. He lived in st
rict guidance by his inner voice, whose origin he regarded as divine. He prayed
regularly. About life after death, he preferred an open perspective, "Either it
is a non-being, and we have no sensation after death - or, as it is told, it is
a migration of the soul from this place to another."[2] It is interesting to not
e that a significant portion of Plato s Pheado is concerned with various argumen
ts whose purpose can be seen to prove the existence of life after death. [3]
Diogenes with a lamp.
We can regard Socrates as the spiritual father of today s scientific thinking ti
me. He was an advocate of reason. He was highly involved with the question of th
e truth. What is true and what is wrong? What is the way of a true life? Socrate
s had no ready answers. He left it to each of his students themselves, to find t
heir own way of truth. Three things he gave them along the way: 1. Keep interest
ed in the truth. 2. Make sure that your soul is as good as possible. 3. To get a
good soul, maintain the four virtues of prudence, temperance, courage and justi
ce (charity).[4]
Philosophy of happiness
29
Aristippus of Cyrene
Perhaps the first philosopher who has developed a complete philosophy of happine
ss was Aristippus. He was a student of Socrates, but adopted a very different ph
ilosophical outlook, teaching that the goal of life was to seek external pleasur
e. Aristippus lived luxuriously. He is considered the founder of hedonism.
Antisthenes
Antisthenes (c. 445 BCE c. 365 BCE) was also a student of Socrates. He adopted a
nd developed the ethical side of Socrates teachings, advocating an ascetic life
lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of C
ynic philosophy. His most important disciple was Diogenes, who lived after a leg
end in a barrel. The way of happiness of Antisthenes is similar to the Enlighten
ment philosophy of Buddhism, Indian Yoga and Chinese Taoism. Through a life of p
eace, simplicity, naturalness, modesty and virtue (mental work) dissolve the inn
er tensions. Inner happiness and enlightenment appear. We find Antisthenes prais
ing the pleasures which spring "from out of one s soul."[5]
Plato
Plato lived from 428/427 BC to 348/347 BC in Athens. He was a student of Socrate
s, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the
first institution of higher learning in the Western world. According to Plato th
e human soul consits of three parts: The reason, the will and the desire. A man
is happy when all three parts of the soul are in balance. Plato has thought abou
t how to build a good society. He proposed to transfer the leadership of a socie
ty to the wise. One could say that science (the philosophy of happiness) should
be the center of happy society. A student of Plato was Aristotle. According to A
ristotle, happy is he who develops his virtues and abilities. Perfectly happy ca
n a man be called if he is sufficiently equipped with external goods and spends
his life according to virtue.[6]
Epicurus
For Epicurus, the purpose of philosophy was to attain a happy, tranquil life, ch
aracterized by peace, freedom from fear, the absence of pain, and by living a se
lf-sufficient life surrounded by friends. A life after Epicurus (341-270 BC) is
happy when you live everything in the right degree. Everyone should know his poi
nt of enough. "Whom is enough too little, nothing is enough."[7] Epicureans ofte
n confounded with the hedonists. Both are completely different philosophical pat
hs. An Epicurean embodies a moderate path of asceticism and a hedonist a path of
extreme external pleasure. Epicureanism is wisdom and hedonism is unwisdom. Epi
cureanism leads to enlightenment (inner happiness) and hedonism to unenlightenme
nt (inner tensions, addictions).[8] Epicurus taught positive thinking. A life wi
ll be happy when we constantly train positive thinking. Epicurus called it "phil
osophize." A person should philosophize every day. One should think about the me
aning of life and reflect again and again to his positive goals. One should avoi
d it, to worry too much.
Epicurus meditating.
The inner happiness comes from inner peace. When a person calms down, inner happ
iness appears. Epicurus recommended it to live in inner peace, "Then you live li
ke a God (Buddha) among your unwise fellow men,"[9] which
Philosophy of happiness an Epicurean also helps on the way: "The friendship danc
es around the globe, all of us announcing that we shall awaken to bliss."[10]
30
Happiness in the philosophy of the middle ages
Augustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo (354 430), was Bishop of Hippo Regius (present-day Annaba, Al
geria). He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roma
n Africa Province. His writings were very influential in the development of West
ern Christianity. In the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, he is a sai
nt and pre-eminent Doctor of the Church, and the patron of the Augustinian relig
ious order. Augustine wrote a whole book (the happy life) about human happiness.
The ultimate goal of all human endeavor lies in the happiness. Happiness man ca
n receive but not by satisfaction of goods of this world. Lasting happiness is p
ossible only by living in God. God is the greatest happiness that a man can achi
eve, "for God has created us to him and our heart is restless until it rests in
God."[11]
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, was a Christian theologian and philosopher of t
he late 5th to early 6th century, the author of the Augustine Baptism. Corpus Ar
eopagiticum. He is identified as "Dionysos" in the corpus, which later came to b
e attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite. In the so-called Mystical theology, it
is primarily Dionysius the Areopagite, who deals with the idea of happiness. Ac
cording to him, the human soul longs for God. This yearning can be satisfied onl
y by the mystical union with God. Over the three steps purity (katharsis), enlig
htenment (photismos) and agreed (teleiosis) can one reach the knowledge of God.
"For by this ecstasy, (...) you will, after you have everything removed and deta
ched, brought to the real ray of the divine shadow."[12] "The divine darkness is
the inaccessible light, in which God lives. In it are all who have become worth
y to recognize God."[13] "It is necessary to (... ) go into the darkness, to fin
d the one that is beyond all."[14]
Meister Eckhart
Eckhart von Hochheim, known as Meister Eckhart (c. 1260; c. 1327) was a late med
ieval theologian and philosopher. Meister is German for "Master", referring to t
he academic title Magister in theologia he obtained in Paris. He is an important
link of the Western philosophy with the Eastern religions, because he had an im
personal image of God and tought it to meditate (God can be found in the silence
). "A man should not be content to have an imaginary God. (...) Those who have G
od in being, (...) God shines in all things, all things taste like God, and God
is seen in all things. (...) This needs zeal and devotion and a close attention
to the inside. (...) One has to learn an inner loneliness, whereever one is. (..
