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Roland Barthes

Roland Barthes (1915 1980) was known as a philosopher, social theorist, French literary

critic and a semiotician. Barthes who was not a photographer as such, nevertheless used

to analyse and de-construct pictures to bring out their true/hidden meanings. His last

book Camera Lucida, was based upon a picture of his mother. This was one of his

greatest works and expressed both his grief of losing his mother as well as expressing

himself through photographs and printed media. However one never sees a picture of his

mother. Barthess works had widespread influences not just on photography and print, but

also on mediums related to communication and the passing on of information, be it text,

verbal, visual or musical.

In the field of photography, Barthes started his interest at the beginning of his working

life. In the 1950s he was focusing on how photography could be used as a tool by which

messages and feelings could be transmitted to the masses, an example would be movie

stars. Later on, this would shift to press photography and advertisement, in which he

would analyse how these images were proposing a certain message to the public. This

can be seen through his works Rhetoric of the Image (1964) and The Photographic

Message (1961). For Barthes a photograph offers both a visual message as well as a

message which can be read like a text. This was one of his core beliefs, that a

photograph can provide a message through the use of signs and objects. A well-

constructed photograph can give all the information one needs in order to understand
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the true meaning/purpose of the photograph. The image should be both visually

attractive and at the same time enable the viewer to look deeper into its meaning.

In his Panzani advertisement, the message is there for all to see if one looks deeper into

its meaning according to his theories.

Barthes however never really succeeded in creating a school of thought specifically based

upon his theories towards photography and people do not really attempt to model

themselves on his beliefs, simply because barthes did not really create a model that one

may follow. But what barthes does do is encourage one to think for themselves and to

adapt what one sees into ones own culture and meaning rather than to simply accept it at

face value. This is truly what Barthes was trying to relay to others.

Barthes most interesting theorem is that named Studium and Punctum, Studium is an

element that creates interest, it is a way that shows the photographers intention and the

spectator can experience this intention, most often it can be classified as denoting the

cultural linguistic and political interpretation of a photograph. Punctum on the other hand

is the element that emerges from the scene, this is more powerful and effective method

of creating a connection between the artist and the spectator, however this is very rare

and quite difficult to achieve. Punctum can be classified as the denotation of personally

tackling details, this will establish a direct relationship with the object or person within

that frame, for example showing a grieving child in a photo will make the viewers feel sad

or grief. An effective Punctum has the ability to jog a memory or have the ability to

capture a detail that is both aesthetically pleasing and meaningful be it both good or bad

experiences. [See Fig 1. for example of Studium and Punctum by Sally Mann]
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Fig. 1 Studium and Punctum Example Photos by Sally Mann

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Jacques Lacan

Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) started his career as a psychiatrist and was best known for not

conforming to the Freudian guidelines of psychoanalytical therapy with a strong interest

in Dadaism and surrealism argues Webster (2002). During the 1960s Lacan became

associated with the French literary intellectuals. By the 1980s Lacanian theory became to

be regarded as the modern correct form of psychoanalysis argues Webster (2002).

Jacques Lacan is best known for the development of his mirror- stage theory. On

reinterpreting Freuds work, Lacan puts forward the idea that the child on seeing himself

in the mirror identifies with the image and develops the perception of the ideal self, the

first person [Known as I]. This developmental stage, according to Lacan establishes our

dependence on external objects and on the Other. Lacan argues that the need to see

and be seen distinguishes us from the animal world. Lacan expresses the tension

between truth and appearance. For Lacan the real doesnt exist and he questions what

we see and say and what we desire and lack.

It is to be noted that in Lacans lifetime there was a shift in photography a development

from light-based media from the chemical (film and photosynthesis paper) to the monitor

screen. According to Iskin (1997) she highlights that Lacan avoids an explicit discussion of

photography but rather names paintings in his analysis of the picture. Iskin draws upon

Lacans theories of the mirror stage, light, picture and gaze in the visual environments. she

also highlights how though Lacan disliked photographs his theories were actually
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influenced by photography. In her essay Iskin studies Lacans theorems and behaviour to

better understand the changes between subjectivity and new imaging. Lacan makes

explicit reference to photography very briefly in his essay What is a Picture? in the

article the Four Fundamental Concepts , where Lacan focuses on the gaze rather than

the camera, Iskin argues that when Lacan refers to the photography analogy

the gaze is the instrument through which light is embodied and through which ..- I

am photographed

Lacan is implying that the first person is made visible through the images in a mirror, a

photograph or a painting. Lacan argues that the persistent gaze conforms the self. Lacan

argues that the gaze is everything in the field of vision except in the actual look of the

person lookingMarks (2011). Thus, relating to the gaze of the other with what we wish to

see, in the paper Situating the Real Marks (2011).

Sanders (1988:146) concludes that a photo reflects back a memory like a mirror bringing

with it memories and experiences that may bring traumatic repetitions according to

Lacan. For Lacan, the mirror stage theorem tackles the ego as essentially dependent

upon material objects, or on an other person. As the individual matures and enters into

social relations through various means be it language, hobbies, meetings, interaction this

individual will be involved within social and linguistic structures that will give each

subject's personality and traits its particular characteristics.

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Surrealism

Surrealism was a major part of photographic history and the surrealism movement was a

movement that aimed to help free the mind of both artists and audience to show and

unlock how the subconscious could be explored and exploited for everyday life. Two

influential artists in the surrealism movement were Man-Ray and Maurice Tabard. Man-Ray

was one of the first artists to discover and exploit the techniques of double exposure,

combination printing, montage and solarisation. (See Fig 1. and Fig 2.)

