Water Supply & Treatment Module

WATER AND WASTE MANAGEMENT MODULE
HEng-M3171
Core
26/09/2006 E.C
WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT
WSEE-3171
1ST Course
Writer:
Hasen Hussien: (BSc)
Editor:
1. Worku Gadisa: (BSc)
2. Haftom G/hiwot:(BSc)
I.GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Course description
Demand for water: Variation and factors affecting demand; quantity of water for domestic
agricultural and industrial uses; fire demand; methods of forecasting population; Collection and
distribution of water ,sanitation and health relationship; physical, chemical and biological
analysis of water ; introduction of water treatment ; water sources; preliminary treatment
methods; coagulation sedimentation ; filtration , disinfection; miscellaneous methods of water
treatment; Distribution system, analysis of complex pipe net works.
The students will perform in the water quality lab on water sample to determine the physical,
chemical and biological properties of water like turbidity color, temperature, hardness.
Conductivity jar test to determine the optimal dosage of coagulant. And etc
Course objective and Competences to be acquired
Objective:
The objective of the course is to give students a broad understanding and knowledge on
planning, designing and to provide students a general knowledge on water purification and
supply methods.
Outcomes:
After completion of this course students will be able to
Calculate and project demand of water for a community at different scenarios
Know method of collection and distribution of water
Analysis of physical, chemical, biological aspects of water
Design distribution system of water supply schemes
Department which would take this course:
Third year hydraulic and water resource engineering at 5th semester or Third year semester (I)
The pre- requisites course: Hydraulics II
The status of the course is: Compulsory
Teaching and Learning methods: lecture, tutorial and exercise
Assessment and grading system: continues assessment..50%
Final exam...50%
Course policy: Students must attend at least 80% of the classes and 100% during practice
Literature:
1. Viessman W. and Hammer m.(2004). Water Supply and pollution control. printice Hall.7/e
2. Alan C.Twort, Don D. Ratnayaka. (2000). water Supply.Butterworth-Heinemann.
Time Frame of the Course