.) Surely if you want to master this, you have to practice a lot and often."[15]
For Meister Eckhart meditation is helpful to get a life in God, "Know indeed. S
tanding quite still and as long as possible, this is your very best."[16] At the
same time, it is also important to walk the way of charity, "As Mary sat at
Philosophy of happiness the feet of our Lord , she learned. (...) But later, whe
n Christ had gone to heaven, and she had received the Holy Spirit, (...) she tau
ght and became a servant of the disciples."[17]
31
Happiness in the philosophy of the modern
Michel de Montaigne
Michel de Montaigne (*1533, 1592) was a French politician and philosopher. He is
considered the most important successor of Epicurus. At the age of 38, he moved
back from working life in order to devote himself extensively to philosophy. He
thought thouroughly about himself and his life. Thereby he created his famous Es
sais. Stoic contempt of outward appearances, criticism of the human arrogance an
d natural skepticism of any dogma characterize the Essais. Remarkably modern eve
n to readers today, Montaigne s attempt to examine the world through the lens of
the only thing he can depend on implicitly his own judgment. He wrote, "The enj
oyment of life requires a deliberate handling with it. I enjoy my life twice as
much as the others."[18] "Philosophy makes those who are devoted to her, happy a
nd cheerful."[19] Like Epicurus, the center of the art of life for Montaigne was
to find the right balance. But Montaigne turned to pleasure much more than Epic
urus. Epicurus preferred to live as a single. Montaigne was married. "I think it
s equally wrong to reject the natural desires, as to hang too much on them."[20
]
Arthur Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer (*1788, 1860) was a German philosopher, author and lecturer.
He established a system of empirical and metaphysical pessimism. The world for
him was a "vale of tears, full of suffering. All happiness is an illusion. Life
oscillates like a pendulum, back and forth between the pain and boredom".[21] "E
ach life history is a story of suffering, a continuing series of large and small
accidents."[22] Schopenhauer taught pessimism as a way to happiness. He found i
nspiration in Buddhism. In Buddhism, the outer world can be visualized as a fiel
d of suffering to awaken the enlightenment energy (Kundalini). Grief can dissolv
e inner blockages. Pessimism can sometimes be helpful, but it does not always.
Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham (* 1748 1832) was an English jurist, philosopher Jeremy Bentham,
The greatest happiness for the greatest number. and social reformer. He became a
leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and a political radical w
hose ideas influenced the development of welfarism. He is best known for his adv
ocacy of animal rights, the separation of church and state, freedom of expressio
n and equal rights for women. He is considered the founder of classical utilitar
ianism. The greatest happiness for the greatest number (greatest-happiness-princ
iple) is the guiding principle of Bentham s ethics. An act is therefore morally
right if it is good for many people. For Bentham, the quantity of happiness was
the deciding factor. His student John Stuart Mill represented, that cultural, in
tellectual and spiritual satisfaction also own a qualitative value.
Philosophy of happiness
32
The current philosophy of happiness
Today s philosophy of happiness is strongly influenced by the happiness research
. Happiness research is the quantitative study of happiness, positive and negati
ve affect, well-being, quality of life and life satisfaction. The field has grow
n substantially since the late 20th century. The Greek thinkers are still curren
t, but very important is also the positive thinking in its various forms (see Se
lf-help, Positive The Satisfaction with Life Index. psychology). Well known are
Joseph Murphy, Dale Carnegie, Norman Vincent Peale, Wayne Dyer, Marianne William
son, Oprah Winfrey and the Dalai Lama. They sold many books in the western book
market and some are often seen on TV.
Ludwig Marcuse
An important contemporary book on the philosophy of happiness wrote Ludwig Marcu
se. In it he told humorous stories of many Western philosophers of happiness. He
believed that there are only some moments of happiness in life, but the great p
ermanent happiness does not exist.[23] With this statement he is in opposition t
o many spiritual philosophers (Gautama Buddha, Laozi, Meister Eckhart, Patanjali
). Professor Ludwig Marcuse (18941971), was a German philosopher. From 1940 to 19
50 he lived in Los Angeles.
The ethics of transcendence
Jonathan Haidt is an American psychology professor. He wrote the book The Happin
ess Hypothesis in which he combines ancient philosophical and spiritual knowledg
e with the latest happiness research. His main teaching is the ethics of transce
ndence (living in God). Psychologically, it is shown that a person has in his br
ain an area for experiences of God. The enlightened one is happier than an unenl
ightened. Religion makes you happy, if not lived too dogmatic and intolerantly.
Haidt sees himself as an atheist, who does not believe in God, but advocates for
reasons of inner happiness and health positive spiritual values, "If we rely on
balanced wisdom - old and new, eastern and western, liberal and conservative -
we can choose directions in our life that lead to satisfaction, happiness and a
sense of purpose."[24]
Nozick and the experience machine
One contemporary thought experiment that has direct relevance to the philosophy
of happiness is the experience machine thought experiment that was created by th
e American philosopher Robert Nozick in Anarchy, State, Utopia. The thought expe
riment gives you the option to enter a machine that would give you the maximum a
mount of unending hedonistic pleasure for the rest of your life. But since most
people would prefer not to take this kind of deal if offered shows that hedonist
ic pleasure is not the ultimate goal of human life, and that happiness or "the g
ood life" therefore requires more than maximisation of pleasure.
Philosophy of happiness
33
Positive psychology emphasizes positive values
Sonja Lyubomirsky is one of America s happiness researchers. She is a professor
and wrote the international bestseller The How of Happiness.[25] She wondered wh
at one can do if one want to get a happy life. She accepted that, after the curr
ent state of research about 50 percent of a given human s happiness level is gen
etically determined. About 10% of happiness is affected by external living condi
tions. But 40% of happiness can be influenced by the mind of a person. After Son
ja Lyubomirsky the secret of lasting happiness is that we turn our attention mai
nly to those 40% and constantly maintain our inner happiness. We should exercise
regularly, avoid negative thoughts and encourage positive thoughts, maintain ou
r social relationships and have a positive task in our lives. Many studies demon
strate the positive effects of meditation on our happiness, "Meditate every day.
