CHAPTER 6

Pressure (Welded) Vessel Design

Pressure Vessel is a closed vessel having an internal pressure between 15 psig to 3000 psig
(Perry and Green, 1997). Whereas, atmospheric and low pressure tanks are designed to operate at
pressures between atmospheric to 0.5 psig, and, 0.5 to 15 psig respectively (Kohan, 1987). The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code contains rules for
the design, fabrication and inspection of boilers and pressure vessels. ASME Code is acceptable in
most of the States in the US and all Canadian provinces. Section VIII Division I of ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code deals specifically with pressure vessels. Most pressure vessels used in the
process industry in the US are designed in accordance with the specification of this section.

Pressure vessels may include reflux drum, storage tanks, heat exchangers, chemical reactors,
distillation columns, absorption tower, stripping columns and many more.

SHELL THICKNESS

In general, the minimum wall thickness of welded metal plates subject to pressure, excluding
corrosion allowances, should not be less than 2.4 mm (Peters et al., 2004).

To provide for the vessel sufficient rigidity especially at low pressures, the minimum wall
thickness at different cylindrical shell diameters should be (Seider, 2004).

Vessel inside diameter (ft) Minimum wall thickness (inch)

Up to 4
4-6 5/16
6-8 3/8
8-10 7/16
10-12 1/2

In practical designation, the shell is considered thin if the ratio of circumferential radius of
curvature to wall thickness is greater than 10. Many pressure vessels are relatively thin, having
radius of thickness ratio between 10 to 500 (Bhaduri, 1984).

Shell Thickness Working Equations

The needed Shell thickness of pressure vessels is a function of the ultimate tensile strength
of the metal at operating temperature, operating pressure, vessel diameter and welding joint
efficiency (Peters et al, 2004). In the recent American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Code
(VIII-I), the working equation for the determination of shell thickness of cylinder subjected to
internal pressure based on inside diameter is given as:

PR
tp C eq 6-1
SE 0.6 P
 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 2

where
tp = shell thickness required (inch) [m]
P = Internal gauge pressure (psig) [kN/m2]
R = Inside Radius (inch) [m]
S = Allowable stress (psi) [kN/m2]
E = Joint efficiency factor (Table 6-4)
C = Corrosion allowance (inch) [m]
Provided that
R
1. tp less than or equal to and
2
2. Pressure is less than or equal to 0.385 SE (Jawad and Farr, 1988).

Alternative ASME equation based on outside diameter of a cylindrical shell is given as:

PR
tp C eq 6-2
SE 0.4 P
ASME Pressure Vessel Code formula excludes corrosion, wind and earthquake allowances
(Mulet, 1981) as cited by (Seider, 2004). The recommended wall thickness, tv, requirement of vertical
pressure vessel or tower incorporating wind load based on wind velocity of 140 miles/hr, which is
substantially sufficient to handle additional earthquake load is,

tv = tp [ 0.75 + 0.22 E ( L/Di)2/Pd } eq 6-3

The above equation is applicable for 10 > ( L/Di)2/ Pd > 1.34

If the ratio is less than 1.34, then tv = tp

Table 6-1. Design equations and data for pressure vessels based on the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel/Code. Adapted from ASME as cited by Peters et al., 2004.
Recommended design equations for vessels
Under internal pressure Limiting conditions

For cylindrical shells

Pri
t Cc
SE J - 0.6P ri
t
2
1/2
SE J P or P 0.385SE J
t ri ri Cc
SE J P

For spherical shells

ri
t
Pri 2
t Cc
SE J - 0.2P or P 0.385SE J
1/3
2SE J 2P
t ri ri Cc
2SE J P
 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 3

t 0.356ri
For ellipsoidal head
or P 0.665SE J
PD a
t Cc
2SE J - 0.2P
0.5 (minor axis) 0 = 0.25Da
For torispherical (spherically dished) head

0.885 PL a
t Cc
SE J - 0.1P r = knuckle radius = 6% of inside crown
radius and is not less than 3t
For hemispherical head
Same as for spherical shells with ri = La
***Nomenclature for Table 6-1
a = 2 for thickness <0.0254 m and 3 for thickness 0.0254 m
Cc = allowance for corrosion, m
Da = major axis of an ellipsoidal head, before corrosion allowance is added, m
EJ = efficiency of joints expressed as a fraction
IDD = inside depth of dish, m
La = inside radius of hemispherical head or inside crown radius of torispherical head, before corrosion allowance is added,
m
n = 1.2 for D 1.55m, 1.21 for D = 1.55-2.0 m, 1.22 for D = 2.0-2.7 m, and 1.23 for D > 2.7 m
OD = outside diameter, m
P = maximum allowable internal pressure, kPa (gauge)
r = knuckle radius, m
ri = inside radius of shell, before corrosion allowance is added, m
S = maximum allowable working stress, kPa
3
t = minimum wall thickness, m = density of metal, kg/m
+
See the latest ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for further details.

