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STEFAN GEORGE AND THE THEATRE
BY ULRICH K. GOLDSMITH
as well as The Vikings at Helgeland, and he read parts of these plays to us. Ibsen also had
an influence on his own early verse" (Rouge, loc. cit.).
3 There are two drafts which were written in the school period (1886 and 1888 respec-
tively). See Stefan George, Gesamntausgabe der Werke (hereafter referred to as GA in this
paper) (Berlin: Georg Bondi, 1927-34), xvnI, 6.
4 Cf.
Rouge, p. 24.
85
86 Stefan George and the Theatre
theatre and in dramatic literature. On the contrary, the young poet could
be expected to continue to be interested in a medium that promised
access to a large public.
The literature of the George-Kreis contains continual references to a
desired reform of the drama over a period of about twenty years, starting
at the time of the foundation of the BlOtterfur die Kunst (the first issue
of which appeared in October 1892). A closer examination of the litera-
ture reveals that George and his friends hoped to create a new theatre
by reforming the art of acting as well as by writing a different kind of
drama. George's efforts and hopes remained unrewarded. He blamed the
dominating influence of the commercialized theatre and its undiscrim-
inating public for the difficulties he encountered. In his exasperation he
was driven by two contradictory urges. On the one hand he belittled the
theatre as not necessarily the highest fulfilment of the artistic expression
of an age, for "there are whole peoples with periods of cultural flowering
who have not developed it ... ."5 On the other hand he urged reform.
This dual attitude illustrates an outstanding character trait in George;
he wanted either to rule a sphere of activity or to have nothing to do
with it. His stature as a poet is not lessened by the memory of his
abortive attempts to gain a hold on the theatre of his time; rather, his
ambitions are to be regarded as part of his development. His unsuccess-
ful endeavors help to explain why George, the pedagogue, confined
himself to writing non-dramatic poetry.
In the fourth issue of the Blitter (May 1893), the editor and Georgian
mouthpiece Carl August Klein published as the second of his "Unter-
haltungen im gruinen Salon" an essay entitled "Das Theatralische"6
in which he envisaged a form of the theatre which accorded with a new
esthetic creed. Excerpts from the Belgian poet Charles van Lerberghe's
"Flaireurs" were quoted to illustrate that, as with lyrical poetry, the
artists of the West had taken the lead in the theatre too.
Klein regarded a change in the art of acting as the first consideration
for any reform in the theatre. He felt that the literary merit of stage
plays had become a matter of secondary concern to stage managers-a
complaint which was not new at the time, and which is still made today.
Unworthy plays became stage successes because the adept "life-like"
impersonations presented by the actors offered sensational entertain-
ment. The new drama, according to Klein, set up requirements of re-
5 Blatterfiar die Kunst (1904), vII, 7; also in Blatterfilr die Kunst: Eine Auslese aus den
Jahren 1898-1904 (hereafter referred to as Auslese, II), p. 19.
6
Pages 112 ff. Not reprinted in Auslese aus den Jahren 1892-98 (hereafter referred to as
Auslese, I), nor in Klein's Die Sendung Stefan Georges(Berlin: Rabenpresse, 1935), which
contains "Unterhaltungen" i and IIi.
Ulrich K. Goldsmith 87
7 Ibid., p. 116.
8 The abortive"Phraortes" plan is omittedin Wolters'account,p. 42 (see n. 1, above),
of Klein'sarticleon the theatre.
9 Page 34; also Auslese,I, 13 f. AlthoughC. A. Klein figuredas editor of the BlOtter,
the unsignededitorialswere written under George'sstrict supervision,if they did not
actuallycomefromhis own pen. LaterKarl Wolfskehlalso contributedto them.
88 Stefan George and the Theatre
20 Nachlass
(Zurich: Adolf Biirdeke [1937?]), pp. 53 f. For another description of this
feast see FranzDiilberg,"Henryvon Heiseler:ein Schicksalund ein Werk,"Preussische
Jahrbiicher (1933),ccxxxi, 261.