ECTS Credits 4 Credit points
Lecture Tutorial Practice or Laboratory Home study
Contact Hours (per week)
2 3 0 2
Learning Guide
Students will be able to learn this course to achieve the competences
First you should understand the course by detail reading what it says by comparing what
the instructor of the course lecturing
Second visualization comes to translate from theory to the practical ground of water
resource potential
Exercise comes at 3rd through thinking
Finally you will be able to know how to effectively utilize the water resource potential
through engineering design and estimate its benefit of engineering economic aspect
Table of Contents Page: No
Contents..i
List of Table..........iii
List of Figure.....iv
CHAPTER ONE .........................................................................................................................1
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM ......................................................................................................1
1.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................1
1.2. Objective of water supply system ......................................................................................1
1.3. Rate of Water Demand ......................................................................................................2
1.5. Design Period ................................................................................................................. 13
1.6. Population Forecasting .................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................... 21
SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY............................................................................................... 21
2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 21
2.1.1 Surfaces Sources ................................................................................................................... 21
2.1.2 Subsurface Sources ............................................................................................................... 22
2.2 Intakes for Collecting Surface Water ........................................................................................ 27
2.2.1 Types of Intake structures...................................................................................................... 28
2. 2.2. Water Sources Selection Criteria ......................................................................................... 30
CHPTER THREE ..................................................................................................................... 32
WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTION .................................................................................. 32
3.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 32
3.2 Water Quality Characteristics .......................................................................................... 32
3.2.1. Physical Characteristics ........................................................................................................ 33
3.2.2. Chemical Characteristics .............................................................................................. 35
3.2.3 Biological Characteristics ...................................................................................................... 42
3.3. Examination of Water Quality ............................................................................................ 43
CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................... 47
WATER TREATMENT............................................................................................................ 47
4.1 Introductions .................................................................................................................... 47
i
4.2. Objective of treatment ..................................................................................................... 48
4.3. Types of preliminary treatment ....................................................................................... 51
4.3.2. Aeration ............................................................................................................................... 54
4.3.3. Screening ............................................................................................................................. 57
4.3.4. Plain Sedimentation ............................................................................................................. 60
4.3.5. Coagulation.......................................................................................................................... 81
4.3.6. Flocculation ......................................................................................................................... 89
4.4 miscellaneous water treatment ....................................................................................... 119
4.4.1 Removal of Taste and Odor Problem ................................................................................... 119
4.4.2. Causes of Odor and Taste ................................................................................................... 120
4.4.3. Prevention of odours and tastes from microorganisms ........................................................ 120
4.4.4. Recommended method to remove test and odour problem .................................................. 121
CHATER FIVE....................................................................................................................... 124
WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ...................................................................................... 124
5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 124
5.2. Requirement of Distribution System ............................................................................. 124
5.3. System of Distribution .................................................................................................. 124
5.4. Methods of Supply of Water ......................................................................................... 126
5.5. Layouts of Distribution System ..................................................................................... 127
5.6 Pressure in the Distribution System ................................................................................ 129
5.7. Service/Distribution Reservoirs ..................................................................................... 130
5.9 Appurtenances in the Distribution System...................................................................... 141
5.10. Determination of Pipe Sizes ........................................................................................ 144
5.11 Procedure of Analyzing Pipe Size and Pressure ............................................................ 148
6. CHAPTER SIX PREPARATION OF WATER SUPPLY PROJECTS ................................ 158
ii
LIST OF TABLE PAGE: No
Table: 1.1 Estimation of per capita demand for piped water in l/c/d (1997) for population of
Greater than 30,000(urban and rural) .2
Table: 1.2.Estimate of per capita demand for piped water in l/c/d (1997) for population of less
Than 30,000 (for urban between 2500 and 30000)......3
Table: 1.3 Estimate of per capita demand for rural schemes in l/c/d (1997) ......4
Table.1.4 Commercial and institutional demand.....4
Table.1.5 .Typical values of water use for various industries.....5
Table 1.6 Residential fire flows...7
Table 1.7 Fire flow duration....8
Table 1.8 Design periods for various units of water supply system..13
Table: 3.1 Gases are less soluble in warmer water....37
Table: 3.2 classification of hardness..39
Table: 3.3 (w.h.o) guideline for drinking water quality.....44
Table: 4.1.the nature of impurities and their removal process...47
Table: 4.2.Design parameter for plain sedimentation ....59
Table: 4.3.Turbidity removal ....60
Table: 4.4.weights in grams of chlorine compounds to produce 1% chlorine solutions for dosing
purposes...115
Table: 4.5.Volumes (liter) of 1% chlorine solution required for disinfection of water
supplies....115
Table: 5.1.recommended depth....136
Table: 5.2.Water supply pipes sizes commercially available ......144
Table: 5.3.Values of C for the Hazen-Williams formula.....145
iii
LIST OF FIGURE PAGE: No
Figure: 1.1 Variation in rate of water consumption throughout the day....11
Figure: 1.2 Seasonal variation of water demand....12
Figure: 2.1 Infill ration Gallery......22
Figure: 2.2Infiltration Well23
Figure: 2.3 Jack Well...................................................................................................................23
Figure: 2.4 Gravity spring..24
Figure: 2.5 Surface spring..24
Figure: 2.6 Artesian Springs..25
Figure: 2.7 Artesian Springs..25
Figure: 2.8 Shallow well...25
Figure: 2.9 Deep Well ...27
Figure: 2.10 Lake Intakes..28
Figure: 2.11.River intakes..29
Figure: 2.12.Reservoir intakes...29
Figure: 2. 13 Canal intakes....30
Figure: 4.1.River Intake.............................................................................................................51
Figure: 4.2.Lake Intake......51
Figure: 4.3 Channel Intake.....52
Figure: 4.4 Gravity aerators...54
Figure: 4.5 Tray aerator.55
Figure: 4.6.Spray aerator...55
Figure: 4.7.Air diffusion aerator....55
Figure: 4.8.Mechanical aerator..56
Figure: 4.9.Screen..57
Figure: 4.11Rectangular basins..63
Figure: 4.12.double deck basins.64
Figure: 4.13.Square or circular sedimentation basins ....64
Figure: 4.14.Zone of a settling tank...65
Figure: 4.14.1.Types of Inlet Structure:.65
Figure: 4.14.2.Settling zone...66
iv
Figure: 4.14.4 Outlet Zone.....68
Figure: 4.15. Sharp bends in the pipe at the inlet...........................................................................70
Figure: 4.16 water is discharged above the sedimentation basin...71
Figure: 4.17Short-circuiting...71
Figure: 4.18a rectangular sedimentation basin..73
Figure: 4.19.Appearance of turbidity.....80
Figure: 4.20.Negatively charged particle and positively charged coagulants...81
Figure: 4.22.Dry feeding devices...85
Figure: 4.23. Mixing channel 86
Figure: 4.24.Flash mixer....86
Figure: 4.25.Deflector plate mixer.87
Figure: 4.26Flocculator..88
Figure: 4.27.Slow sand filter..94
Figure: 4.28.Rapid sand filter 97
Figure: 4.29.Vertical Pressure filters.98
Figure: 4.30.Break point chlorination .109
Figure: 5.1.Gravity systems.....123
Figure: 5.2.pumping system.....123
Figure: 5.3.Dual system of distribution...124
Figure: 5.4.Dead End Systems.125
Figure: 5.5Grid iron method....126
Figure: 5.6.Circular of ring system......127
Figure: 5.7.Radial systems...127
Figure: 5.8.Elevated and surface reservoir..130
Figure: 5.9.Accessories of service reservoirs ..131
Figure: 5.10.Post fire hydrants.142
v
WSEE-3171: WATER SUPPLY & TREATMENT
CHAPTER ONE
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

1.1. Introduction
Common wards:-
Palatable- water having no unpleasant taste
Safe- water free from pathogenic microorganisms& chemicals which could be a harmful
for consumer
Clean- water free from suspended solids and turbidity
Colorless and odorless water aesthetic to drink
Reasonably soft water allowing easy wash of cloths, dishes with less soap.
Lower organic content-to avoid unwanted biological growth in pipes & smell
Non corrosive- devoid of gases e.g. O2, Co2
Potable- water suitable for drinking i.e. safe and pleasant to taste
Whole same- potable water having sufficient minerals of natural origin which are must for
life.
Contaminated:- water having microorganisms and chemicals or substances making the
water unsafe and dirty. In the design of any water supply scheme for a town or city it is
necessary to determine the total quantity of water required for various purposes by the city.
As a matter of fact the first duty of the engineer is to determine this quantity of water and
then finding out the suitable water sources from where the demand can be satisfied. But as
there are so many factors involved in demand of water, it is not possible to accurately
determine the actual demand. Certain empirical formulae and thumb rules are employed in
determining the water demand, which is near to the actual demand. Actually the
determination of the quantity of water is dependent upon the size of the Community and
the purpose for which it is needed.
1.2. Objective of water supply system

The main objective of water supply system is to design the required demand of water for
different purposes to which the water is to be supplied and preparing design consideration
ASSL: HASEN.H - 1- AKU

which are important to determine the degree of treatment plant and the methods of water
supply source.
The ultimate aim of water supply system is to supply potable water to all the consumers
whenever required in sufficient quantity with required pressure with least lost and without
any deficits of water.
Based on this information three items need to be determined for calculating the total
quantity of Water required for a town or city, these are:
Rate of water demand (water consumption for various purpose)
per capital demand
Design period
Population forecast
1.3. Rate of Water Demand

