510867398cl12-Communication & Network Concepts PDF

Communication And Network Concepts Page - 1 Communication And Network Concepts
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DEF. OF NETWORK Network is a system of computers together with peripherals which are
interconnected in such a way that each computer is autonomous.
Goal, Application And Advantages of Network
(1) Resource Sharing (2) Reliability (3) Low Cost Factor (4) Exchange of Information
(5) Access to Remote Database (6) Speedy and Easy Communication
Hardware sharing E-mail
Software sharing Chatting
Info and data sharing Computer telephony
Live show communication
through web-cams
ARPANET And NSFnet ARPANET is a large wide area network. It was created in 1960s by the
US Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). That is why it got the
name ARPANET. It was created for the free exchange of information between universities,
research organizations and military. ARPANET was the network from which the modern time
Internet has evolved.
The National Science Foundation created NSFNET in 1980. It used the technology
developed by ARPANET to allow universities and schools to connect to each other. Later it
improved high speed network which formed todays Internet.
Internet The Internet is a world wide network of networks. It is a conglomeration of small and
large networks spanning the entire globe. It consists of 30,000 networks in 100 countries. Around
the world each country has at least on backbone network that operates at very high speed and
carries the bulk of traffic to other smaller networks connected to the backbone.
Backbone A backbone is central interconnecting structure of many networks. Backbone
employs the highest speed transmission paths in the network to the longest distance. A backbone
can span either a large geographic area or it can span as a backplane in a single cabinet.
Gateway A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks. A gateway has a
microprocessor that is capable of converting information from one network into a readable format
for a second network that uses a different protocols.
PROTOCOLS Protocol is a standard procedure for regulating data transmission between
computers or between devices such as modems. Internet uses a set of protocol called TCP/IP.
The TCP is responsible for dividing the file/message into packets on the source computer. It
also reassembles the received packets at destination recipient computer.
The IP is responsible for handling the address of destination commuter for sending the
file/message to the proper destination.
Functioning Of The Internet The information that is to be passed from one computer system to
another is broken up into pieces called packets using the TCP. Using the IP, a message (less than or
equal to 1500 bytes) is put into a packet. Each packet contains the address of sender and destination
(called IP addresses). These packets are moved form one network to another until they reach their
destination. At the destination point the TCP software reassembles the packets into a message as
was sent from source. If packets are damaged or lost a request is sent to resent them. It is not
necessary for all the packets in a single message to make the same route through the Internet or the
same message to take the same route each time it is send.
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This Tutorial is prepared by : A. Nasra || This Tutorial is prepared by : A. Nasra || This Tutorial is prepared by : A. NASRA Page-1
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INTERSPACE Interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to

communicate on line with real-time audio, video and text-chatting in dynamic 3D environments.
Interspace is the future of Internet.
IMPORTANT JARGONS USED IN NETWORKING
Nodes (Workstations) Any computer connected to the network is called node or workstation.
A computer not connected to computer is called standalone computer.
Server Server is a node (computer) that gives the facility of sharing of data, software and
hardware resources (e.g. Printer, modems etc). A network can have more than one server also. Each
server has a unique name on the network and all users of network identify the server by its unique
name. Servers are of two types (i) Non-dedicated server and (ii) Dedicated servers.
The server which facilitates resources sharing on a small network among workstations on a
proportionately small scale is called non-dedicated servers. This server also works as workstation.
The small network together with non-dedicated server is called PEER to PEER network.
The server which is engaged only in providing data access to workstations on a bigger
network is called dedicated server. The big network together with dedicated sever is called
MASTER SLAVE network.
Network Interface Unit (NIU) The NIU (also called TAP Terminal Access Point or NIC
Network Interface Card) is a printed circuit board or an adaptor that allows a computer to be
connected to a network. Network connection is made directly to the computers internal bus
through NIU.
Each NIU has a unique identification number which is known as node-address. Each NIC
has also a unique physical address (given by its manufacturer) which is known as MAC-Address.
Switching Techniques Switching techniques are the techniques of communicating between
two computers for transmitting data across networks.
Basically, there are three types of switching techniques Circuit Switching, Message
Switching and Packet Switching.
Circuit Switching Circuit switching is a technique of data-transmission similar to telephone
system, in which circuit or route is established between the sender and the receiver before the start
of the data-transfer.
Following steps are followed to
establish the connection:
1. A request signal is sent over
the network to the receiver
(destination).
2. All intermediate nodes are Sender
identified. These nodes are Receiver
Node
also called switching nodes.
3. If the destination (receiver)
Node
node is available, it receives
the data and sends back CIRCUIT SWITCHING
accepted data.
4. Data transfer starts.
It may be noted here that some time is spent in steps 1 and 3 which causes delay in sending data
first time, but once the connection is set-up, almost no delay occurs in switching node.
In fact, in circuit switching, a full duplex transmission line is established between sender
and receiver nodes. This connection remains available throughout the communication.
Packet Switching Packet switching is a technique of data transmission similar to post-office
operation system, in which the sender writes the destination address on the letter and drops it into
mailbox. The postman sends the letter to the destination post office through the routes available,
and finally the postman delivers the letter to the destination.
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In packet switching the data to be sent is divided into packets. The size of packet is
generally 128 bytes or 512 bytes. The format of a packet has been shown here.
The steps followed to establish connection are as
given below: Destination
1. The origin node locates the first intermediate node. Node Id
2. The origin node sends the packet one by one to
intermediate node.
3. The intermediate node checks the destination Id of Data
the packet.
4. If the Id of node does not match with the destination
Id of the packet, it sends the packet to next available Origin Node Id
node.
5. Steps 3 and 4 are repeated till the packet reaches to
its destination. FORMAT OF A PACKET
6. Steps 2 to 5 are repeated till all the data packets are
delivered.
The action taken by intermediate nodes (step 3 and 4) is known as store and forward method of
packet transfer. Since there is no connection or circuit between the sender and destination node, the
path followed by each packet from sender to receiver can be different. Due to different paths for
each packet and the propagation delays at intermediate nodes, the packet often arrive at the
destination node in disordered fashion as shown below:
Sender
Destination
Node
Node
Path for packet-1 Path for packet-2
PACKET SWITCHING
Comparison Between Circuit Switching And Packet Switching