21 See George's"A. S.": "So war sie wirklichdiese runde?"(GA, iv, 86), "PortaNigra:
IngenioAlf. Scolari"(Blatter[1902-03],vi, 7 f., andGA,vi/vII, 16f.), and "Du alterhaus-
geist der um alte mauernwittert" (GA, vIII, 45). Schulerbelievedin reincarnation.See
Ludwig Klages' introduction to Schuler's Fragmenteund Vortrageaus dem Nachlass (Leip-
zig: J. A. Barth, 1940),pp. 59-60. This introductioncomprises119pages,but fails to con-
vince the readerof Schuler'sgenuinenessand allegedmysteriousgreatness.And the "cos-
mic" philosophyis moreclearlyanalyzedby the unsympatheticWolters(pp. 258 ff.). Cf.
also Franz Diilberg, "SehnsuchtsvolleHungerleider,"DeutscheRundschau(1930), LVI,
53, and LudwigCurtius,"MiinchnerPortraits,"Merkur(1950), iv, No. 1, 38-55 (esp.
"LudwigKlagesund AlfredSchuler,"pp. 50-55).
22Wolters, p. 276. Cf. George's poem "Maskenzug": "... der vordre-/ Verhiillt-ist
mannund muttermit der lampe."GA, vi/vII, 211.
23 Publishedin Blatter
(1904),va, 58.
24Lines 94-136; Bl4tter, vII, 30-32; also GA, x/xi, 70-72. The reed ("giunco")that
growson the shoreof MountPurgatoryis the symbolof humilityand Dante was to wear
a reedgirdlebeforehe startedon the ascent.
26
Kronberger, pp. 68 f.
26
Presumablythe re-creationof the heroicattitudes of otherlands and epochs was ex-
Ulrich K. Goldsmith 91
had previously posed as Caesar, must have given George a deep satis-
faction, and his friends were enabled to worship his impressive features
which have frequently been likened to those of Dante.
More than mere heroic and celebrative gesture was the performance
of the last procession on record, the "Maskenzug" that took place on
March 24, 1904, before a very exclusive audience in Wolfskehl's home.
It was in honor of the publication of the seventh volume of the Blatter
in which its text was printed.27Not only did the figure Seven have special
sanctity for George, but it was in this volume that he and Wolfskehl
renounced the "Kosmische Runde," although in terms which must seem
rather veiled and obscure to the outsider. The "Maskenzug" deals
figuratively with the conflict within the George circle that had just come
to a head, and its symbolism requires some commentary. The groups
and individuals forming the procession appeared in the following order:
Dionysus,28 Algabal and Gianino (the latter from Hofmannsthal's "Tod
des Tizian"),29 Manuel and Leila, the Lost Traveler ("Irrfahrer"), the
Master and the Disciples,30 the Women's Chorus, and the Red Child.
The dialogue, written by Wolfskehl, represents a remarkable combina-
tion of "life celebration and book publication," to use Wolters' expression
(p. 276). The four poetic figures from George's and Hofmannsthal's
works are introduced by the god Dionysus and celebrate themselves
and their authors. The "Lost Traveler" in mourning clothes represents
the "Cosmics,"31for whom fate holds nothing more than cold despair.32
pected to help the Germans find a genuine native "gesture," i.e., the outward sign of a
style of life peculiarly their own. Cf. BlOtter(1900-01), v, 3; also Auslese, II, 15: "Dass der
Deutsche endlich einmal eine geste: die deutsche geste bekomme-das ist ihm wichtiger
also zehn eroberte provinzen."
27 Albert
Verwey, the Dutch poet, received a copy of the volume with a note from George
which said: "Sie sehen daraus besser wie aus Briefberichten wie sich der Kreis hier ge-
andert hat und welche dreik6pfige Schlange endlich erledigt ist." Mein Verlidltniszu Stefan
George:Erinnerungen aus den Jahren 1895-1928, transl. from the Dutch by Antoinette
Eggink (Strassburg: Heitz, 1936), p. 45. Cf. also Wolters, p. 269.
28 Enacted by Wolfskehl. See Diilberg, "Henry von Heiseler," p. 261; Diilberg seems to
have confused some incidents of the "Antike Fest" with those of the "Maskenzug."
29Cf. Hofmannsthal's
response "Fur Karl Wolfskehl" (1904). Gedichte und lyrische
Dramen, ed. Herbert Steiner (Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer, 1946), p. 203.
30 Wolters, p. 316, mentions a second performance of the "Maskenzug" at which Kron-
berger "spoke jointly with Gulndolf the two 'disciples': clad in a simple blue tunic, with a
wreath of violets in his hair."