Begin with five minutes and increase to up to 20 minutes a day."[26] Sonja Lyub
omirsky developed a twelve-point program for personal happiness. The main point
for her is gratitude. We should focus on the positives in our lives and be grate
ful. We should live according to principles such as optimism, joy, helpfulness,
forgiveness, good social relationships, good health care and a positive task if
we want to achieve a happy and fulfilling life.[27]
A happy society
Richard Layard (born 15 March 1934) is a British economist. He was founder-direc
tor in 1990 of the Centre for Economic Performance at the London School of Econo
mics. He argues that people in the West could live happier if they would instead
focus on the growth of the outer wealth concentrate themselves on the growth of
inner happiness. At the moment the unbridled selfishness destroys the growth of
general happiness. People in the West need a new philosophy on the basis of the
happiness research. The goal should be the greatest happiness of all.[28] Richa
rd Layard stated, "Although the people in the West are for decades got richer, t
hey have not become happier. (...) Studies show that people are not happier toda
y than 50 years ago. And this despite the fact that the real median income in th
is period has more than doubled."[29] On the contrary, people are getting richer
externally and internally unhappy. The likelihood of suffering from a clinical
depression is now ten times as large as a century ago.[30] Bhutan is a small lan
dlocked country in South Asia, located at the eastern end of the Himalayas and b
ordered to the south, east and west by the Republic of India and to the north by
the People s Republic of China. Gross national happiness (GNH) is a concept int
roduced by the King of Bhutan in 1972 as an alternative to the Gross domestic pr
oduct. Although the GNH framework reflects its Buddhist origins, it is based upo
n the empirical research of happiness, positive psychology and wellbeing. The ph
ilosophy of happiness of Bhutan rests on four pillars: a healthy environment, a
good economy, a democratic government and the anchoring in a positive religion /
culture.
References
[1] Eva-Maria Kaufmann: Sokrates. Munich 2000, p. 93 (Montaigne), p. 8 (Jaspers)
. [2] Plato, Apologie, Stuttgart 1982, p. 36 [3] Plato, Phaedo, 66a-67d. [4] Pla
to, Apologie, Stuttgart 1982, p. 36 [5] Xenophon, Symposium, iv. 41. [6] Nicomac
hean Ethics Book I. [7] Johannes Mewaldt: Epikur. Philosophie der Freude. Stuttg
art 1973, page 71. [8] Philosophy of Happiness (Wikiversity) [9] Johannes Mewald
t, ibid, page 48. [10] Johannes Mewaldt, ibid, page 70. [11] Augustinus: Confess
iones 1,1 [12] Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, ber mystische Theologie, I.1. [13
] Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, letter V [14] Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite
, About mystical theology, I.3.
Philosophy of happiness
[15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30]
Josef Quint (Hrsg.): Meister Eckehart. Deutsche Predigten und Traktate. Mnchen 19
79, s.60 f. Quint, supra, 435th page Quint, supra, 289th page Josef M. Werle: Ep
ikur fr Zeitgenossen. Munich 2002, 2 Edition, page 107. Josef M. Werle, supra, pa
ge 96. Josef M. Werle , Supra, page 99 Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will an
d Idea. Cologne 1997, Volume One, . 56th. Arthur Schopenhauer, supra, . 59th. Ludw
ig Marcuse, Die Philosophie des Glcks. 1949. Jonathan Haidt, page 315. Sonja Lyub
omirsky, The How of Happiness. 2007. Sonja Lyubomirsky, supra, 257th page. Sonja
Lyubomirsky, ibid, page 103 et seq. Richard Layard, Happiness, Lessons from a N
ew Science, page 142. Richard Layard, Happiness, page 13. Sonja Lyubomirsky, ibi
d, page 49
34
Further reading
Dalai Lama, co-authored with Howard C. Cutler, The Art of Happiness, 2003. Jonat
han Haidt, The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom (htt
p://www. happinesshypothesis.com/), 2005. Richard Layard, Happiness, Lessons fro
m a New Science, 2005. Sonja Lyubomirsky, The How of Happiness: A Scientific App
roach to Getting the Life You Want. 2007. Ludwig Marcuse: Philosophie des Glcks.
Paul List Verlag, Mnchen 1962. Matthieu Ricard, Happiness: A Guide to Developing
Life s Most Important Skill, (2006). (http://www.amazon. com/Happiness-Guide-Dev
eloping-Lifes-Important/dp/0316057835)
External links
Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus (http://www.epicurus.net/en/menoeceus.html) Mystic
al Theology (http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeII/MysticalTheology.html) (Theolo
gica Mystica) by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. Richard Layard, Happiness: has
social science got a clue (PDF) (http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/ download
?doi=10.1.1.167.7018&rep=rep1&type=pdf) Video of Good Morning America interview
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xwOROplhgL0) with Lyubomirsky about The How of H
appiness
Cosmic ordering
35
Cosmic ordering
Cosmic ordering is the name given to a version of positive thinking that was ren
amed by Brbel Mohr of Munich, Germany. She first outlined her own version in her
own magazine called Sonnenwind (Solar Wind), and then expanded these ideas int
o a book called Cosmic Ordering Service - A Guide to Realising Your Dreams . In
the Great Depression of the 1930s Napoleon Hill popularised similar ideas, and
in the 1970s Reverend Ike was widely heard over radio and television stations cl
aiming that "You can t lose with the stuff I use". This "stuff" was mind power b
ased upon similar ideas to those promoted by Hill in his many books, and which M
ohr has recently promoted in Germany. In the United Kingdom disc jockey and TV g
ame show host Noel Edmonds has become the main media promoter of Mohr s work.
History
Mohr believes that a person can simply write down their wish list and wait for i
t to become reality. However, this would appear to be a new name for ideas propo
sed back in 1937 during the Great Depression by Napoleon Hill in his book Think
and Grow Rich which sold into the millions, and which is still widely available.