Circuit Switching Packet Switching
Fast Slow
Constant data rate across network Variable data rate due to store and forward
method by each intermediate nodes
Requires dedicated path Uses dynamic path
If the path is over loaded, then the call is If the path is over-loaded, then the packets are
blocked and communication is delayed sent through other available different paths.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA OR COMMUNICATION CHANNELS The means (visible or non-visible)
by which the transmission is established between two nodes is called transmission media or
communication channels. It is divided into two broad categories as is illustrated below:
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Transmission Media
Guided Media
Twisted Pair Cable

Unshielded twisted
pair cable
Shielded twisted
pair cable
Coaxial Cable
Thicknet
(Max. segment length = 500 meter)
Thinnet
(Max. segment length = 185 meter)
Optical Fiber
Simple node optical fiber
(Max. segment length = 2 km; Transmission rate = 100 Mbps
Multi-node optical fiber
(Max. segment length = 100 km; Transmission rate = 2 Gbps
Unguided Media
Micro-wave (line of sight method of communication)
Radio-wave (RF (radio frequency) is used for transmission)
Infrared (use of infrared light to send data)
Laser (line of sight method of communication)
Satellite (Geosynchronous communication satellite)
Twisted Pair Cable It consists of two identical wired wrapped together in a double helix, as is
shown in the following figure:
Conductor Copper
Foil Copper Foil
PVC PVC Shield wire
wire
Jacket Jacket
Twisted Pair Unshielded Twisted Pair Shielded Twisted Pair
Cable Cable Cable
Twisted pair cable used mostly in internal office telephone system is called VGM Voice
Grade Medium. High grade twisted pair cable used LAN application is called DGM Data Grade
Medium.
The twisting of wire reduces the crosstalk or bleeding of signal which means the presence of
an unwanted signal via an accidental coupling causing corrupt signals.
Advantages Of Twisted Pair Cable Simple Flexible Easy connection Easy
installation Low weight Very inexpensive
Disadvantages Of Twisted Pair Cable Signals do not go long distances without repeaters.
Unsuitable for broadband application Supports only maximum data rate of 1 Mbps.
Coaxial Cable A coaxial cable is made up of a central copper wire surrounded by a conductive
sleeve separated by a plastic insulator as shown in the following figure:
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Conductive sleeve Central copper wire

Outer plastic
covering Insulation layer
COAXIAL CABLE
The coaxial cable is an all purpose transmission medium because it is used in various
applications such as long distance telephone, television transmission, networking etc. Now a day
it is widely used as TV-cable.
Advantages Of Coaxial Cable Better data transmission characteristics than twisted pair cable
Can be used for a shared cable network Can be used for broadband transmission High rate
of data transmission rate up to 400 Mbps.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial Cable Expensive as compared to twisted pair cable. Not
compatible with the application where twisted pair cable are applicable.
Optical Fiber An optical fiber is a thin strand of light conducting glass or plastic firer. The fiber
is cylindrical shape of size 2 to 125 micro-meters that acts as transmission medium for pulses of
light carrying data. For creating pulse of light LED or LD (Laser Diode) is used. Optical fiber cable
has 3 sections as is indicated in the figure attached here. A bundle of optical fibers passes easily
through the eye of this needle. A single pair of such cables can carry over a thousand conversations
simultaneously
Jacket or sheath
for cable strength
Optical fiber
(ultra-pure silica )
for data carrying
Cladding for
refraction of light
OPTICAL FIBER
Advantages Of Optical Fiber

Data loss is zero due to immunity to electrical and magnetic interference.
Useful in dense industrial environment
Extremely high speed up to several million bits per seconds
Capacity to carry voice, video and data without error.
Not possible to branch by tapping off a fiber which is added advantages from
security point of view.
Disadvantages Of Optical Fiber Cannot be tapped for branching
Multiple fibers cannot be connected together
Installation problem due to fragility of ultra-pure silica
Difficulty in soldering of optical fiber cable
Very expensive technology.
Micro-Wave Microwave signals are used to transmit data and voice over long distances with the
help of parabolic disk antennas placed on tops of buildings, towers or hills as transmitter. The -
wave signals travel in line-of-sight and received by another dish antenna. Higher the tower greater
the range.
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Advantages Of -Wave Cheaper as no digging for laying cables