In order to arrive at a reasonable value of rate of demand for any particular town, the
demand of water for various purposes is divided under the following categories.
1. Domestic water demand4.Institutional water demand
2. Commercial water demand5.Fire fighting water demand
3. Industrial water demand6.Unaccounted for water
1. Domestic Water Demand
It includes the quantity of water required in the houses for drinking, bathing, washing
hands and face, flushing toilets, washing clothes, floors, utensils, etc.
In developed countries the domestic water demand may be as high as 350l/cap/day. In
many cases water demands are fixed by governmental agencies. Water demand data
provided by ministry of water resources of Ethiopia are given in tables below.
Table: 1.1 Estimation of per capita demand for piped water in l/c/d (1997) for population
of Greater than 30,000(urban and rural)
No. Activity House Yard Public Rural

Connection connection fountain(standard pipe) schemes
1 Drinking 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
2 Cooking 7.5 5.5 4.5 3.5

3 Ablutions 17 12 7 5
4 Washing 5 4 4 3
dishes
5 Laundry 15 8 7 4
6 House 7 3 2 2
cleaning
7 Bath and 20 4 3 .
shower
8 Toilets 6 1
9 Total 80 40 30 20
Table: 1.2.Estimate of per capita demand for piped water in l/c/d (1997) for population of
less Than 30,000 (for urban between 2500 and 30000).
No. Activity House Yard connection Public Rural

Connection fountain(standard pipe) schemes
1 Drinking 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
2 Cooking 5.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
3 Ablutions 15 10 6 5
4 Washing 5 2 2 2
dishes
5 Laundry 15 8 7 3
6 House
cleaning
7 Bath and 4 1
shower
8 Toilets 20 24
9 Total 66 50 20 15
Table: 1.3 Estimate of per capita demand for rural schemes in l/c/d (1997)
s. No Activity minimum average maximum

1 Drinking 1.5 1.5 3.5

2 Cooking 2.5 3.5 4.5
3 Ablutions 4 5 5
4 Washing dishes 2 3 4
5 Laundry 3
6 House cleaning
7 Bath and shower
8 Toilets
9 Total 10 15 20
2. Commercial Water Demand

It is the water required for commercial buildings & centers include stores, hotels,
shoppingcenters cinema houses, restaurants, bar airport, automobile service station,
railway and busstations, etc
3. Institutional Water Demand
This is also known as public demand. It is the water required for public buildings
andinstitution such as schools, hospitals, public parks, play grounds, gardening, sprinkling
on rods, etc, Table.1.4
Categories Typical rate of water use per day

Day school 5lit/pupil
Boarding school 100lit/pupil
Hospitals 100lit/bed
Church/Mosque 5lit/visitor
Cinema houses 5lit/visitor
Public paths 100lit/visitor
Abattoir 300lit/cow
Hotels 100lit/bed

Restaurant-bar 15lit/seat
Offices 5lit/person
Prison 30lit/person
Table.1.4 Commercial and institutional demand
4. Industrial Water Demand
The water requirements for this purpose defend up on the type and size of the industry
(table 1.5)
Table.1.5 .Typical values of water use for various industries
Types of industry Range of flow (*Gal/ ton Product)
Cannery
Green beans 12000-17000
Peaches & pears 3600-4800
Other fruits & vegetables 960-8400
Chemical
Ammonia 24000-72000
Carbon dioxide 14400-21600
Lactose 144000-192000
Sulfur 1920-2400
Food and beverage
Beer 2400-3840
Bread 480-960
Meat packing 3600-4800
Milk products 2400-4800
Whisky 14400-19200
Pulp and paper
Pulp 60000-190000
Paper 29000-38000
Textile
Bleaching 48000-72000
Dyeing 7200-14400

1gal. = 3.7854 lit

5. Fire fighting water demand (Fire demand)
Fires generally break in thickly populated localities and in industrial area and cause serious
damages of properties and some time life of people are lost. Fire may take place sue to
faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching materials, explosions, bad iterations
of criminal people or any other unforeseen happenings. If fires are not properly controlled
and extinguished in minimum possible time, they lead to serious damages and may burn
the cities. In cities fire hydrants should be provided on the mains at a distance of 100 to
150m apart. Fire brigade men immediately connect these fire hydrants with their engines &
start throwing water at very high rate on the fire. Fire demand is treated as a function of
population and some of the empirical formulae commonly used for calculating demand as
follows:
A) John R.Freeman s formula:

Q = 1136.50*( + 10)
Where Q = Quantity of water required in 1/min.

P = population in thousands
He also states that
/
= 2.8
Where F = period of occurrence of Fire in year
B) Knucklings formula
Q = 3182* P1/2
c) National Boarded of Fire Underwriters formula (widely used in USA)
Q = 4637* P1/2 *(1 - 0.01* P1/2 )
Example 1

Calculate the fire demand for a population of 100,000 by using formulae of Freeman,
knuckling and national Board of Fire Underwriters.
Name of Formula Formula Fire Demand in l/min

/
Freeman Q = 1136.50*( + 10) =34095 = 2.8 =28 year
Knuckling Q = 3182* P1/2 =31820 --------------

National Board of Q = 4637* P1/2 *(1 - 0.01* P1/2 ) ----------------
Fire,Underwriter =41733
Although the actual amount of water in a year for firefighting is smaller than the rate of
use, the
Insurance Service Office (USA) uses the formula
Q = 18*C*(A) 0.5
Where Q = the required fire flow in gpm (lit/min/3.78)
C = a coefficient related to the type of construction which ranges from a max of 1.5
for wood frame to a minimum of 0.60 for fire resistive construction.
A = total floor area ft2 (m2x10.76) excluding the basement of the building
The fire flow calculated from the formula is not to exceed 30,240 lit/min in general, nor
22,680 lit/min for one story construction .The minim fire flow is not to be less than 1890
lit/min. Additional flow may be required to protect nearby buildings. The total for all
purposes for a single fire is not to exceed 45,360 lit/min nor be less than 1990 lit/min. For
groups of single and two-family residences, the following table may be used to determine
the required flow. The fire flow must be maintained for a minimum of 4 hours as shown in
table 1.6. Most communities will require duration of 10 hours.
Table 1.6. Residential fire flows
Distance b/n adjacent units in m Required fire flow in lit/min
> 30.5 1890