Figure 1: Ingres Violin Figure 2 : Grete Stern -

Man Ray Maurice Tabard

This movement helped to join the thoughts of dreams with real-life into one seamless

image. Other photographers were inspired to use such techniques, for example Hans

Bellmer (Fig 3.) and Dora Maar (Fig.4) used techniques such as rotation and distortion to

create strange and mysterious imagery.

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Figure 3 : The Doll - Figure 4 : Portrait of Ubu

Hans Bellmer - Dora Maar

Surrealism started in Europe in the 1920s after the end of world war one in the heart of

Paris. Surrealism was greatly inspired by the Dada movement and elements of cubism. In

1924 Breton wrote the surrealist manifesto that set the surrealism movement in motion.

Surrealism was inspired by the Dada movement because it shared very similar principles

such as; ideas of anti-rationalism, using art to combat violent political issues and to

address difficult and unsettling world problems. Surrealism was and still is very difficult to

categorise and define into one genre because each and every photo is created and

interpreted different by each individual. As an example Surrealism was also used to help

address anxiety issues and to help treat mental patients using visual means of therapy

Malaszczak (2013).
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Along with the surrealism movement the popularity of photograms was greatly increased

by Man Ray in the 20th century, However Man Ray called them Rayographs or Camera-

less photos and they used the same principles and techniques of photograms. Man ray

used this technique to create surrealist photos by photographing everyday objects and

placing them in a distinct way that left the audience curious about what the shadowed

object was (Figure 5 & 6). Contemporary Artists today still use photograms as means of

visual art form, for example : Adam Fuss, Susan Derges and Christian Marclay.

Figure 5 : Rayograph - Figure 6 : Rayograph -

Man Ray Man Ray

Figure 7 : Accommodations of Desire - Salvador

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Many surrealist artists made use of hypnotism techniques and a concoction of drugs to

help the artists venture into the dream world where they could look for inspirations and

image in their subconscious minds. Salvador Dali was a very famous surrealist artist who

was known for making use of these techniques, and was able to create some very famous

and well-known photos such as Accommodations of Desire.

The Surrealists used techniques we now take for granted for example Double exposure is

used to invoke the feeling of living in a fantasy. Within the photographs of Man Ray and

Rene Magritte, one can see that photography was used as a means to create

photographic versions of paintings and Hans Bellmer photographing his doll-type

structures with great detail. Surrealists used photography within their art and even the

most simple subject could become something complex. There are of course

contemporary Surrealist photographers and artists, Within Surrealist photography, lies a

catch-22 Heller (1961). The Surrealists were attempting with their art, to liberate the

modern mind and attempt to understand unconscious desires, fears and impulses.

Yet they were doing this with the most realistic medium of the time, photography. We

now have the ability to distort, manipulate and cover up with more powerful tools, with

our knowledge of photographic techniques becoming more and more advanced and

photography as a whole being taken seriously as an art form and professionperhaps

there needs to be a re-emergence of Surreal photography.

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Post Modernism

Post modernism is the direct opposite of the modernism movement, Post modernism is

considered as an opposite to modernism because this movement has been brought up to

be used as a political front for propaganda, such as literary context rather than being used

for cultural context like modernism. Photography began taking place of painting therefore

becoming part of the post-modernism movement, Photography became a popular means

of post modernism because when compared to its counterpart [art and paintings].

Photography did not have to deal with issues concerning the history and evolution of

photography since it was still an emerging and growing medium therefore there were no

solid theorems or rules which one would have when facing paintings and art forms.

Pierre Bourdieu described this movement in photography as middle brow art. This

means that photography was a simple medium that can be easily accessible to anyone to

acquire a certain social class or social prestige within a community. Therefore this was the

perfect medium to be used as propaganda as it was easily re-created and can be easily

manufactured by middle class people. Guy Debord mentioned a very important point

about the evolving technique of post modern photography in the book The Society of

the Spectacle in which he said that photography was used as a means of representing the

social relationship with one another and was used as a means of conveying the needs and

wants of the population. Photography had become a culture in itself, it had become a

means of fascinating and hypnotising and audience, sometimes even considered as a

means of creating a biased opinion in favour of a particular subject/person by using visual

techniques and manipulations. In 1967 Guy Debord published his book The Society of
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the Spectacle in France which became a very influential reference in photographic

history. When Debords book got published in France it brought about the end of a

photographic style known as found photography or vernacular photography. Found

photography is a type of art form that involves accidental photography, this means that

photos which were taken accidentally or of everyday subjects and objects.

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References

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Roland Barthes, The Rhetoric of the Image, reproduced in Image, Music, Text, trans.

Stephen Heath, (New York: Hill and Wang, 1977)

Roland Barthes, Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography, trans. Richard Howard,

(New York: Hill and Wang, 1980)

ROLAND BARTHES, Image Music Text, Essays selected and translated by Stephen

Heath (Fontana Press 1977)

Roland Barthes, Excerpt from "Rhetoric of the Image", Panzani advertisement, Image/

Music/Text, New York: Hill and Wang, 1977, 33-7.

Geoffrey Batchen, Photography Degree Zero, reflections on Roland Barthess camera

lucida, (2009 Massachusetts Institute of Technology)

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Journal of Cultural Studies, (2002) Vol. 5 (1): 5-25)

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The Third Meaning by Roland Barthes, (Garage publishing program in collaboration

with Ad Marginem Press. Minima Series)