Freedom from land acquisition rights.
Easy communication in hilly areas.
Able to communicate over oceans.
Disadvantages Of -Wave Insecure communication (due to obstacles)
Susceptible to weather effects like rain, thunder, storm etc.
Cost of microwave-link and antennae are high.
It receiving and transmitting antennae are not set properly, signal strength
reduces.
Radio-Wave In this method of communication specific radio wave is used for data and voice
communication. Private and business groups are licensed to operate in the range of about 10 miles.
Radio signals use continuous sine wave to transmit information (audio, video, data). Each
different radio signal uses a different sin-wave frequency, for separation. Any radio-setup has tow
parts transmitter and receiver, both of which use antennas to radiate and capture radio signals.
Advantages Of Radio-Wave Mobility Cheaper as no digging, no maintenance of repeaters
etc. Freedom from land acquisition rights Easy communication over difficult terrain.
Disadvantages Of Radio-Wave Insecure communication Radio wave propagation is
susceptible to weather effects like rain, thunder, storm etc.
Infrared Infrared light is used to send data through air and can propagate throughout a room, but
cant penetrate walls. Infrared transmission is used mostly in TV-remote, automotive doors,
wireless speakers, palm-pilot etc. Its use as networking has been shown in the following figure.
Beam scattering device Roof
High-intensity
modulated
infrared beam
Server
INFRARED TRANSMISSION
Laser Communication through laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

consists of a laser-transmitter and photo sensitive receiver which are used to set a point to point
transmission, especially between buildings. It requires direct line of sight condition. It is adversely
affected by weather conditions.
Satellite In this method of communication, a satellite revolves around the earth approximately at
the height of 35680 km in an geostationary orbit as shown in the figure.
The satellite receives the microwave signals from one earth station, amplifies and sends
them to other. In fact, it acts as relay between two earth stations. In order to avoid interference of
signals, the transmitting frequency is kept different from receiving frequency. Now a days earth
stations with very small diameters around 40 cm are becoming popular. These earth stations are
called VSAT ( very small aperture terminals). In India such VSAT are set up mostly in IITs,
universities and Engineering Colleges.
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Geostationary
Communication Satellite
35680 km
Transponder (Reception
& Transmission) Device
Earth
Earth Station
Earth Station
COMMON TERMINOLOGY USED IN COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Data Channel Data channel is the medium used to carry information or data from one device
to another device or from one point to another.
Bits Per Second It is the unit of data transmission rate. Note that,
(i) Bps stands for bytes per second
(ii) bps stands for bits per second.
(iii) 1 kbps = 1 kilo bits per second = 1000 bits per second
(iv) 1 Kbps = 1 kilo bytes per second = 1000 bytes per second.
(v) 1 mbps = 1 mega bits per second = 106 bits per second.
(vi) 1 Mbps = 1 mega bytes per second = 106 bytes per second.
Baud Baud is the number of transitions change in frequency of modems analog signals)
made per second. The term has often been erroneously used to specify bits per second. However,
only at very low speed i.e. 300 to 1200 baud the data is equivalent to bits per second. Beyond that ,
one baud can be made to represent more than one bit.
Bandwidth Every medium of data transmission (guided or unguided) allows certain
frequencies to pass through it. For example a telephone line may allow waves of 300 to 3400 Hz to
travel through its medium.
The difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies allowed on a transmission
media is known as bandwidth (B). Thus, the bandwidth measures the information-carrying-capacity
of a line or network. Mathematically, B = f h f l
Where, fh and fl are highest and lowest frequencies permitted by the medium.
TYPES OF NETWORKS On the basis of geographical spread, there are three types of networks
(1) LAN Local Area Network, (2) MAN Metropolitan Area Network and (3) WAN Wide
Area Network.
The network limited to an office, building, or factory is known as LAN. Main purpose of
LAN is hardware and software sharing. On most LANs cables are used to connect NIC in each
computer.
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The network spread over a city is called MAN. The main purpose of MAN is also hardware
and software sharing.
The network covering many countries is known as WAN. The main purpose of WAN is fast
and efficient exchange of information across various countries. WAN uses telephone, lease-line or
satellite. Internet is the largest WAN in the world.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY The network topology or simply the topology is the geometric
arrangement in which the nodes of a LAN are connected to each other. The choice of topology for
networking mainly depends on the cost of media, flexibility to ass/detach/replace new nodes and
reliability against node failure and malfunction.
Important topologies are Star, Bus, Ring and Tree topologies, which are described below:
Star Topology In star topology various nodes (computers and resources) are directly connected
to a central dedicated computer called hub of the star, as is illustrated in the following figure. Star
topology is mainly used in LAN.
Advantages Of Star Topology (1) Inherently fault tolerant, (2) Easy networking management,
(3) Easy fault detection, (4) Central control, (5) Simple access protocol.
Disadvantages Of Star Topology (1)
Hub-crash is catastrophic,
(2) More cables needed, (3)Cable
installation and maintenance problems, (4)
Difficult to expand, (5) Heavy dependency
and reliability on hub.
Bus Or Linear Topology In the bus
topology, various nodes are connected to a
long main trunk called backbone, which is a
twisted pair or coaxial cable.
Transmission travels the backbone
in both direction and can be received by all
other nodes. Th4e two ends of the backbone Hub or Switch
Work Stations
cable are terminated at both ends by as a Server
or Nodes
absorbers. These absorbers absorb the signal
from the cable after it has passed through all Star Topology
the nodes. Each nod has a NIC to recognize
it a address for the information transmitted in the form of packets. The bus or linear topology is
used in traditional data communication network.
Server
Nodes or Work Stations
Absorber
Drop
Backbone Cable
Bus Or Linear Topology
Advantages Of Bus Topology