Hill s ideas were then adopted for Christianity in a most blatant manner by rad
io and television evangelist Reverend Ike, and then by a stream of televangelist
s such as pop singer turned preacher Kenneth Copeland; builder turned preacher B
ob Tilton and even Jim Bakker of the failed PTL television empire. Mohr s idea t
hat individuals can use their desires to "connect with the cosmos" and make thos
e desires become reality is a rewrite of the work by Napoleon Hill and others wh
o have promoted similar ideas before.
Criticism
Cosmic ordering has been criticised as "nonsense" by the Right Reverend Carl Coo
per. He describes it as goal setting dressed up in spiritual language. He also d
istinguishes cosmic ordering from intercessory prayer, noting that prayer is not
"divine room service".[1]
Noel Edmonds
It would appear that TV show host and disc jockey Noel Edmonds has also jumped o
n this bandwagon.[2] Edmonds was first introduced to the book The Cosmic Ordering
Service - A Guide to Realising Your Dreams by his reflexologist. He had not work
ed on TV since the end of his BBC TV show Noel s House Party in 1999. One of his w
ishes was for a new challenge. Later he was offered the chance to return to TV t
o work on Deal or No Deal.[3] He claims to have written down a wish list of thin
gs that he wanted to come true, and then waited for the cosmos to make it happ
en.[3]
Academia
Cosmic ordering has recently been put forward as a solution to women s inequalit
y in academia. Proponents advocate asking the cosmos for a promotion to help equ
al the playing field with men.[4] Opponents of the concept described the approac
h as "scandalous" and that "It sounds like an opiate to dull the pain of reality
and I can t see the point. The university might as well give women cannabis to
dull their senses."[4] [5] The idea is connected to the New Age movement and oth
er concepts such as the Law of Attraction.
Cosmic ordering
36
Notes
[1] http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/ uk/ this-britain/ no-deal-cosmic-or
dering-is-nonsense-says-bishop-474077. html [2] Need a lover or a house? Call on
the cosmos (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ health/ main. jhtml?xml=/ health/
2006/ 04/ 04/ hcosmos04. xml& sSheet=/ health/ 2006/ 04/ 04/ ixhmain. html) The
Daily Telegraph April 4th 2006. [3] DEAR COSMOS, CAN I HAVE A HIT SHOW? (http:/
/ www. dailyrecord. co. uk/ news/ tm_objectid=16895144& method=full& siteid=6663
3& headline=dear-cosmos--can-i-have-a-hit-show---name_page. html) Daily Record,
April 3rd 2006. [4] Cosmic ordering cure for campus sex war (http:/ / www. tel
egraph. co. uk/ news/ main. jhtml?xml=/ news/ 2007/ 04/ 28/ newage28. xml) The D
aily Telegraph April 28th 2007 [5] South Bank head defends cosmic ordering wor
kshop (http:/ / education. guardian. co. uk/ higher/ news/ story/ 0,,2067217,00.
html), Educational Guardian April 27th, 2007
References
Feeling the force of the cosmic bang (http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/features/
leader/display.var. 868027.0.feeling_the_force_of_the_cosmic_bang.php), The Nort
hern Echo, 2006-08-08. The Cosmic Ordering Service - A guide to realising your d
reams. Barbel Mohr. ISBN 1-57174-272-7. The Ultimate Guide to Cosmic Ordering -
Empower your destiny: Take control of your life. Andronicos Andronicou. ISBN 0-9
554-6690-3. Cosmic Ordering Guide:Where Dreams Can Become Reality. Stephen Richa
rds. ISBN 1-902578-24-4.
Optimism
"Positive thinking" redirects here. For songs of that title, see Positive Thinki
ng. The Oxford English Dictionary defines optimism as having "hopefulness and co
nfidence about the future or successful outcome of something; a tendency to take
a favourable or hopeful view." The word is originally derived from the Latin op
timum, meaning "best." Being optimistic, in the typical sense of the word, ultim
ately means one expects the best possible outcome from any given situation. This
is usually referred to in psychology as dispositional optimism. Researchers som
etimes operationalize the term differently depending on their research, however.
For example, Martin Seligman and his fellow researchers define it in terms of e
xplanatory style, which is based on the way one explains life events. As for any
trait characteristic, there are several ways to evaluate optimism, such as vari
ous forms of the Life Orientation Test, for the original definition of optimism,
or the Attributional Style Questionnaire designed to test optimism in terms of
explanatory style. While the heritability of "Is the glass half empty or half fu
ll?". The optimist would choose half full, while the optimism is largely debatab
le, most researchers agree that it seems to pessimist would pick half empty. be
a biological trait to some small degree, but it is also thought that optimism ha
s more to do with environmental factors, making it a largely learned trait.[1] I
t has also been suggested that optimism could appear to be a hereditary trait be
cause it is actually a manifestation of combined traits that are mostly heritabl
e, like intelligence and temperament.[2] Optimism may also be linked to health.
Optimism
37
Explanatory style
Explanatory style is different, though related to, the more traditional, narrowe
r definition of optimism. This broader concept is based on the theory that optim
ism and pessimism are drawn from the particular way people explain events. There
are three dimensions within typical explanations, which include internal versus
external, stable versus unstable, and global versus specific. Optimistic justif
ications toward negative experiences are attributed to factors outside the self
(external), are not likely to occur consistently (unstable), and are limited spe
cific life domains (specific). Positive experiences would be optimistically labe
led as the opposite: internal, stable, global.[3] There is much debate about the
relationship between explanatory style and optimism. Some researchers argue tha
t there is not much difference at all; optimism is just the lay term for what sc
ientists call explanatory style.[4] Others argue that explanatory style is exclu
sive to its concept and should not be interchangeable with optimism.[5] [6] It i
s generally thought that, though they should not be used interchangeably, dispos
itional optimism and explanatory style are at least marginally related. Ultimate
ly, the problem is simply that more research must be done to either define a "br
idge" or further differentiate between these concepts.[7]
Philosophy
Philosophers often link the concept of optimism with the name of Gottfried Wilhe
lm Leibniz, who held that we live in the best of all possible worlds, or that Go
d created a physical universe that applies the laws of physics, which Voltaire f
amously mocked in his satirical novel Candide. A modern manifestation of this ap
proach is exemplified in artist Rina Krevat through her abstract art and tenor s
inging. The philosophical pessimism of William Godwin demonstrated perhaps even
more optimism than Leibniz. He hoped that society would eventually reach the sta
te where calm reason would replace all violence and force, that mind could event
ually make matter subservient to it, and that intelligence could discover the se
cret of immortality. Much of this philosophy is exemplified in the Houyhnhnms of
Jonathan Swift s Gulliver s Travels.