Shell Wall thickness for vacuum vessels may be calculated (Kalis, 1986) with this equation

2
T
2.6 e Em
Do
Pc 0.5 eq 6-4
Te T
0.45 e
Do Do

where
Pc = Collapsing pressure (psi)
Te = Thickness to withstand external pressure (inch)
Do = Outside diameter (inch)
Em = Materials modulus of elasticity

Te must be high enough so that Pc is five times greater than the difference between
atmospheric pressure and design vacuum pressure
 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 4

Mulet et al , 1981, as cited by Seider, 2004, presented an alternative equation for the
calculation of cylindrical wall thickness at vacuum, tE,

tE = 1.3 ( PdL/EMDo ) 4 eq 6-5

a correction factor is added ,tEC

tEC = L ( 0.18Di-2.2 ) x 10 -5- 0.19 eq 6-6

Thus, the wall thickness of vessels at vacuum incorporating wind and earthquake loads is,

tV = tE + tEC eq 6-7

tp = wall thickness (for internal pressure)

Di = inside diameter
L = cylindrical shell length
Pd = internal design gauge pressure
lb
S = maximum allowable stress
in 2
E = fractional weld efficiency
Po = operating gauge pressure
tv = wall thickness of vessels or tower incorporating wind and earthquake loads
tE = wall thickness of vessel or tower @ vacuum
tEC = correction added to tE, , (tV = tE + tEC)

To include corrosion allowance, tc, Seider (2004) recommended 1/8 inch for noncorrosive
conditions. Backhurst and Harker (1973) recommended 1/8 up to 3/16 corrosion allowance for
noncorrosive and for corrosive environments.

ts = tV + tc eq 6-8

where

ts = cylindrical wall thickness incorporating wind, earthquake and corrosion allowances.

For Spherical Shell, ASME code as cited by Kohan (1987) provide for equation to calculate the
maximum allowable internal working pressure.

SEt p
P eq 6-9
R 0.2t p

where
P = internal working gauge pressure (psig)
R = Inside Radius (inch)
tp = Minimum required thickness (inch)
E = Lowest joint efficiency
S = Max allowable stress (psi)
 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 5

Material of Construction

In a noncorrosive environment, carbon steel and low alloy steel are commonly used
material of construction for pressure vessel at low temperature (-20 to 650oF) and high temperature
(650 900oF) respectively. Carbon steel, SA 285 grade C has a maximum allowable stress of 13,750
psi, while a low alloy steel, SA 387B has a maximum allowable stress of 15, 00 psi (Seider, 2004).
Stainless steel 304 and 316 also known materials for pressure vessel (Peters et al., 2004). Stainless
steel 300 series could even be used up to 1,500oF (Perry and Green, 1997). Maximum allowable
stress varies from material to material and design temperatures. Tables 6-2 and 6-3 show
maximum allowable stress of different pressure vessel materials. Table 6-4 shows modulus of
elasticity for carbon steel and low allow steel at different temperature (Seider, 2004).

Table 6-2. Recommended stress values. Adapted from ASME as cited by Peters et. al., 2004.
Recommended stress values
Metal Temp., C S, kPa
Joint efficiencies

For double-welded butt joints Carbon steel -29 to 343 94,500

If fully radiographed = 1.0 (SA-285, Gr. C) 399 82,700
If spot-examined = 0.85 454 57,200
If not radiographed = 0.70

In general, for spot examined Low-alloy steel -29 to 427 94,500

If electric resistance weld = 0.85 for resistance to 510 75,800
If lap-welded = 0.80 H2 and H2S 565 34,500
If single-butt-welded = 0.60 (SA-387, Gr. 12C1.1) 649 6,900

High-tensile steel -29 to 399 137,900

for heavy-wall 454 115,800
vessels 510 69,000
(SA-302, Gr.B) 538 42,750

High-alloy steel
for cladding and -29 128,900
corrosion resistance 343 77,200
Stainless 304 427 72,400
(SA-240) 538 66,900

Stainless 316 -29 128,900

(SA-240) 345 79,300
427 75,800
538 73,100
Nonferrous metals
Copper 38 46,200
(SB-11) 204 20,700
Aluminum 38 15,900
(SB-209, 1100-0) 204 6,900
 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 6

Table 6-4. Modulus of elasticity values, EM for carbon steel and low-alloy steel as a
function of temperature (Seider, 2004).