(1) Easy new node attachment, (2) low cable cost,
(3) Simple wiring layout, (4) High reliability.
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Disadvantages Of Bus Topology (1) Difficult fault detection, (2) Single message can travel at a
time, (3) Chances of collision of messages from two nodes are possible, (4) A break or short circuit
in backbone can halt the entire network.
Ring Or Circular Topology In the ring topology, each node is connected to two and only two
neighboring nodes. Data is passed in one direction along the ring from one node to next. Each node
renews the data with anew electric pulse and sends its way. After passing through each node, the
data returns to the sending node, which removes it.
Advantages Of Ring Topology (1) Less cabling needed,
(2) Easy for optical fiber as medium, (3) Collision dont
occur, (4) No need for separate repeator.
Disadvantages Of Ring Topology (1) Each node handles
the data, (2) More failure changes if one node fails to
transfer the data, (3) Node failures causes network failure,
(4) Difficult fault diagnosis, (5) Difficult reconfiguration for
expansion.
Tree Topology Tree topology is the modified form of bus Ring or Circular Topology
topology. The original bus splits into number of separate
branches, as shown in the figure. In this topology,
transmission takes place in the same way as in bus topology. This is also known as hybrid
topology.
Bus
Tree Topology
NETWORK DEVICES
Modem (Modulator/Demodulator) A modulator is a device used as an interface between a
computer and a communication channel (telephone line). At sending end, a modulator converts
digital signal (from computer) to analog signal for transmission (modulation) and the receiving end
the modem converts analog signal to digital signal (demodulation).
A 25-pin connector or RS232C interface is common standard for connecting a computer to
a modem. (for external modems). The RJ11 (Registered Jack) connector is used for internal
modems.
Now a days fiber optic modems are also available which convert digital signals into pulses
of light for transmission over the glass fiber.
RJ 45 (Registered Jack 45) It is a eight-wire connector, which connects computer to
LAN especially Eth3ernets. RJ 45 is similar to RJ 11 (4-wird connector for telephone line) in
view as is illustrated in the figure below.
Note: Ethernet Ethernet is a trademark for a LAN protocol developed by Xerox, DEC and Intel.
Ethernet uses a bus or star topology and provides data transfer rate up to 10 Mbps.
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8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
End-view of RJ-45 Connector (Male) End-view of RJ-45 Jack (Female)
RJ 45
Ethernet Card Or LAN Adopter It is an especial PCB card which is fitted in the PCI slot
(Peripheral Component Interface) f the computers motherboard. Ethernet E2000C and E-2000T
are very popular LAN-adorers. It contains 2 or 3ports for the connection of RJ 45, BNC and AUI,
as is shown in the following figure.
RJ-45
AUI (Attachment Unit Interface)

For connecting coaxial, fiber optic or
twisted pair cable
BNC (Bayone-Neill-Concelman)
for connecting 10Base2 coaxial
cable
Hub A hub is a physical layer device that interconnect several computers together. A hub
contains multiple independently connected modules of network and Internet-work equipment. Hub
has multi-slots in which multi-port cords can be inserted to provide additional access as the network
grows in size.
There are two types of hubs Active and Passive hubs. Active hub electrically amplifies the
signal, like repeaters. Passive hubs allow the signal to pass from one computer to another without
any change. Hubs support 8, 12, or 24 pin RJ 45 ports and often used in star or ring network.
Switch A switch is a device to make segments of a network into different subnetworks (called
subnets or LAN segments). It is done so to prevent traffic overloading. Switch supports any packet
protocol. LANs that are segmented through switches are called Switched LANs. In case of Ethernet
LAN, it is called Switched Ethernet LAN.
Repeater A repeater is a network device that amplifies and restores signals for long distance
transmission. Repeaters are helpful in a situation where the signals become weaker over the
transmission medium after a certain distance. In a simple repeater the noise (the distortion in the
signal) is also gets amplified, but in a regenerating repeater weak signals are amplified without the
amplification of noise.
Weak signals Amplified signals
Repeater
Bridge A bridge is a network device that connects two LANs which are physically different
and allows them to exchange data, even though they may have different topologies or
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communication protocols. As a packet arrives at the bridge, the bridge examines the physical
destination address of the packet. The bridge then decides whether or not to let the packet cross.
Bridge
Router A router is a network device which interconnects tow complex networks and is used
to load balance between various paths that exists on networks. A router receives information and
forwards it based on what the router determines to be the most efficient route at the time of transfer.
(Advice Students are advised to see the picture of router from MS Encarta, for clear idea.)
Gateway A is a device that connects dissimilar networks having different Internet protocols.
Gateways operate at the highest layer (the application layer) of network abstraction. Thus a
gateway performs the protocols conversion between the networks which have different protocol
families. (Advice Students are advised to see the picture of router from MS Encarta, for clear
idea.)
ELEMENTARY RULES OF LAN DESIGN
Process of General Network Design The process of designing a network consists following
steps as shown in the following figure:
When we design a network, we must take into Redesigning of Network
consideration the following constrains or
problems:
Environment location of hosts, servers, Performance Sensitive Tests
terminals, and end nodes; traffic for the
environment; cost of delivering services.
Performance Constraints network reliability,
Simulation of Network Under
traffic performance, host/client
Expected Load
computer speed.
Networking Variables network topology,
line capacity and packet flow Model Network Workload
assignment.
The major goal of network design is to
minimize costs with thigh performance, and Topology And Technology
reliability. Selection
The 80 20 Rules In a properly
designed small to medium size network, 80% of Access Needs and Costs
the traffic on a given net segment must be local
(i.e. in the same workgroup) and not more than 20% of the network traffic should move across a
backbone.
Network performance can be improved by doing one of the following:
Moving resources to contain traffic locally within a workgroup.
Moving users (logically, if not physically) so that the workgroups more closely
reflect the actual traffic patterns.
Adding server so that users can access locally without crossing the backbone.
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Determination Of Optimum Technology