9.5 - 30.5 2835 - 3780
3.4 - 9.2 3780 - 5670

< = 3.0 5670 7560*
* For continuous construction use 9450 lit/min
Table 1.7.Fire flow duration
Required fire flow in l/min Duration in hrs

< 3780 4
3780-4725 5
4725-5670 6
5670-6615 7
6615-7560 8
7560-8505 9
>8505 10
Example 2
In order to determine the max water demand during a fire, the fire flow must be added to
the maximum daily consumption. It is assumed that a community with a population of
22,000 has an average consumption of 600 lit/capita/day and flow directed by a building of
ordinary construction(C = 1) with a floor area of 1000m2 and a height of 6 stories, the
calculation is as follows:
Average domestic demand = 22,000*600 = 18.2*106 lit/day
Maximum daily demand = 1.8*13.2*106 = 23.76*106lit/day
F = 18(1) (1000*10.76*6) 0.5 = 17,288 lit/min = 24.89*106lit/day
Maximum rate = 23.76*106 + 24.89*106 = 48.65*106 lit/day = 2,211 lit/capita/day for 10
hours
The total flow required during this day would be
= 23.76 + 24.89*10/24

= 34.13*106 liters = 1,551 lit/capita/day

The difference between the maximum domestic rate and the above values is frequently
provided from elevated storage tanks.
6) Unaccounted for Water
These include the quantity of water due to wastage, losses, thefts, etc, i.e.
Waste in the pipelines due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves
and fittings
Water that is lost when consumers keep open their taps or public taps even when they are
not using water and allow continuous wastage of water.
Water that is lost due to unauthorized and illegal connection
While estimating the total water demand of water for a town or city, allowance for these
losses and wastage should be done. Generally, 15 40% of the total quantity of water is
made to compensate for lose, thefts and wastage of water
1.4. Per capita Demand
If Q is the total quantity of water required by various purposes by a town per year and P
is the population of town, then per capita demand will be
p. C. D = l/day
365
For the purposes of estimation of total requirement the water demand is expressed in
liters/capita/day i.e. per capita demand.The following are the main factors affecting per
capita demand of the town:
Climatic condition: The requirement of water in summer is more than that in winter. The
quantity of water required in hotter and dry places is more than cold countries because of
the use of air coolers, more washing of clothes and bathing ..etc.
Size of the community: Water demand is more with increase of size of town because more
water is required in street washing, running of sewers, maintenance of parks and gardens.
Standard of living: The per capita demand of the town increases with the standard of living
of the people because of the use of air conditioners, room coolers, maintenance of lawns,
use of flush, latrines and automatic home appliances etc.
Industries and commercial activities: As the quantity of water required in certain industries
is much more than domestic demand, their presence in the town will enormously increase

per capita demand of the town. As a matter of the fact the water required by the industries
has no direct link with the population of the town.
Quality of water: If the quality of water is good, the people will consume more water. On
the other hand, if the water has unpleasant taste or odor, the rate of consumption will
down.
System of sanitation: If a town is provided with water carriage system of sanitation, the per
capita demand increases because the people will use more quantity of water for flushing
sanitary fixtures.
Cost of water: The higher the cost, the lower will be the per capita demand and vice versa.
Use of water meters: If metering is introduced for the purpose of charging, the consumer
will be cautious in using water and there will be less wastage of water.So per capita
demand may lower down.
System of supply: The supply of water may be continuous or intermittent. In the former
case, water is supplied for 24 hour and in the latter case water is supplied for certain
duration of day only.
It is claimed that intermittent supply system will reduce per capita demand. But sometimes,
the results are proved to be disappointing, mainly for the following reasons: During non-
supply period, the water taps are kept open and hence, when the supply starts, water
flowing through open taps is unattended and this results in waste of water. There is
tendency of many people to through away water stored previously during non- supply
hours to collect fresh water. This also results in waste of water and increase per capita
demand.
Variation in rate of consumption
The per capita daily water consumption (demand) figures discussed above have been based
upon annual and it indicates the average consumption. The annual average daily
consumption, while useful, does not tell the full story.In practice it has been seen that this
demand does not remain uniform throughout the year. Climatic conditions, the working
day, etc tends to cause wide variations in water use. The variation may be categorized into
two broad classes:
Seasonal fluctuation

Daily and hourly fluctuation

Through the week, Monday will usually have the highest consumption, and Sunday the
lowest. Some months will have an average daily consumption higher than the annual
average. In most cites the peak month will be July or august. Especially hot, dry weathers
will produce a week of maximum consumption, and certain days will place still greater
demand upon the water system.Peak demands also occur during the day, the hours of
occurrence depending upon thecharacteristics of the city. There will usually be a peak in
the morning as the days activities start and a minimum about 4am. A curve showing
hourly variation in consumption for a limitedarea of city may show a characteristic shape.
But there will be a fairly high consumption through the working day. The night flow,
excluding industries using much water at night, is agood indication of the magnitude of the
loss and waste.
Figure: 1.1Variation in rate of water consumption throughout the day