Panglossianism
The term "panglossianism" describes baseless optimism of the sort exemplified by
the beliefs of Pangloss from Voltaire s Candide, which are the opposite of his
fellow traveller Martin s pessimism and emphasis on free will. The phrase "pangl
ossian pessimism" has been used to describe the pessimistic position that, since
this is the best of all possible worlds, it is impossible for anything to get a
ny better. The panglossian paradigm is a term coined by Stephen Jay Gould and Ri
chard Lewontin to refer to the notion that everything has specifically adapted t
o suit specific purposes. Instead, they argue, accidents and exaptation (the use
of old features for new purposes) play an important role in the process of evol
ution. Some other scientists however argue the implication that many (or most) a
daptionists are panglossians is a straw man. Why People Believe Weird Things: Ps
eudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time Michael Shermer rela
tes Frank J. Tipler to Voltaire s character Pangloss to show how clever people d
eceive themselves. Shermer explores the psychology of scholars and business men
who give up their careers in their pursuit to broadcast their paranormal beliefs
. In his last chapter, added to the revised version, Shermer explains that "smar
t people" can be more susceptible to believing in weird things.
Optimism
38
Assessment
Life Orientation Test (LOT) Designed by Scheier and Carver (1985), this is one o
f the more popular tests of optimism and pessimism. There are eight measurements
(and an additional four filler items), with four positively ("In uncertain time
s, I usually expect the best") and four negatively ("If something can go wrong f
or me, it will") worded items.[8] The LOT has been revised twice--once by the or
iginal creators (LOT-R) and also by Chang, Maydeu-Olivares, and D Zurilla as the
Extended Life Orientation Test (ELOT). All three are most commonly used because
they are based on dispositional optimism, which simply means expecting positive
outcomes.[9] Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) This questionnaire created
by Peterson et al. (1982) is based on the explanatory style definition of optim
ism. It lists six positive and negative events ("you have been looking for a job
unsuccessfully for some time"), and asks the respondents to record a possible c
ause for the event and rate the internality, stability, and globality of the eve
nt.[10] An optimistic person is one who perceives good things happening to them
as internal, stable, and global. There are several modified versions of the ASQ
including the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire (EASQ), the Content Ana
lysis of Verbatim Explanations (CAVE), and the ASQ designed for testing the opti
mism for children.[9]
Health
A multitude of research has emerged showing the intense relationships between se
veral psychological constructs and health. Optimism is certainly one of these co
ncepts, with correlation coefficients between .20 and .30.[11] This research has
shown that optimism can correlate with good health at many stages, including pr
eventative health (making it less likely to experience illness), severity and du
ration of illness, and reduction of relapse chances. However, Affleck, Tennen, a
nd Apter (2001) studied optimism and health in terms of physical symptoms, copin
g strategies and negative affect for those suffering from rheumatoid arthritis,
asthma, and fibromyalgia. They found that optimists were not more likely than pe
ssimists to report pain alleviation due to their coping strategies, though they
did find significance in the psychological well-being of the two groups.[12] A m
eta-analysis by Scheier, Carver and Bridges confirms the assumption that optimis
m is related to psychological well-being: Put simply, optimists emerge from diffi
cult circumstances with less distress than do pessimists.[13] Furthermore, the co
rrelation appears to be attributable to coping style: That is, optimists seem int
ent on facing problems head-on, taking active and constructive steps to solve th
eir problems; pessimists are more likely to abandon their effort to attain their
goals.[13] Researchers have stated that optimism may help prevent depression in
teenagers.[14]
References
[1] Susan C. Vaughan. Half Empty, Half Full: Understanding the Psychological Roo
ts of Optimism. New York: Harcourt, Inc., 2000. [2] P. Schulman, D. Keith, M. Se
ligman "Is Optimism Heritable? A Study of Twins." Behavior Research and Therapy.
31.6 (1993): 56974. [3] J.Gillham, A. Shatt, K Reivich, M. Seligman. "Optimism, P
essimism, And Explanatory Style." Optimism & Pessimism: Implications for Theory,
Research, and Practice. Ed. E. Chang. Washington, DC: American Psychological As
sociation, 2001. 53-75 [4] C. Peterson "The Future of Optimism." American Psycho
logist. 55:1 (2000): 44-55. [5] L. Abramson, B. Dykman, D. Needles. "Attribution
al Style and Theory: Let No One Tear Them Asunder." Psychological Inquiry. 2.1 (
1991): 11-13 [6] H. Zullow. "Explanations and Expectations: Understanding the "D
oing" Side of Optimism. "Psychological Inquiry. 2.1 (1991): 45-49. [7] Gillham,
A. Shatt, K Reivich, M. Seligman. "Optimism, Pessimism, And Explanatory Style." O
ptimism & Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice. Ed. E. Cha
ng. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001. 53-75 [8] M. Schei
er, C. Carver. "Optimism, Coping, and Health: Assessment and Implications of Gen
eralized Outcome Expectancies." Health Psychology. 4 (1985): 219-247. [9] J. Gil
lham, A. Shatt, K Reivich, M. Seligman. "Optimism, Pessimism, And Explanatory Sty
le." Optimism & Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice. Ed.