Psi x 106
Temperature (F) Carbon Steel Low-alloy Steel
-20 30.2 30.2
200 29.5 29.5
400 28.3 28.6
650 26.0 27.0
700 - 26.6
800 - 25.7
900 - 24.5

Recommended Design Pressure and Temperature

Design pressure used in the calculation of wall thickness should always be greater than the
operating pressure. Similarly, design temperature may be equal to operating temperatue plus 50oF.
The following are recommended design pressures at different operating pressure (Seider, 2004);

Operating Pressure ,Po (psig) Design Pressure ,Pd (psig)

0 -5 10

10 1,000 P= exp{0.60608+0.91615[ln Po] + 0.0015655 [ ln Po ]2 }

1,000 + 1.1Po

Welding

Welding will heat the metal surrounding the welding area which could result in warping,
shrinking of the welded area (Kennedy, 1982). It is for this reason that at times, stress relieving is
required to release locked-up localized stresses. Stress relieving may be accomplished either by
annealing or hammering. After welding, test are often employed to locate weld defects and other
structural trouble inside the weld. Radiographing is often used to find these weld defects.
Radiography is an inspection test where welded joints are exposed to x-ray to detect excessive
porosity, defective fusion and other defects in the welding process (Kennedy, 1982).

Weld efficiency, E, reflects the integrity of the welding. Carbon steel having thickness up to
1.25 inch requires only a 10% spot X-ray check where the weld efficiency is 85 %. However, for
thicker walls, a 100% X-ray check is required, allowing a value of 100% efficiency (Seider, 2004).
Longitudinal joints are more highly stressed than circumferential joints requires a minimum butt
welding. Similarly, all vessels in lethal application shall have an all butt weld connection and fully
radiographed. Also all vessels fabricated on carbon or low alloy steel requires post-heat treatment
(Perry and Green, 1997). All welded joints of cryogenic tanks must be butt welded, postweld heat
treated and X- ray examined (Kohan, 1987). Depending on the degree of radiograph examination
used to check the integrity of the welded joint, and the type of welded joint, computation of wall
 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 7

thickness of pressure vessel will have different joint efficiencies. ASME section VIII classifies
radiographic examination as full radiography, spot radiography and no spot radiography.

For double butt joint, the following are the corresponding efficiencies

Full radiography 100%

Spot radiography 85%
No radiography 70 %

This decrease in joint efficiency from full to no spot radiography would result to a more shell
wall thickness. Hence , as a rule, when welded joint efficiency is not known, assume a no spot
radiography and use 70% joint efficiency if double butt joint is to be used (Kohan, 1987). This will
provide for an allowance on wall thickness, but should later be check for the appropriate type of
welded joint. Table 6-5 shows different type of welded joints and corresponding efficiencies and
limitations (Jawad and Farr, 1988).

Figure 5-1. Welded Joint Categories.