31George was aware of the differences in temperament and ideas between Klages and
himself quite early. See the poem "L. K." (GA, rv, 87), where he chided him for fleeing
from him. Schuler and Klages, however, considered George and Wolfskehl defaulters from
the common cause. Each side in the controversy claims to have taken the initiative for the
break. See Wolters, p. 269, and Klages, introd. to Schuler, pp. 75-76.
32The Lost Traveler says: "Drangt mich von meer zu meere / Frost mein genoss / Zur
lautlos letzten leere?" Blitter, vII, 152.
92 Stefan George and the Theatre
The Master and the Disciples speak about their own difficult journeys
into the future, and the former alone is able to visualize an eventual
safe return to port. The seven Women of the Chorus impersonate the
seven issues of the Blitter fur die Kunst, celebrating solemnly their own
offerings as heavy-scented wreaths, fruit of the orchards, and as foun-
tainheads and guardians of eternal stirrings. Finally the Red Child
appears, symbolizing the ideal of the Circle, the "New Life." As its turn
to speak comes, it calls for its mother, whereupon Dionysus announces
in hymnic form that the time for the sacrifice and renascence of the god
has come. All the actors then chant, in a "complete chorus," words of
blessing and encouragement to the child.33
Although a certain artistic merit must not be denied this symbolical
refutation of the mother-cultists in favor of a larger community, this
community yet remains limited enough. The relationships and conflicts
within the George circle could hardly provide adequate material for a
revival of the German drama. There is, moreover, no indication that
George seriously thought so. By now he realized that far more necessary
than a reform of stagecraft and acting was the emergence of a great
dramatic poet. None of the non-Georgian dramatists of the day was
given any consideration or credit. But George was not so blind as not to
see that there was no great dramatic talent among his own followers.34
One long-cherished hope was left to the Master: Hugo von Hofmannsthal.
George's efforts to educate this sensitive and charming Austrian and to
make him align himself entirely with the Blatter had been frequently
repulsed, but he believed for a long time that Hofmannsthal might
become the reviver of the drama. His little lyrical plays "Der Tod des
Tizian" and "Der Tor und der Tod" had given much promise in the
early nineties. It was a great event for the whole Kreis when on March
18, 1899, "Das Deutsche Theater" in Berlin performed Hofmannsthal's
Der Abenteurerund die Sdngerin. O. A. H. Schmitz, at that time a mem-
ber of the Kreis, notes: "George himself had come to Berlin and had
condescended for the first time to visit a theatre. He sat hidden in one
of the boxes at the rear of the dress circle, shielded by a few of his faithful
ones."35 George also went to the first night of Hofmannsthal's Elektra
in Berlin (October 30, 1903).36His reaction to these two plays was ap-
parently not one of unqualified enthusiasm.
33They exclaim: "Siehe wir alle dir mutter: gliihendes kind!" (p. 155).
34For poets who were under the influence of George it was difficult to develop dramatic
talent. Andre von Gronicka finds that George's influence was "detrimental to Heiseler's
dramatic art," which was mostly "lyrical or choric in character." Henry von Heiseler (New
York: King's Crown Press, 1944), p. 166.
35 Ddmon Welt, p. 218.
Stefan George felt that the great new play remained to be written.
Its one basic requirement was that it should express what is most noble
in man, irrespective of his special associations in time. Hence an imitation
of Greek tragedy as such was not necessarily assured of George's ap-
proval. In a letter to Hofmannsthal of December 1904 he showed that
he saw the essential qualities of true drama in Shakespeare's plays as
well as in the great Greeks, and he defined succinctly the difference
between Shakespeare and the modern social and historical drama as
he saw it: "In Shakespeare the dramatic action springs from the charac-
ters which his passionate soul has created; in the modern play: from
thought constructions, from plots which depend on certain external
conditions. With the former everything stands as rough and untamed
necessity, the latter deal in defiling superfluities and titillations."37
George sought to encourage Hofmannsthal to create the original mod-
ern drama which would lack those accidental elements of social milieu
and, instead, would have a mythical quality. He both threatened and
cajoled: "The great work for the stage has not been accomplished yet.
We would not know from whom to expect it, if not from you."
The gradual estrangement between the two men was deepening during
those years, for their temperaments and opinions were at variance.