Symbols

Repeater Hub Bridge Switch Router Work

Rule For Using Repeater Basic rule of using repeater is 5-4-3 Rule, according to which, the
max. path between two stations on the network should not be more that 5 segments with 4 repeaters
between those segments and no more than 3 populated segments. Following figure show this by an
example:
Host Z
Host A
Max. Distance form Host-A to Host-Z = 5 Segment, 4 Repeaters.
Rule of Using Bridge Bridges implement the Spanning-Tree Protocol to make a loop-free
network technology. It means that on a network, one or more bridges may be blocked if they are
forming a loop, as shown in the following figure:
Blocked Working
Bridge Bridge
Spanning Tree Protocol ensures a loop free technology by blocking one or more bridges.
Use of Hub/Bridge/Switch/Router To establish a network between two computers, we have to

install NIC in both computers and them attach them using crossover cable.
The First LAN
If only distance is needed to be increased, use of repeater is best.
If now, more nodes are to be added, then multi-port repeater i.e. HUB is used.
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But, hub share bandwidth among all attached devices. Hubs cannot filter traffic. They send data
frames to all connected nodes. The solution for this problem is the use of smarter hub i.e. BRIDGE.
Bridge filters network traffic based on MAC addresses.

A SWITCH (or multi-port bridge) can effectively replace the four bridges and also gives a
dedicated bandwidth to each LAN segment.
10 Mbps 10 Mbps

10 Mbps 10 Mbps

But with switches, the network traffic travels to all LAN segments, not just to that segment where it
should go. This proble3m is solved with the use of ROUTER. The router filters the network traffic
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(data packet) based on IP-address. The IP address tells the router which LAN segment the network
(data packet) should go.
10 Mbps 10 Mbps
10 Mbps 10 Mbps

Note: The transmission media, their speeds and suggested length has been provided in the
following table:
Transmission Maximum speed Speed
Medium / Cabling
Thicknet coax 500 m (1640 ft) 10 Mpbs
Thinnet coax 185 m (607ft) 10 Mpbs
Twisted pair 100 m (328 ft) 10 Mbps
Fiber optic 2 Km (6562 ft) 200 Mbps
Wireless 150 + 11 54 Mbps
Infrared varies Upto 16 mbps
SOME IMPORTANT PROTOCOLS
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) The HTTP is a client/server protocol used on World
Wide Web (WWW) to govern the transfer of data. A client makes a request for a particular
document. The URL (Universe Resource Locator) of the document is sent to the HTTP server.
Then the HTTP server uses the HTTP protocol to deliver the required document to the client, as is
shown in the following figure:
URL Request URL

www.n Internet
asratech
.com is Document Document
Response sending
Client
Process of HTTP HTTP
Server
The main features of HTTP are:
It is object oriented protocol that follows client server model of Internet.
It is a stateless protocol i.e. no continuous connection between client and sever. Thus it does
not relate information about the client.
It is a search and retrieve protocol.
It uses port number 80.
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TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) The TCP/IP is a set of rules
that are based on communication architecture, that interconnect different types of LANs. It is
shown in the following figure ( On next page):
Applications, Applications,
FTP, Telnet, FTP, Telnet,
Operating System
Operating System
SMTP, PPP SMTP, PPP
TCP TCP
IP IP
Network Network
access access
Protocol 1 Protocol 2
IP (Internet Protocol)
Network Network Network
Network
access access 2
1
Protocol 1 Protocol 2
Internetworking of Different Networks via
The TCP/IP architecture consists of 5 core protocols ( FTP, TELNET, SMPT and PPP)
known as Internet protocol suite . TCP and IP are two most common protocols of this suit,
discussed below:
(i) IP (Internet Protocol) The IP is used by the Internet to transfer messages from one computer
to another. The messages are sent in the form of packets. Each packets consists of 1500 or less
bytes data. Hence IP uses packet switching to connect multiple LANs within the same building or
different sites. IP identifies each network and each computer by a unique fixed address (32-bit).
This address is used by IP to determine the source and destination of a packet.
(ii) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) The TCP provides the logic for ensuring the reliable
delivery of data to be exchanged between the host systems. It collects the related packets of a
message or together with blocks of data and places them in proper order. It also checks the validity
of the packets. Thus, it ensures reliable delivery of packets to the destination.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) The FTP is a part of TCP/IP. This protocol helps in transferring
files from one computer/network to another computer/network. Thus , it allows a user to copy files
from a remote server/host to the users computer. The main features of FTP are:
It promotes sharing of files (programs and /or data)
It allows explicitly or implicitly the use of remote computer
It transfers data reliably and efficiently.
It is not just a protocol, but also a program used by commands.
TELNET (Network Terminal Protocol) This protocol (Internet utility) helps the user to login
at a remote computer and function as if he/she were connected to his/her own computer. It is a from
of dial up connection between the two computers for exchange of data.
For starting a TELNET session click at
Start Run (print) C:\windows\telnet.
Normally TELNET session requires valid user login name and password. Once a connection is
setup, we can start browsing as per the direction in the default menu. Finally to disconnect we can
use the Disconnect command from connect menu or simply press ALT + F4.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) The SMTP is used to govern the transferring and
receiving electronic mails on networks, from one computer to another. SMTP does not provide
facilities to create message. Therefore, a user creates his message on a local editor, and through
TCP via SMTP it is sent to its destination.
SMTP is quite robust, but provides no facility fro authentication of sender or receiver, and
attachment of non-ASCII data.
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An extension to SMTP is MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) which supports