Figure: 1.2 Seasonal variation of water demand

The important of keeping complete records of water consumption of city for each day and
fluctuations of demand throughout the day cannot be overemphasized. So far as possible
the information should be obtained for specific areas. These are the basic data required for
planning of water works improvement. If obtained and analyzed, they will also indicate
trends in per capita consumptions and hourly demands for which further provision must be
made. In the absence of data it is sometimes necessary to estimate the maximum water
consumption during a month, weekday, or hours. The maximum daily consumption is
likely to be 180 % of the annual average and may rich 200 %. The formula suggested by
R.O Goodrich is convenient for estimating consumption and is:
_ .
= 180
Where p = the percentage of the annual average consumption for the time t in days from
2/24 to 360.The formula gives consumption for the maximum day as 180 percent of the
average, the weekly consumption148 percent, and the monthly as 128 percent. These
figures apply particularly to smaller residential cites. Other sites will generally have
smaller peaks. The maximum hourly consumption is likely to be about 150 percent of the
average for that day. Therefore, the maximum hourly consumption for a city having an
annual average consumption of 670 lit/day per capita would occur on the maximum day
and would be 670*1.8*1.5 or 1809 lit/day. The fire demand must also be added, according
to the method indicated in the above articles. Peaks of water consumption in certain areas

will affect design of the distribution system. High peaks of hourly consumption can be
expected in residential or predominantly residential sections because of heavy use of water
for lawn watering especially where underground system are used, air condition or in other
water using appliance. Since use of such appliances is increasing peak hourly
consumptions are also increasing. The determination of this hourly variation is most
necessary because on its basis the rate of pumping will be adjusted to meet up the demand
in all hours.
1.5. Design Period

Before designing and construction a water supply scheme, it is the engineers duty to
assure that the water works should have sufficient capacity to meet the future water
demand of the town for number of years. The number of years for which the designs of the
water works have been done is known as the design period.
The period should neither should neither be to short or too long. Mostly water works are
designed for design period of 22 - 30 years which is fairly good period. In some specific
components of the project, the design period may be modified. Different segments of the
water treatment and distribution systems may be approximately designed for differing
periods of time using differing capacity criteria, so that expenditure far ahead of utility is
avoided. Table: 1.8 gives the design periods for various units of water supply system:
Table 1.8Design periods for various units of water supply system
S. No Name of Unit Design period in years

1 Storage (dam) 50
2 Electric motors & pumps 15
3 Water treatment units 15
4 Distribution (pipe line) 30
5 Pipe connection to several treatment plants and other 30
appurtenant
6 raw water and clear water conveyance pipes 30

In general the following points should be kept in mind while fixing the design period for
any water supply scheme. Funds available for the completion of the project (the higher the
availability of the fund the higher will be the design period.) Life of the pipe and other
structural materials used in the water supply scheme (Design period in no case should have
more life than the components and materials used in the scheme. At least the design period
should be nearly equal to the materials used in water supply works.) Rate of interest on the
loans taken to complete the project (If the interest rate is less, it will be good to keep
design period more otherwise the design period should be small) Anticipated expansion
rate of the town.
1.6. Population Forecasting

The data about the present population of a city under question can always be obtained from
the records of municipality or civic body. The knowledge of population forecasting is
important for design of any water supply scheme. When the design period is fixed the next
step is to determine the population of a town or city population of a town depends upon the
factors like births, deaths, migration and annexation.
The future development of the town mostly depends upon trade expansion, development
industries, and surrounding country, discoveries of mines, construction of railway stations
etc may produce sharp rises, slow growth and stationary conditions or even decrease the
population. The following are the common methods by which the forecasting of population
is done.
1. Arithmetic increases method
2. Geometric increase method
3. Incremental increase method
4. Decrease rate method
5. Simple graphical method
6. Master plan curve method
7. Logistic curve method
8. Ration & correlation
1. Arithmetic increase method

This method is based on the assumption that the population is increasing at a constant rate
i.e. the rate of change of population with time is constant.
= or = which is pn = p0 + Kn
Where; Pn = population at n decades or years

Po = present/initial population at the base year
n = decade or year
K= arithmetic increase
This method is generally applicable to large and old cities.
Example 3: The following data has been noted from the statistics authority for certain
town.
Year 1940 1950 1960 1970

Population 8000 12000 17000 22500
Calculate the probable population in the year 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2006.
2. Geometric increase method
This method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in population remains
constant.
P1 = Po + K Po = Po (1 + K)
P2 = P1 (1 + K) = Po (1 + K)(1 + K)
P3 = P2 (1 + K) = Po (1 + K) (1 + K) (1 + K)
P n= Po (1+K) n

Where Po = initial population

Pn = population at n decades or years
n = decade or year
K = percentage (geometric) increase
This method is mostly applicable for growing towns and cities having vast scope of
expansion.
Example 4: Forecast the population of example 3 by means of geometric increase method.
3. Incremental increase method
This method is improvement over the above two methods. From the census data for the
past several decades, the actual increase in each decade is first found. Then the increment
in increase for each decade is found. From these, an average increment of the increase is
calculated. The population in the next decade is found by adding to the present population
the average increase plus the average incremental increase per decade. Thus, the future
population at the end of n decade/year is given by:
( )
= + +
Where P = present population

I = average increase per decade/year
r = average incremental increase
n = number of decades/years
Example 5: Forecast the population of example 3 above using incremental increase
method

4. Decrease growth rate method

In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is worked out and is
subtracted from the latest percentage increase for successive period. This method is
applicable only in such cases, where the rate of growth of population shown a downward
trend. It assumed that the city has some limiting saturation population and its rate of
growth is a function of its population deficit:
"
= (Ps-P)
K may be determined from the successive census

K = - ( )
Where P and P0 are populations recorded n years apart.