George's chief criticism of Hofmannsthal was that he compromised his
high calling by cooperating in journalistic and other enterprises of the
day instead of keeping aloof from the World as the Master himself did.
The final break came over a small incident in 1906. Once severed from
the Kreis Hofmannsthal was considered by it an apostate who failed
to live up to a great mission. His collaboration with Richard Strauss,
which began in 1909, can only have confirmed that opinion, since modern
music was by that time on the Georgian index of culturally degenerate
forces.38By 1910 George had no longer any illusions that the changes
in the theatre which he desired would take place. Herbert Steiner ob-
serves that George said to him in that year that he had seen Eleanora
Duse and considered her art "a significant individual achievement,"
but "the modern theatre could not be saved."39
The editorial notes "Uber das drama" in the eighth Bldtter volume
(1909) reflect the attitude to which George had now resigned himself.
37 "Bei ibm bildet sich die
handlungaus gestalten seinerleidenschaftlichenseele bei
den heutigenaus gedanklichem:aus abwickelungen bei diesenoderjenenvoraussetzungen *
dortist alles rauheund rohenotwendigkeit-hieraberbefleckendezutat odergar kitzel."
Briefwechsel, p. 223.
38 For the Georgiancontemptfor modern music cf. Wolfskehl, "Uberden Geist der
Musik,"Jahrbuchfiirdie geistigeBewegung(1912),Im, 20-32 (esp.24-25), and ErichWolff
and Carl Petersen,Das Schicksalder Musik von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart (Breslau:
F. Hirt, 1923),esp. pp. 191-261.
39Begegnungmit StefanGeorge(Aurora:Wells Coll. Press, 1942),pp. 7-8.
94 Stefan George and the Theatre
The editor recognizes that a reform of the arts of acting and staging
could never result in a new theatre. A refutation of the efficacy of merely
a "new gesture" is implied when it is suggested that one might as well
try to revive great painting by building a large factory for better and
more tasteful frames. "With such childish hopes they start today to
improve and to renew the exterior scaffolding in order to revive the
drama. All these efforts of the stage-manager, painter, and actor serve
only to draw attention to secondary things and to consign the true
meaning of drama to oblivion." The incontestable conclusion of the
article is that "if a renewal of the drama should come about, it will only
come through rhythm and through the living voice of a poet." But that
had now become a forlorn hope for the Georgians, for "no dramatic
wind fills the community, no elemental dramatic urge pushes the indi-
vidual as in Shakespeare's days."40 Sorrowful contempt was liberally
heaped upon the theatrical business. The criticism pointed out that the
theatre owed its successes, indeed its very existence, only to the opera-
tions of cunning financiers who exploited the lethargic habits of unedu-
cated audiences and fooled them by startling feats of stage mechanics.
Karl Wolfskehl's preoccupation with the drama did not last much
longer than his Master's. In his essay "Uber das Drama" in the seventh
Bltiter volume he too concluded with a heavy note of resignation:
"Those poetic works which are written in dramatic form today are
hardly ever meant to be performed on the stage if they have any artistic
value. They are either plays written in antiquated style or, usually,
lyrical poetry in dialogue form" (p. 65). It is difficult to say whether
he really thought that there was a future in this type of play. His own
"Mystery" plays in rhapsodic style, two of which ("Sanctus" and
"Orpheus") were published in the eighth Blitter volume, fit exactly his
definition of "lyrical poetry in dialogue form." The editor took pains to
distinguish these "Spiele" from drama proper. Having spoken the death
sentence on all contemporary dramatic art, he had to find kindlier words
for Wolfskehl's efforts; so he praised them "as the expression of a world
that was only just being formed," but he did not recommend these plays
as harbingers of a dramatic revival because after all they had nothing
to do "with the known requirements of the stage and [were]-as yet too
new to form a subject of discussion.""4
It is unlikely that Wolfskehl deceived himself about the possibilities
of his lyrical plays. In some further notes on the drama in the same
eighth volume, signed by him, Wolfskehl sums up the Georgian view
with sweeping finality: "The public stage is finished. One can tell the
40 Blitter
(1908-09), viII, 6-7, 5.
41
Page 6: Auslese aus den Jahren 1904-1909 (1909), p. 11.
Ulrich K. Goldsmith 95