the attachment of non-text file including multimedia content. Other extensions to SMTP are PGP
(Pretty Good Privacy) and Privacy Enhanced Mail which support Authentication and Encryption.
PPP (Point to Point Protocol) The PPP is used to connect telephone dial-up lines to Internet,
through high speed modem. This protocol allows a temporary IP address to be assigned by the
Internet to the computer and communication takes place. Following steps takes place to connect to
Internet
1. Double click the Dialup icon.
2. Dial the number of the IP provider.
3. Write username and password.
4. When the username and password is got verified, open the browser like IE or Netscape
and surf the Internet.
SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) The SLIP is a communication protocol that allows a
computer to use IP with the help of serial line connection i.e. standard voice-grade telephone line
through a high-speed modem. SLIP is subset of PPP. SLIP does not retransmit garbled packets
automatically whereas PPP does so. SLIP also does not provide error detection and compression
whereas PPP has such capacities. That is why SLIP is now replaced by PPP.
WIRELESS/MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES
GSM (Global System for Mobile) The GSM is a world standard digital cellular
communication. Cell phone works anywhere where the GSM standard is supported. The mobile
users simply switch the SIM (Subscriber Identification Module) card. The narrow band TDMA is
used for GSM. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) is a technology for the delivery of digital
wireless service using time-division multiple (TDM). TDMA derives a single radio frequency
narrowband into time slots and then allocates these slots to multiple simultaneous calls (8 calls
simultaneously).
GSM uses encryption to make phone calls for tight security. GSM is also the used for IDEN
(Integrated Digital Enhanced Network) which is a introduced by Motorola and Nextel.
Notes on SIM The SIM (Subscriber Identification Mobile)is a small chip with a unique phone
number. It has memory, a processor and ability to interact with user. Current SIMs have 16 to 64 kb
of memory of various functions and storage of data.
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) The CDMA is a wireless technique which uses a
spread spectrum technique in which data is sent in small pieces over a number of discrete
frequencies available for use. Each user signal is spread over the entire bandwidth by unique
spreading code. At the receiver end, the same unique code is used to recover the signal. CKMA
phones are noted for their excellent call quality and long battery life.
WLL (Wireless Local Loop) The WLL (also known as WiLL Wireless in Local Loop) is an
ideal application to provide telephone service to remote rural areas. This system is based on a full
duplex radio network that provides local telephone-like service among a group of users in remote
area. These areas could be connected via radio links to the national telephone network, all over the
world.
3G Technology The 3G (Third Generation) mobile communication technology is a
broadband, packet based transmission of text, digitized voice, video and multimedia at data rate
upto 2 Mbps, offering services to mobile computer and phone users all over the world.
3G technology is also called UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System). 3G
can work over wireless air interfaces such as GSM (Global System for Mobile), TDMA and
CDMA. The new EDGE (Enhanced Data for Global Evolution) air interface has been developed
specifically to meet the needs of 3G. EDGE is a radio based high speed mobile data standard.
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SMS (Short Message Service) The SMS is a transmission service for sending and receiving
text messages in the form of alpha-numeric characters, without image or graphics. SMS can be sent
to and received from a mobile phone, fax-machine and IP address.
When a message is sent, it is received by SMSC (Short Message Service Centre). Then, in
turn SMSC request to the HLR (Home Location Register) to find the location of roaming customer.
HLR responds to SMSC with subscribers status: 1) active or inactive and 2) subscribers location.
On the basis of this status, the SMSC sends the text message to its destination. It is clear form the
following figure:
SMSC
HLR