Future population can then be estimated using
Pn = P0 + (Ps-P0) (1-ekn)
5. Logistic curve method
When the population of a town is with plotted with respect to time, the curve so obtained
under normal condition shall be S shaped logistic curve. According to P.F. Verhulst, the
logistic curve can be represented by the equation

Pn = ( )
Where Ps = Saturation population

P0 = Population at starting point
Pn = Population at any time t from the starting point
m=
n = -KPs
Taking three points from the range of census population data at equal time intervals (t1,
P1), (t2,
P2) and (t3, P3)
Where t2 = t1 +t
t3 = t2 +t
1 2 3 2 ( 1 + 2)
=
1 3 2
Example 6: The following data have noted form the statics Authority.
P1980 = 40, 000
P 1990 = 100, 000
P 1990 = 130,000
Determine the saturation population and the problem population in the year 2010.
Ans.P2010 = 136,291
6. Graphical extension method

In this method the population of last few years is correctly plotted to a suitable scale on the
graph with respect to years. Then, the curve is smoothly extended to forecast the future
population.
Example 7: Solve example 3 above by using graphical extension method

Ans. P1980 = 69, 000, P 1990 = 76, 000, P2000 = 78, 600
7. Master plan method
In the method, the master plan of the city or town is used to determine the future expected
population. The population densities for various zones (residential, commercial, industrial
and other zones) of the town are fixed and hence the future population of the city when full
developed can easily be worked out.
8. Ration and correlation method
In this method, the rate of population growth of a town is related to the rate of population
growth of state or nation. Hence it is possible to estimate the population of a town under
consideration by considering the rate of population growth of state or nation.
Example 8: Country, P1980 = 1, 000,000 P2004 = 1, 5000,000
P2004 = 15,000 Town, P1980 = 10,000
9. Method used by Ethiopians statistic Authority (geometric increase method)
pn = p o * ekn
Where, Pn = population at n decades or years
Po = initial population
n = decade or year

k = growth rate in percentage

Example 9:
According to ECA the population of certain town is 15,640 in the year 1994. Determine
the probable population in the year 2010 for k = 3%.
UNIT SUMMARY:
In the design of any water supply scheme for a town or city it is necessary to determine the
total quantity of water required for various purposes by the city. As a matter of fact the first
duty of the students is to determine this quantity of water three items need to be
determined for calculating the total quantity of Water required for a town or city, these are:
Rate of water demand (water consumption for various purpose)
per capital demand
Design period
Population forecast

CHAPTER TWO
SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The origin of all water is rainfall. Water can be collected as it falls as rain before it reaches
theground; or as surface water when it flows over the ground; or is pooled in lakes or
ponds; or asground water when it percolates in to the ground and flows or collects as
groundwater; from thesea/ocean in to which it finally flows.All the sources of water can be
broadly divided into:
1. Surfaces sources and
2. Sub surface sources
2.1.1 Surfaces Sources

The surface sources further divided into
i. Streams and rivers
ii. Ponds and Lakes
iii. Impounding reservoirs etc.
i. Streams and Rivers
Rivers and streams are the main source of surface source of water. In summer the quality
ofriver water is better than monsoon because in rainy season the run-off water also carries
withclay, sand, silt etc which make the water turbid. So, river and stream water require
specialtreatments. Some rivers are perennial and have water throughout the year and
therefore theydont require any arrangements to hold the water. But some rivers dry up
wholly or partially insummer. So they require special arrangements to meet the water
demand during hot weather.Mostly all the cities are situated near the rivers discharge their
used water of sewage in therivers; therefore much care should be taken while drawing
water from the river.
ii. Natural Ponds and Lakes
In mountains at some places natural basins are formed with impervious bed by springs and
streams are known as lakes. The quantity of water in the natural ponds and lakes
dependsupon the basins capacity, catchment area, annual rainfall, porosity of ground etc.

Lakes and ponds situated at higher altitudes contain almost pure water which can be used
without anytreatment. But ponds formed due to construction of houses, road, and railways
contains largeamount of impurities and therefore cannot be used for water supply purposes.
iii. Impounding Reservoirs
In some rivers the flow becomes very small and cannot meet the requirements of hot
weather.
In such cases, the water can be stored by constructing weir or a dam across the river at
suchplaces where minimum area of land is submerged in the water and maximum quantity
of waterto be stored. In lakes and reservoirs, suspended impurities settle down in the
bottom, but intheir beds algae, weeds, vegetable and organic growth takes place which
produce bad smell,taste and color in water. Therefore, this water should be used after
purification. When water isstored for long time in reservoirs it should be aerated and
chlorinated to kill the microscopicorganisms which are born in water.
2.1.2 Subsurface Sources

These are further divided into
(i) Infiltration galleries
(ii) Infiltration wells
(iii) Springs
(iv)Well
i) Infiltration Galleries
A horizontal nearly horizontal tunnel which is constructed through water bearing strata
fortapping underground water near rivers, lakes or streams are called Infiltration
galleries. Theyield from the galleries may be as much as 1.5 x 104 lit/day/meter length of
infiltration gallery.
For maximum yield the galleries may be placed at full depth of the aquifer. Infiltration
galleriesmay be constructed with masonry or concrete with weep holes of 5cm x 10cm.

Figure: 2.1 Infiltration Galleries

ii) Infiltration Wells
In order to obtain large quantity of water, the infiltration wells are sunk in series in the
blanksof river. The wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They are constructed by
brick masonrywith open joints as shown in fig.2.2
Figure: 2.2 Infiltration Well Figure: 2.3 Jack Well

For the purpose of inspection of well, the manholes are provided in the top cover. The
waterfiltrates through the bottom of such wells and as it has to pass through sand bed, it
gets purifiedto some extent. The infiltration wells in turn are connected by porous pipes to
collecting sumpcalled jack well and there water is pumped to purification plant for
treatment
iii) Springs

Sometimes ground water reappears at the ground surface in the form of springs.
Springsgenerally supply small quantity of water and hence suitable for the hill towns.
Some springs discharge hot water due to presence of sulphur and useful only for the curve
of certain skindisease patients.
Types of springs:
1. Gravity Springs: When the surface of the earth drops sharply the water bearing stratum
is exposed to atmosphere and gravity springs are formed as shown in fig.2.4
Figure: 2.4 Gravity spring

2. Surface Spring: This is formed when an impervious stratum which is supporting
theground water reservoir becomes out crops as shown in fig.2.5
Figure: 2.5 Surface spring

3. Artesian Spring: When the ground water rises through a fissure in the upper
imperviousstratum as shown in fig.2.6

Figure: 2.6 Artesian Springs

When the water-bearing stratum has too much hydraulic gradient and is closed between
two imperious stratums, the formation of artesian spring from deep seated spring.
Figure: 2.7 Artesian Springs

iv. Wells
A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of
tappingwater.
The three factors which form the basis of theory of wells are
1. Geological conditions of the earths surface
2. Porosity of various layers
3. Quantity of water, which is absorbed and stored in different layers
The following are different types of wells
1. Shallow wells
2. Tube wells
3. Deep wells4.