 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 8

Table 6-5. Maximum Allowable Joint Efficiencies1 for Arc and Gas Welded Joints. Adapted from
Jawad, M. H., and J. R. Farr, 1988.
Degree of Radiographic
Typ Joint Description Limitations Joint Examination
e Category a b c
No. Full Spot None
Butt joints as attained by
double-welding or by other
means which will obtain the
same quality of deposited
(1) weld metal on the inside and None A, B, C & D 1.0 0.85 0.70
outside weld surfaces to agree
with the requirements of UW-
35; welds using metal backing
strips which remain in place
are excluded.
(a) None except as shown in (b) A, B, C & D 0,90 0.80 0.65
Single welded butt joint with below
(2) backing strip other than those (b) Circumferential butt joints A, B & C 0.90 0.80 0.65
included in (1) with one plate offset, see UW-
13(c) and Fig. UW-13.1 (k).
Circumferential butt joints A, B & C NA NA 0.60
(3) Single-welded butt joint only. Not over 5/8in. thick and
without use of backing strip not over 24in outside diameter
Double full fillet lap joint longitudinal joints not over A NA NA 0.55
4) Double full fillet lap joint 3/8in. thick
circumferential joints not over B&C NA NA 0.55
5/8in. thick
2
(a) Circumferential joints for
attachment of heads not over B NA NA 0.50
Single full fillet lap joints with 24in. outside diameter to shells
plug welds confirming to UW- not over 1/2in. thick.
17 (b) Circumferential joint for the
(5) attachment to shells of jackets
not over 5/8in. in nominal
Single full fillet lap joints with thickness where the distance
plug welds confirming to UW- from the center of the plug C NA NA 0.50
17 weld to the edge of the plate is
not less than 1-1/2 times the
diameter of the hole for the
plug.
(a) For the attachment of
heads convex to pressure to
shells not over 5/8in. required
thickness. only with use of fillet
weld on
(6) Single full fillet lap joints inside of shells, or A&B NA NA 0.50
without plug welds (b) For attachment of heads
having pressure on either side.
To shells not over 24in. inside
diameter and not over 1/4in.
required thickness with fillet
weld on outside of head flange
only.
1 E = 1.0 for butt joints in compression.
2 joints attaching hemispherical heads to shells are excluded .
 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 9

Plate thickness increments

It is noteworthy to emphasize that vessels fabricated from metal plates may be assumed to
come in the following increments (Seider, 2004). Final vessel wall thickness is established by
rounding off to the next increment.

Metal plate thickness, inch Increments, inch

3/16 to 1/2 1/16

5/8 to 2 /8

2 to 3

HESSE AND RUSHTON METHOD

In chemical engineering pressure vessel course, the classical book on Process Equipment
Design authored by Hesse and Rushton (1975) has been in used as the course textbook. In the
succeeding paragraphs, calculation methods, conditions and data were reproduced in toto from the
said textbook.

Shell Thickness

Shell thickness of welded pressured vessel may be calculated using the given equation
(Hesse and Rushton, 1975):
PD
tp C eq 6-10
2Se P
where
tp = shell thickness (inch)
P = Max allowable working pressure (psi)
D = Inside diameter (inch)
S = Max allowable tensile stress (psi) (Table 6-6)
e = Efficiency of welded joint (Table 6-7)
C = Corrosion allowance

The above equation is applicable as long as the following conditions are met:

1. tp < 0.10D
2. tp > tmin

where
D 100
tmin eq 6-11
1000
 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 10

Table 6-6. Materials and Allowable Working Stresses for Unfired Pressure Vessels, Adapted from
ASME-UPV Code by cited by Hesse, H.E. and J.H. Rushton, (1975) Process Equipment
Design.

Specified
ASME Minimum Allowable Unit Tensile Stress, Thousands psi
Code Tensile at Various Temperatures, F
Spec. Material Data Strength - 20
No. and Description Grad 1000 psi to 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
e 650

S-2 Steel plates - flange and A 45 9.0 8.8 8.4 6.9 5.7 4.4 2.6
firebox quality B 50 10.0 9.6 9.0 7.5 6.0 4.4 2.6
S-1 Carbon steel for boilers 11.0 10.4 9.5 8.0 6.3 4.4 2.5
Carbon-silicon steel, A 55 11.0 10.4 9.5 8.5 7.2 5.6 3.8 2.0
S-42 ordinary strength range B 60 12.0 11.4 10.4 9.1 7.4 5.6 3.8 2.0
S-44 Molybdenum steel A 13.0 13.0 13.0 12.5 11.5 10.0 8.0 5.0
S-43 Low-carbon nickel steel A
S-55 Carbon-silicon steel, high 65
strength range, 4-1/2 A 13.0 12.3 11.1 9.4 7.6 5.6 3.8 2.0
plates and under
S-44 B 14.0 14.0 14.0 13.5 12.0 10.2 8.0 5.0
S-43 B 70 14.0 13.3 11.9 10.0 7.8 5.6 3.8 2.0
S-55 B 14.0 13.3 11.9 10.0 7.8 5.6 3.8 2.0
S-44 C 15.0 15.0 15.0 14.4 12.7 10.4 8.0 5.0
S-43 C 75
S-28 Chrome-manganese- A 15.0 14.1 12.4 10.1 7.8 5.6 3.8 2.0
silicon
alloy steel B 85