E. Chang. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001. 53-75.
Optimism
[10] C. Peterson, A. Semmel, D. Von Baeyer, L. Abramson, G. Metalsky, M. Seligma
n. "The Attributional Style Questionnaire." Cognitive Therapy and Research. 6 (1
982): 287-299. [11] C. Peterson, L. Bossio. "Optimism and Physical Wellbeing." O
ptimism & Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice. Ed. E. Cha
ng. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001: 127-145. [12] G. A
ffleck, H Tennen, A. Apter. "Optimism, Pessimism, and Daily Life With Chronic Il
lness. Optimism & Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice. Ed
. E. Chang. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001: 147-168. [
13] M. Scheier, C. Carver, M. Bridges. "Optimism, Pessimism, and Psychological W
ell-Being." Optimism & Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practic
e. Ed. E. Chang. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001: 189-2
16. [14] http:/ / health. usnews. com/ health-news/ blogs/ on-parenting/ 2011/ 0
1/ 13/ optimism-protects-teens-from-depression-health-risks
39
Intuition (knowledge)
Intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge without inference or the use of re
ason.[1] "The word intuition comes from the Latin word intueri , which is oft
en roughly translated as meaning to look inside or to contemplate ."[2] Intuit
ion provides us with beliefs that we cannot necessarily justify. For this reason
, it has been the subject of study in psychology, as well as a topic of interest
in the supernatural. The "right brain" is popularly associated with intuitive p
rocesses such as aesthetic abilities.[3] [4] [5] Some scientists have contended
that intuition is associated with innovation in scientific discovery.[6] Intuiti
on is also a common subject of New Age writings.[7]
In psychology and personality assessment
In Carl Jung s theory of the ego, described in 1921 in Psychological Types, intu
ition was an "irrational function", opposed most directly by sensation, and oppo
sed less strongly by the "rational functions" of thinking and feeling. Jung defi
ned intuition as "perception via the unconscious": using sense-perception only a
s a starting point, to bring forth ideas, images, possibilities, ways out of a b
locked situation, by a process that is mostly unconscious. Jung said that a pers
on in whom intuition was dominant, an "intuitive type", acted not on the basis o
f rational judgment but on sheer intensity of perception. An extraverted intuiti
ve type, "the natural champion of all minorities with a future", orients to new
and promising but unproven possibilities, often leaving to chase after a new pos
sibility before old ventures have borne fruit, oblivious to his or her own welfa
re in the constant pursuit of change. An introverted intuitive type orients by i
mages from the unconscious, ever exploring the psychic world of the archetypes,
seeking to perceive the meaning of events, but often having no interest in playi
ng a role in those events and not seeing any connection between the contents of
the psychic world and him- or herself. Jung thought that extraverted intuitive t
ypes were likely entrepreneurs, speculators, cultural revolutionaries, often und
one by a desire to escape every situation before it becomes settled and constrai
ningeven repeatedly leaving lovers for the sake of new romantic possibilities. Hi
s introverted intuitive types were likely mystics, prophets, or cranks, struggli
ng with a tension between protecting their visions from influence by others and
making their ideas comprehensible and reasonably persuasive to othersa necessity
for those visions to bear real fruit.[8] The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI),
first published in 1944, attempted to provide an empirical method of identifyin
g a person s dominant ego function, in terms of Carl Jung s theory. Tabulations
of MBTI results showed that about one fourth of the United States population fav
or intuition over sensing. Such people are highly overrepresented in some career
s: for example, about 60% of college professors, and two thirds of psychological
counselors, favor intuition.[9] Whether an intuitive ego function really exists
, or MBTI results really tell whether a person s dominant function is intuition,
is highly doubtful, and is rejected by most contemporary psychological research
. Even so, the MBTI is still widely used in career and marital counseling. In mo
re-recent psychology, intuition can encompass the ability to know valid solution
s to problems and decision making. For example, the recognition primed decision
(RPD) model explains how people can make relatively fast decisions without havin
g to compare options. Gary Klein found that under time pressure, high stakes, an
d changing parameters, experts used their base of experience to identify similar
situations and intuitively choose feasible
Intuition (knowledge) solutions. Thus, the RPD model is a blend of intuition and
analysis. The intuition is the pattern-matching process that quickly suggests f
easible courses of action. The analysis is the mental simulation, a conscious an
d deliberate review of the courses of action.[10] According to the renowned neur
opsychologist and neurobiologist Roger Wolcott Sperry though, intuition is a rig
ht-brain activity while factual and mathematical analysis is a left-brain activi
ty.[11] The reliability of one s intuition depends greatly on past knowledge and
occurrences in a specific area. For example, someone who has had more experienc
es with children will tend to have a better instinct or intuition about what the
y should do in certain situations with them. This is not to say that one with a
great amount of experience is always going to have an accurate intuition (becaus
e some can be biased); however, the chances of it being more reliable are defini
tely amplified.[12] It has been asserted that Jung s analytical psychological th
eory of synchronicity is equal to intellectual intuition.[13]
40
Intuition and spirituality
Intuition is commonly discussed in writings of spiritual thought. Contextually,
there is often an idea of a transcendent and more qualitative mind of one s spir
it towards which a person strives, or towards which consciousness evolves. Typic
ally, intuition is regarded as a conscious commonality between earthly knowledge
and the higher spiritual knowledge[14] and appears as flashes of illumination.[
15] It is asserted that by definition intuition cannot be judged by logical reas
oning.[16] Thomas Merton discussed variations of intuition in a series of essays
. In describing aesthetic intuition he asserted that the artist has a subjective
identification with an object that is both heightened and intensified and there
by "sees" the object s spiritual reality.[17] In discussing Zen meditation he as
serted that a direct intuition is derived through a "struggle against conceptual
knowledge." An end result is "the existent knows existence, or isness, while
completely losing sight of itself as a knowing subject. "[18] Rudolf Steiner po
stulated that intuition is the third of three stages of higher knowledge, coming
after imagination and inspiration, and is characterized by a state of immediate
and complete experience of, or even union with, the object of knowledge without
loss of the subject s individual ego.[19] The high value of intuition in the Su
fi schemata is related by El Sayeed Idries Shah el-Hashimi el-Naqshbandi, Grand
Sheikh of the Dervish Orders.[20]
Empathic accuracy
Empathic accuracy is a term in psychology that refers to how accurately one pers
on (usually designated the perceiver) can infer the thoughts and feelings of ano
ther person (usually designated the target). It was first introduced in conjunct
ion with a new research method by psychologists William Ickes and William Tooke
in 1988.[21] It is similar to the term accurate empathy, which psychologist Carl
Rogers had previously introduced in 1957.[22] Empathic accuracy is an important
aspect of what William Ickes has called "everyday mind reading."[23] Contrary t
o popular understanding women do not seem to possess empathic abilities that men
do not have. However research by William Ickes has shown that women are suscept
ible to stereotypes, and try harder in situations where they would expect to do
better. In situations where they are unaware that this is expected, no improved
performance is found.