4. Artesian wells
1. Shallow Wells
Shallow wells are constructed in the uppermost layer of the earths surface. The diameter
ofwell varies from 2 to 6m and a maximum depth of 7m. Shallow wells may be lined or
unlined from inside. Fig. 2.9 shows a shallow well with lining (staining). These wells are
also calleddraw wells or gravity wells or open wells or drag wells or percolation wells.
Figure: 2.8 Shallow well

Quantity of water available from shallow wells is limited as their source of supply is
uppermostlayer of earth only and sometimes may even dry up in summer. Hence they are
not suitable forpublic water supply schemes. The quantity of water obtained from shallow
wells is better thanthe river water but requires purification. The shallow wells should be
constructed away from septic tanks, soak pits etc because of the contamination of effluent.
The shallow wells are used as the source of water supply for small villages, undeveloped
municipal towns, isolated buildings etc because of limited supply and bad quality of water.
2. Deep Wells
The deep wells obtain their quota of water from an aquifer below the impervious layer as
shown in fig 2.9. The theory of deep well is based on the travel of water from the outcrop
to the site of deep well. The outcrop is the place where aquifer is exposed to the
atmosphere. The rain water entered at outcrop and gets thoroughly purified when it reaches
to the site of deep well. But it dissolves certain salts and therefore become hard. In such
cases, some treatment would be necessary to remove the hardness of water.

Figure: 2.9 Deep Well

The depth of deep well should be decided in such a way that the location of out crop is not
very near to the site of well. The water available at a pressure greater atmospheric pressure,
therefore deep wells are also referred to as a pressure wells.
2.2 Intakes for Collecting Surface Water

The main function of the intakes works is to collect water from the surface source and then
discharge water so collected, by means of pumps or directly to the treatment water.
Intakes are structures which essentially consist of opening, grating or strainer through
which the raw water from river, canal or reservoir enters and carried to the sump well by
means of conducts water from the sump well is pumped through the rising mains to the
treatment plant.
The following points should be kept in mind while selecting a site for intake works.
1. Where the best quality of water available so that water is purified economically in less
time.
2. At site there should not be heavy current of water, which may damage the intake
structure.
3. The intake can draw sufficient quantity of water even in the worst condition, when the
discharge of the source is minimum
4. The site of the work should be easily approachable without any obstruction
5. The site should not be located in navigation channels
6. As per as possible the intake should be near the treatment plant so that conveyance cost
is reduced from source to the water works

7. As per as possible the intake should not be located in the vicinity of the point of
sewage disposal for avoiding the pollution of water.
8. At the site sufficient quantity should be available for the future expansion of the water-
works.
2.2.1 Types of Intake structures

Depending upon the source of water the intake works are classified as following
1. Lake Intake,
2. Reservoir Intake,
3. River Intake,
4. Canal Intake
1. Lake Intake
For obtaining water from lakes mostly submersible intakes are used. These intakes are
constructed in the bed of the lake below the water level; so as to draw water in dry season
also. These intakes have so many advantages such as no obstruction to the navigation, no
danger from the floating bodies and no trouble due to ice. As these intakes draw small
quantity of water, these are not used in big water supply schemes or on rivers or reservoirs.
The main reason is that they are not easily approachable for maintenance.
Figure: 2.10 Lake Intakes

2. River Intake
Water from the rivers is always drawn from the upstream side, because it is free from the
contamination caused by the disposal of sewage in it. It is circular masonry tower of 4 to 7

m in diameter constructed along the bank of the river at such place from where required
quantity of water can be obtained even in the dry period. The water enters in the lower
portion of the intake known as sump well from penstocks.
Figure: 2.11.River intakes

3. Reservoir Intake
Fig: 2.12 show the details of reservoir intake. It consists of an intake well, which is placed
near the dam and connected to the top of dam by Foot Bridge.
Figure: 2.12.Reservoir intakes

The intake pipes are located at different levels with common vertical pipe. The valves of
intake pipes are operated from the top and they are installed in a valve room. Each intake
pipe is provided with bell mouth entry with perforations of fine screen on its surface. The
outlet pipe is taken out through the body of dam. The outlet pipe should be suitably
supported. The location of intake pipes at different levels ensures supply of water from a

level lower than the surface level of water. When the valve of an intake pipe is opened the
water is drawn off from the reservoir to the outlet pipe through the common vertical pipe.
To reach up to the bottom of intake from the floor of valve room, the steps should be
provided in zigzag manner.
4. Canal Intake
Fig 2.13 shows the details of canal intake. An intake chamber is constructed in the canal
section. This results in the reduction of water way which increases the velocity of flow. It
therefore becomes necessary to provide pitching on the downstream and upstream portion
of canal intake.
Figure: 2. 13 Canal intakes

The entry of water in the intake chamber takes through coarse screen and the top of outlet
pipe is provided with fine screen. The inlet to outlet pipe is of bell-mouth shape with
perforations of the fine screen on its surface. The outlet valve is operated from the top and
it controls the entry of water into the outlet pipe from where it is taken to the treatment
plant.
2. 2.2. Water Sources Selection Criteria

The choice of water supply to a town or city depends on the following
1. Location: The sources of water should be as near as to the town as possible.
2. Quantity of water: the source of water should have sufficient quantity of water to meet
up all the water demand throughout the design period.