Design Stress

Design stress, S maybe estimated using the given equation:

S = Su x F m x F s x F r x F a eq 6-12

Where
Su = Minimum Specified Tensile Strength
Fm = Material Factor
Fm = 1 for Grade A material
Fm = 0.97 for Grade B material
Fm = 0.92 for Grade C material
Fs = Temperature Factor (Use Table 6-8)
Fr = Stress Relief (SR) Factor
Fr = 1.06 When SR is applied
Fa = Radiographing Factor
Fa = 1.12 when Radiographing is applied and subsequent repair of defects

Note: Both Stress Relief and Radiographing factors are equal to unity when not applied on welded
joints.
 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 11

Welding may induce internal strain and stress on welded joints. In this case, stress relieving
such as by annealing or hammering may be employed to release localized stresses. A 6% increase in
the allowable design stress is allowed in some cases.

Radiographing, on the other hand, is an application of X-ray on welded joints to examine

defective fusion and other defects that may affect the integrity of the pressure vessel. If subsequent
repair of a detected defect is done, a 12% increase in the allowable design stress may also be
allowed.

Stress relieving is mandatory for:

1. tp > 1
D 50
2. t p (For thinner plates)
120
where D has a minimum value of 20 inches
3. ASTM A 150
4. ASTM A 149 (under certain conditions)

Whereas, Radiographing is mandatory for

1. ASTM A 150
2. ASTM A 149 (under certain conditions)
3. Lethal gases application
4. Nuclear Reactor applications

Table 6-7. Types of Welded Joint and Corresponding Efficiencies.

EFFICIENCY CRITERIA

LAP WELD (For circumferential Joint)

Single Lap 55% tp <

Single Lap with plug weld 65% tp <
Double Lap 65% tp >

BUTT WELD (For circumferential and

longitudinal joints)

Single Butt 70% tp <

Single Butt with Back-up Strip 80% tp < 1
Double Butt 80% tp > 1
Double Butt with reinforce at center 90% tp > 1
 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 12

Table 6-7. Temperature Factor.

Metal Temperature, Plate and Forged

F Steel, % Cast Steel, %

Up to 650 25.0 16.7

700 23.7 16.4
750 21.0 14.7
800 18.0 12.9
850 15.0 11.1
900 12.0 9.3
950 9.0 7.5
1000 6.2 5.7

Adapted from Hesse, H.E. and J.H. Rushton, Process Equipment Design (1975)

Head Thickness

To estimate head thickness requirement for pressure vessel with internal pressure load
(concave), the following are the working equations for different head configurations. For external
pressure load, thickness computed from internal pressure load is multiplied by 5/3.
PD
Standard Ellipsoidal t
2SE

PD
Hemispherical t
4SE

PLW
Standard Dished t
2SE
where

L = crown radius in inches = Do 6

Kr = knuckle radius = 0.06 Do
 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 13

Values for W or dished heads

Kr/L W

0.06 1.8
0.07 1.7
0.08 1.65
0.09 1.6
0.10 1.55
0.11 1.50
0.12 1.47
0.13 1.44
0.14 1.41
0.15 1.40
0.16 1.38
0.17 1.37
0.18 1.35
0.19 1.32
0.20 1.30
0.25 1.25
0.50 1.12
1.0 1.0

For flat heads designed to permit fastening by means of lap joints with or without plug welds; the
required head thickness is given by

0.3 P
t d
S

where t = is the head thickness

d = is the inner diameter of the flanged head

For flat heads which may be attached by single or double vee or V butt welds; the required
head thickness is given by
0.25 P
t d
S

And for flat heads cut from a solid plate, the required head thickness is given by
0.5 P
t d
S
 PRESSURE WELDED VESSEL DESIGN 14

Problem 1. Determine the thickness of a 10 meter diameter spherical tank at 300KPa and 27F. The
material of construction is made of carbon steel. Use minimum corrosion
allowance.

Problem 2. A 12 in diameter S-2 Grade A steel has a working pressure and temperature of 500 psi
and 300F respectively. Determine the type of weld to be used and plate
thickness using Hesse and Rushton method.

Problem 3. Grade A S2 steel, butt welded pressured vessel for lethal gas application has an inside
diameter of 20 inches. If the working pressure is 900 psi and the working
temperature is 250F, what is the shell thickness of the vessel? (Use minimum
corrosion allowance and Hesse and Rushton method).