Email (Electronic Mail) The E-mail (e-mail) is a service provided by ISP (Internet Service
Process of SMS
Provider) through which electronic mails cab e sent and received over a computer network. The e-
mail service uses TCP/IP protocol suit to transmit the mail from one user to another by packet
switching mode.
Voice Mail The voice mail is a computerized telephone answering system that digitizes
incoming voice messages and stores them on a disk. This system has auto attendant capability, by
the use of which pre-recorded messages are sent to the appropriate person, department or mail-box.
Chat The chat or chatting is an on line textual talk in real time, between two or more users on
a LAN or Internet. The chat is accomplished by typing on the keyboard. Each keystroke is
transmitted as it is pressed.
Video Conferencing The 2-way face to face videophone conversation among multiple
participants is called video conferencing. Video conferencing cab eb accomplished through a
computer if webcam and video-conferencing software (such as Microsoft Netmeeting) is installed
in the computer. Video conferencing uses compressed digital images transmission over www on
Internet. A 56K communication channel supports freeze-frame video and with 1.544 Mbps channel,
full-motion video can be transmitted.
IMPORTANT INTERNET WORKING TERMS
|1| WWW (World Wide Web) The www is a system of Internet server that supports hypertext to
access many Internet protocols on a single interface. Almost all Internet protocols are accessible on
the web. This includes E-mail, FTP, Telnet and Usenet News. Besides these protocols, www has its
own protocols called HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol).
|2| Web Browser And Web Server The web browser is a software that allows to access and view
webpages. Microsoft Internet Explorer, Firefox Mozilla, Netscape Navigator are some very famous
web-browsers, and widely used in PCs.
Web server is a computer that provides www services on the Internet. It includes the
hardware, OS, web server software, TCP/IP protocols and the website contents (webpages). If the
web server is for internal use, it is known as an intranet-server.
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|3| Website And Web Address The Website is a location on the serer of the concerned net. Each
website is recognized or denitrified by its unique address. This unique address is called URL
(Uniform Resource Locator or Universal Resource Location). For example,
http://www.freesoftware.com/dictionary.asp, ; http://www.msn.com etc. obvious the URL has
following format:
type://address/path
Where, type: specifies the type of server, address specifies the location of URL, and path
specifies the path of the file (HTML pages).
In any URL e.g. http://www.invention.com, the http gives the information about both the
protocol and the server. Generally the web servers name begins with www. The suffix .com
indicates the domain name.
The characters based naming system by which servers are identified is also known as
domain name system (DNS). Some important Internet servers are:
|4| Web Page A document that is used by HTTP is called webpage.
|5| Home Page The home page is the top-level web page of a website. When a website is opened
its homepage is loaded and displayed first of all.
|6| Web Portal The web portal is a website that hosts other websites, through hyper-linking.
www.yahoo.com is an example of web portal. Web portal also provides resources and services such
as e-mail, forum (e.g. orkut, facebook etc.). Search engines, on-line shopping etc.
|7| Web Hosting The web hosting is a means to hosting of web server application on a computer
system through which electronic content is available on the Internet to any web-browser client.
The computer which provides the web-hosting is known as web server or web host, which
allows their customers to place html pages, graphics, multimedia files etc. Web hosting can be
divided into following 4 categories
Web Hosting
Free Hosting [Available free for fun or personal site on sites:

geocites.com, tripod.com, homestead.com etc.]
Vitual Hosting [Available free for fun or personal site on sites:

geocites.com, tripod.com, homestead.com etc.]
Dedicated Hosting [Renting of entire web-server by a

company for special needs such as e-commerce]
Colocalation Hosting [Company owning the site is responsible rather

than web-hosting]
|8| HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) The HTML is a coding system (language) used to
make web page. HTML is a document layout and hyperlink specified language. HTML provides
many layout commands, called tags that control the illustration of information (in text, image,
multimedia form) on a web page. HTML is built on top of SGML (Standard Generalised Markup
Language).
|9| HTML Editor The HTML editor is a web page authoring software that allows the creation of
web-pages that include graphical images, video, audio, animation and other especial effect.
Sometimes it is also called web page authoring software.
|10| XML (eXtensive Markup Language) The XML is a document format for the web page that
is more flexible than HTML. While HTML uses only predefined tags to describe elements within
the page, XML allows tags to be defined by the developer of the page. Thus, tags can be defined for
any data items such as product, sales etc. allowing the webpage to work like database record.
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|11| DHTML (Dynamic HTML) The DHTML are such content on the web page that varies each
time when it is viewed. For example, the same URL is connected to different page depending on
some parameter such as :
(i) time or date (ii) geographical location of reader (iii)
previous page viewed (iv) profile of the reader etc.
Hence DHTML is an extension to HTML, which enable a Web page to react to the user
without sending request to the web server. Thus DHTML = HTML + script or variation of
contents of web page depending on some parameter.
|12| Mosaic The Mosaic is a GUI web browser created by the university of Illinois National
Centre for Super Computing applications (NCSA). It was released early in 1993. Mosaic was the
web browser that exploded the interest in WWW, throughout the world. Originally developed for
UNIX, it was soon ported to Windows. An enhanced version of NCSA Mosaic is offered by
Spyglass Inc Naperville IL.
|13| Gopher The Gopher is an Internet application that searches for file names on the Internet
and presents hierarchical menus to the user. As users select options, they are moved to different
Gopher servers on the Internet. If links have been established, Usenet news and other information
can be read directly from Gopher. There are more than 7000 Gopher servers on the Internet.
|14| Usenet (User Network) The Usenet s a public access network on the Internet that provides
user news and group e-mail. It is a giant, dispersed bulletin board that is maintained by volunteers
who provide news and mail feeds to other nodes. All the news that travels over the Internet is called
NetNews, and running collection of messages about a particular subject is called a newsgroup.
Usenet began in 1979 as a bulletin-board between two universities in North Carolina, and today,
there are more than 50000 newsgroups. News can be read via a Web browser or via Newsreader
such as nn, rn, trn and tin.
|15| Archie The Archie is an Internet utility program that allows searching the files of all Internet
FTP servers that offer anonymous FTP. Archie servers periodically updated catalogs of local files
that are available to the public and lets user search those catalogues.
|16| Veronica The Veronica is a program that searches for specific resources by description, not
just file name, but also Boolean searches (like AND, OR). Users can search the Gopher sites, read
the entire directory and file names and then index them in one large index. However with almost
complete demise of Gopher servers, Veronica has become a relic of the early 1990s.
|17| WAIS (Wide Area Information System) The WAIS is a networked information retrieval
system, which can search all documents containing a particular keyword. Whenever, a user types a
keyword or topic, the WAIS server searches the Internet databases and libraries and returns a
master index containing information of all the sites containing the required documents. WAIS uses
Z39-50 query protocol to communicate between clients and servers.
NETWORK SECURITY Network security means the security and assurance that only legal or
authorized users and programs get access to information resource like databases, web pages,
username and passwords etc.
PROBLEMS OF NETWORK SECURITY
|1| Physical Security Holes The unauthorized physical access to a computer and tampering with
files is called physical security holes. Hackers do it by guessing passwords of various users and
then gaining access to network systems.
|2| Software Security Holes The badly written program or a software compromised for doing
illegal things is called software security holes.
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|3| Inconsistent Usage Holes The inconsistent usage holes occurs when a system administrator
collects a group of hardware and software which flaws the system seriously from security point of
view.
PROTCTION METHODS OR SECURITY MECHANISMS