Intuition (knowledge)
41
Studies and claims
Dismissing the notion that intuitive impulses arise supernaturally, one is left
to assume they originate with the five innate human senses. Remnants of percepti
on, such as a movement occurring out of the "corner of your eye" or subtle sound
that would normally be ignored as background noise, could occur simultaneously.
While these events could be filtered as irrelevant by the mind, their coinciden
tal synchronicity could lead to a sudden assumptions about one s surroundings, s
uch as the feeling of being watched or followed. Intuitive abilities were quanti
tatively tested at Yale University in the 1970s. While studying nonverbal commun
ication, researchers noted that some subjects were able to read nonverbal facial
cues before reinforcement occurred.[24] In employing a similar design, they not
ed that highly intuitive subjects made decisions quickly but could not identify
their rationale. Their level of accuracy, however, did not differ from that of n
onintuitive subjects.[25] Law enforcement officers often claim to observe suspec
ts and immediately "know" that they possess a weapon or illicit narcotic substan
ces. Often unable to articulate why they reacted or what prompted them at the ti
me of the event, they sometimes retrospectively can plot their actions based upo
n what had been clear and present danger signals. Such examples liken intuition
to "gut feelings" and when viable illustrate preconscious activity.[26]
Various definitions
Intuition is a combination of historical (empirical) data, deep and heightened o
bservation and an ability to cut through the thickness of surface reality. Intui
tion is like a slow motion machine that captures data instantaneously and hits y
ou like a ton of bricks. Intuition is a knowing, a sensing that is beyond the co
nscious understanding a gut feeling. Intuition is not pseudo-science. Abella Art
hur Intuition (is) perception via the unconscious Carl Gustav Jung INTUITION may
be defined as understanding or knowing without conscious recourse to thought, o
bservation or reason. Some see this unmediated process as somehow mystical while
others describe intuition as being a response to unconscious cues or implicitly
apprehended prior learning. Dr. Jason Gallate & Ms Shannan Keen BA[27]
Honor
Intuition Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is
named in appreciation of the role of scientific intuition for the advancement o
f human knowledge.[28]
Notes and references
[1] Oxford English Dictionary [2] Carlin Flora. "Gut Almighty". Psychology Today
. Vol 40. Issue 3:68-75,2007. [3] Converting Words into Pictures--Reading Compre
hension Guide--Academic Support (http:/ / academic. cuesta. edu/ acasupp/ AS/ 31
2. HTM). [4] Left/Right Processing. (http:/ / frank. mtsu. edu/ ~studskl/ hd/ LR
Brain. html) [5] Right-Brain Hemisphere. (http:/ / psychology. jrank. org/ pages
/ 545/ Right-Brain-Hemisphere. html) [6] Gerald Holton, Yehuda Elkana. Albert Ei
nstien: Historical and Cultural Perspectives, Dover Publications, July 1997, p.
97. ISBN 0486298795 "The workings of intuition transcend those of the intellect,
and as is well known, innovation is often a triumph of intuition over logic." [
7] Peter Steinfels Beliefs (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1996/ 07/ 13/ us/ belief
s-080624. html) The New York Times, July 13, 1996. [8] C.G. Jung. Psychological
Types. Bollingen Series XX, Volume 6, Princeton University Press, 1971. [9] Mary
H. McCaulley and Charles R. Martin. " Career Assessment and the MBTI (http:/ /
jca. sagepub. com/ content/ 3/ 2/ 219)", Journal of Career Assessment 1995 3:219
DOI: 10.1177/106907279500300208.
Intuition (knowledge)
[10] Klein, Gary. Intuition At Work. Random House, NY, NY. January, 2003. [11] A
llen Chuck Ross, "Brain Hemispheric Functions and the Native American," Journal
of American Indian Education, August 1989. (http:/ / jaie. asu. edu/ sp/ V21S3br
a. htm) [12] Eugene Sadler-Smith. Inside Intuition. 2008. [13] Bishop, Paul (200
0). Synchronicity and Intellectual Intuition in Kant, Swedenborg, and Jung. The
Edwin Mellen Press. pp.1720. ISBN0773475931. [14] Sri Aurobindo, The Life Divine, S
ri Aurobindo Publication Department, 1970, p.65. ISBN 81-7058-187-7. [15] Alice
A. Bailey, The Light of the Soul, Lucis Publishing Company, 1927, p. 317. ISBN B
000XPMTB0. [16] Sri Aurobindo, The Life Divine, Sri Aurobindo Publication Depart
ment, 1970, p. 69. ISBN 81-7058-187-7. [17] Thomas Merton The Literary Essays of
Thomas Merton, New Directions Publishing, March 1985, pp. 341, 348. ISBN 081120
9318. [18] Thomas Merton, The Literary Essays of Thomas Merton, New Directions P
ublishing, March 1985, p. 364. ISBN 0811209318. [19] Lorenzo Ravagli, Zanders Er
zhlungen, Berliner Wissenschafts-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-8305-1613, pp. 680ff. [20] Id
ries Shah, Thinkers of the East, pp. 191 et seq, ISBN 0 224 61912 8 c/r 1971. [2
1] Ickes, W., & Tooke, W. (1988). The observational method: Studying the interac
tions of minds and bodies. In S. Duck, D.F. Hay, S.E. Hobfoll, W. Ickes, & B. Mo
ntgomery (Eds.), Handbook of personal relationships: Theory, research, and inter
ventions (pp. 79-97). Chichester: Wiley. [22] Rogers, C. R. (1957). The necessar
y and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Consul
ting Psychology, 21, 95103. [23] Ickes, W. (2003). Everyday mind reading: Underst
anding what other people think and feel. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. [24] AJ
Giannini, J Daood,MC Giannini, R Boniface, PG Rhodes. Intellect versus intuition
--dichotomy in the reception of nonverbal communication.Journal of General Psych
ology. 99:19-24,1978. [25] AJ Giannini, ME Barringer, MC Giannini, RH Loiselle.