|1| Authorization The authorization confirms the service requestors credential by asking the
user a legal login-id. If it is found correct, he/she is considered an authorized user.
|2| Authentication The authentication, also known as password-protection, is the process of
verifying a users identity. The use of a username and password is the most common method of
authentication on a network.
|3| Encrypted Smart Cards The encrypted smart cards are hand held smart cards that can
generate a token that a computer system can recognize. Every time a new and different token is
generated. It is a good answer to crackers and hackers.
|4| Biometric System The biometric system is a device that authenticates a person requesting
access by verifying personal characteristics such as finger prints, hand size, signature, retinal and
voice patterns.
|5| Firewall The firewall is a combination of hardware and software that prevents computers in
the organizations network from communicating directly with computers external to the network
and vice-versa. Instead, all communication is routed through a proxy server outside of the
organizations network and the proxy server decides whether it is safe to let a particular message or
file pass through the organizations network.
JARGONS RELATED TO NETWORK SEVURITY
|1| Cookie The cookie is a data in the form of text created by a web server that are stored on a
users computer. It provides a way for the website to keep track of users patterns and preferences
and stores them on the users own hard disk.
The cookies contain a range of URLs (web addresses) for which they are valid. When the
browser encounters those URLs again, it sends those specific cookies to the web server. The
cookies only contain information that a user provide to a website.
Both Netscape and Microsoft Internet Explorer (IE) can be set to reject cookies if a user
desires so. In Netscape cookie preference is set by following Edit>Preferences>Advanced Menu. In
IE cokes preference is set by following Tools>Internet Options>Security Menu.
|2| Crackers And Hackers The cracker is a person who breaks into a computer system without
authorization for the purpose of damage such as destroying files, stealing credit-card numbers,
projects, implanting viruses etc.
The hacker is person who enthusiastically gains illegal entrance into a computer system
only for gaining knowledge, not for damaging it.
|3| Cyber Law The Cyber Law is a rules and regulations that govern the cyberspace which
encompasses computers, computer networks, data and software. The cyber law further contains
following laws:
(i) Electronic and Digital Signature Laws,
(ii) Computer Crime Laws,
(iii) Intellectual Property Laws (Copywrite, Trademark, Patent laws etc),
(iv) Data Protection and Privacy Laws,
(v) Telecommunication Laws.
==== The End of This Chapter ====
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Communication And Network Concepts Page - 1 Communication And Network Concepts

INTERSPACE Interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to

Path for packet-1 Path for packet-2

Comparison Between Circuit Switching And Packet Switching

Twisted Pair Cable

Micro-wave (line of sight method of communication)

Radio-wave (RF (radio frequency) is used for transmission)

Infrared (use of infrared light to send data)

Laser (line of sight method of communication)

Satellite (Geosynchronous communication satellite)

Conductive sleeve Central copper wire

Advantages Of Optical Fiber

Advantages Of -Wave Cheaper as no digging for laying cables

Beam scattering device Roof

Laser Communication through laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

COMMON TERMINOLOGY USED IN COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Bus Or Linear Topology

Advantages Of Bus Topology

End-view of RJ-45 Connector (Male) End-view of RJ-45 Jack (Female)

AUI (Attachment Unit Interface)

Weak signals Amplified signals

Determination Of Optimum Technology

Repeater Hub Bridge Switch Router Work

Max. Distance form Host-A to Host-Z = 5 Segment, 4 Repeaters.

Use of Hub/Bridge/Switch/Router To establish a network between two computers, we have to

The First LAN

If only distance is needed to be increased, use of repeater is best.

URL Request URL

Internetworking of Different Networks via

An extension to SMTP is MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) which supports

Free Hosting [Available free for fun or personal site on sites:

Vitual Hosting [Available free for fun or personal site on sites:

Dedicated Hosting [Renting of entire web-server by a

Colocalation Hosting [Company owning the site is responsible rather

PROTCTION METHODS OR SECURITY MECHANISMS

==== The End of This Chapter ====

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