Lack of relationship between handedness and intuitive and intellectual (rational
istic) modes of information processing. Journal of General Psychology. 111:31-37
1984. [26] Anthony J. Pinizzotto, PhD, Edward F. Davis, MA, and Charles E. Mill
er III Emotional/rational decision making in law enforcement (http:/ / www. thef
reelibrary. com/ Emotional/ rational+ decision+ making+ in+ law+ enforcement-a01
14370262) (Federal Bureau of Investigation), Free Online Library, 2004. [27] Enc
yclopedia of Creativity, 2nd Edition. [28] Intuition Peak. (http:/ / data. aad.
gov. au/ aadc/ gaz/ scar/ display_name. cfm?gaz_id=134566) SCAR Composite Gazett
eer of Antarctica.
42
Further reading
Chopra, Deepak, and Judith Orloff. The Power of Intuition. Hay House, 2005. (Aud
io) ISBN 978-1401906221 Davis, Elizabeth. Women s Intuition. Celestial Arts, 198
9. ISBN 978-0890875728 Mayer, Elizabeth Lloyd. Extraordinary Knowing: Science, S
kepticism, and the Inexplicable Powers of the Human Mind. Bantam, 2008. ISBN 978
-0553382235 McTaggart, Lynn. The Intention Experiment. Free Press, 2008. ISBN 97
8-0743276962 Schulz, Mona Lisa, and Christriane Northrup. Awakening Intuition. T
hree Rivers Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0-609-80424-7 Sheldrake, Rupert. Dogs That Kno
w When Their Owners Are Coming Home: And Other Unexplained Powers of Animals. Th
ree Rivers Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0609805336 Sheldrake, Rupert. The Sense of Bein
g Stared At: And Other Aspects of the Extended Mind. Crown, 2003. ISBN 978-06096
08074 Sheldrake, Rupert. Seven Experiments That Could Change the World: A Do-It-
Yourself Guide to Revolutionary Science. Park Street Press, 2002. ISBN 978-08928
19898 Wilde, Stuart Intuition. Hay House, 1996. (Audio) ISBN 978-1401906740 Wild
e, Stuart. The Sixth Sense: Including the Secrets of the Etheric Subtle Body. Ha
y House, 2000. ISBN 978-1561705016 Levin, Michal. Spiritual Intelligence: Awaken
ing the Power of Your Spirituality and Intuition. Hodder & Stoughton, 2000. ISBN
978-0340733943 Doc Childre and Howard Martin. The HEARTMATH Solution. HarperSan
Francisco, 1999. ISBN 978-0062516060 Hoeflich, Christine. What Everyone Believed
: A Memoir of Intuition and Awakening. Between Worlds Publishing, 2008. ISBN 978
-0979658907
Intuition (knowledge)
43
External links
Nobel prize winner Daniel Kahneman on Intuition (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_pri
zes/economics/laureates/ 2002/kahnemann-lecture.pdf) A scientific research group
on intuition (http://www.intuition-sciences.com/) Ask Philosophers: Question on
Intuition and Rationality (http://www.amherst.edu/askphilosophers/question/ 153
3)
Article Sources and Contributors
44
Article Sources and Contributors
Law of Attraction Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=438099088 Cont
ributors: 2over0, A Train, A maleh, A.Z., ABF, Ababy069, Aboutmovies, Aeternus,
Agent 86, Agwheeler, Ahnalira, Akg96, Akirwan, Alansohn, AleXd, AlexTornado, All
Is One, Alyanm, Amalas, Annel1727, Anomalocaris, Aoratos, Apepper, Arion 3x3, A
ronoel, Art LaPella, Arthur Rubin, AscendingParadigms, Aschwa5, Ashawee244, Avra
ham, AwenStormFool, AySz88, Azhagiya Tamilmagan, BabyNuke, Banno, BarbaraHamaker
, Beetstra, Bendzh, Bestlife, Bhimaji, Biruitorul, Blueboy96, Bluemarketing, Bme
lloh, Bobo192, Boffob, Borhan0, Breathing Prosperity, Brent lidstone, Brianga, B
rokenSphere, Brownout9999, Buddha379, Businessviking, C. Raleigh, CVBPW, CWY2190
, Calltech, Carlotheman, Caroline Zaremba, Caseyallen0, Cashew, Catgut, Catherin
eyronwode, Celia.periza, Cevdetcanver, ChampDog, Charlesriver, Charminglazar, Ch
ips, Chris the speller, ChrisCork, ChrisdEntremont, CiudadanoGlobal, Cjboertjens
, Closenplay, Coelacan, Compq, Conti, Coredesat, Cosmic Latte, Crohnie, Csferrar
o, Ctbolt, Curious1i, Cynthia Sue Larson, Cywei99, DCDuring, DMacks, Dac82, Danl
ock8, Dave1185, David Peter Smith, Deftera, Dekisugi, Delirium, Dhammapal, Disco
spinster, Diza, Dmherenow, Doctorkellogs, Dppowell, Dr funnybone, Dragonnas, Drc
hevere, DrewK2525, Dwadrum, Dwayne, Dysepsion, Dzainah, EMPE, Eaglizard, Eep, Ehr
yck, El C, Elen of the Roads, Emerson7, EnergeticSol, Epistemalia, Eridani, Esna
, Euphrosyne, Ewlyahoocom, Ex3oP, Excirial, F41rg4m3r, Felix Adrigan, Filelakesh
oe, Flamingswordoflovingkindness, Flex, FloridaFox, Floridasand, Francisco Tevez
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
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: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: By Eleanor Silvers; Edited by Zo
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