3. Quality of water: The quality of water should be good which can be easily and cheaply
treated.
4. Cost: The cost of the units of the water supply schemes should be minimum. The
selection of the source of supply is done on the above points and the source, which will
give good quality, and quantity at least cost will be selected. This economic policy may
lead to the selection of both surface and ground water sources to very big cities.
Surface water sources can be developed for drinking water but special care must be taken
to ensure the quality of the water.
The choice of a method depends on many factors including the source and resources
available and community preference.

CHPTER THREE
WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTION

3.1. Introduction
Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and contains number of impurities in
varyingamounts. The rainwater which is originally pure also absorbs various gases, dust
and otherimpurities while falling. This water when moves on the ground further carries
salt, organic andinorganic impurities. So this water before supplying to the public should
be treated and purifiedfor the safety of public health, economy and protection of various
industrial processes, it ismost essential for the water work engineer to thoroughly check,
analyze and do the treatment ofthe raw water obtained the sources, before its distribution.
The water supplied to the publicshould be strictly according to the standards laid down
from time to time.
3.2 Water Quality Characteristics

The treatment process should be designed such that, they should treat the water up to the
desired standard for which it is to be used. More focus must done on the standard of water
quality for domestic water supplies.
A safe and potable drinking water should conform to the following water quality
characteristics
1) Free from disease causing micro organisms
2) Containing no compounds that have an adverse effect acute or in long term on human
health.
3) Fairly clear (i.e. low turbidity, little colour )
4) No saline
5) Containing no compound that cause offensive taste or smell

6) No causing corrosion or encrustation of the water supply system, nor staining clothes
washing on it.
For the purpose of classification, the impurities present in water may be divided into the
following three categories.
3.2.1. Physical Characteristics

Physical characteristics include:
1. Turbidity
2. Color
3. Taste and odor
4. Temperature, and
5. Foam.
1. Turbidity
Turbidity is caused due to presence of suspended and colloidal solids. The suspended
solidsmay be dead algae or other organisms. It is generally silt, clay rock fragments and
metal oxidesfrom soil.
The amount and character of turbidity will depend upon:
The type of soil over which the water has run and
The velocity of the water
When the water becomes quite, the heavier and larger suspended particles settle quickly,
whilethe lighter and more finely divided ones settle very slowly. Very finely divided clay
mayrequire months of complete quiescence for settlement. Ground waters are normally
clearbecause, slow movement through the soil has filtered out the turbidity. Lake waters
are clearerthan stream waters, and streams in dry weather are clearer than streams in flood
because of thesmaller velocity and because dry-weather flow is mainly ground water
seepage. Low inorganicturbidity (silt and clay) may result in a relatively high organic
turbidity (color). The explanationof this is that low inorganic turbidity permits sunlight to
penetrate freely into the water andstimulates a heavier growth of algae, and further, that
organics tend to be absorbed upon soilfractions suspended in water.

Turbidity is a measure of resistance of water to the passage of light through it. Turbidity
isexpressed as NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units) or PPM (parts per million) or
Milligramsper liter (mg/l).Turbidity is measured by:
1) Turbidity rod or Tape
2) Jacksons Turbid meter
3) Balis turbid meter
The sample to be tested is poured into a test tube and placed in the meter and a unit of
turbidityis read directly on the scale by a needle or by digital display.Drinking water
should not have turbidity more than 10 NTU. This test is useful in determiningthe
detention time in settling for raw water and to dosage of coagulants required to
removeturbidity. Sedimentation with or without chemical coagulation and filtration are
used remove it.
2. Color
Color is caused by materials in solution or colloidal conditions and should be
distinguishedfrom turbidity, which may cause an apparent (not true) color.True color is
caused by dyes derived from decomposing vegetation. Colored water is not
onlyundesirable because of consumer objections to its appearance but also it may discolor
clothingand adversely affect industrial processes.Before testing the color of water, total
suspended solids should be removed by centrifugal forcein a special apparatus. The color
produced by one milligram of platinum in a liter of water hasbeen fixed as the unit of
color. The permissible color for domestic water is 20ppm on platinumcobalt scale.
3. Temperature
Temperature increase may affect the portability of water, and temperature above 150c
isobjectionable to drinking water. The temperature of surface waters governs to a large
extent thebiological species present and thereof activity. Temperature has an effect on most
chemical reactions that occur in natural water systems. It also ha s pronounced effect on
the solubility ofgases in water.
4. Foam
Foam form various industrial waste contributions and detergents is primarily
objectionablefrom the aesthetic standpoint.

5. Tastes and Odor

The terms taste and odor are themselves definitive of this parameter. Because the
sensations oftaste and smell are closely related and often confused, a wide variety of tastes
and odors may beattributed to water by consumers. Substances that produce an odor in
water will almost invariably impart a taste as well. The converse is not true, as there are
many mineral substancesthat produce taste but no odor.
Many substances with which water comes into contact in nature or during human use
mayimport perceptible taste and odor. These include minerals, metals, and salts from the
soil, and products from biological reactions, and constituents of wastewater. Inorganic
substances aremore likely to produce tastes unaccompanied by odor. Alkaline material
imports a bitter taste towater, while metallic salts may give salty or bitter taste.
Organic material, on the other hand, is likely to produce both taste and odor. a multitude
oforganic chemicals may cause taste & odor problems in water with petroleum-based
productsbeing prime offenders. Biological decomposition of organics may also result in
taste-and odor-producing liquids and gases in water. Principal among these are the reduced
products of sulfurthat impart a rotten egg taste and odor. Also certain species of algae
secrete an oily substancethat may result in both taste and odor. Consumers find taste and
odor aesthetically displeasing for obvious reasons. Because water isthought of as tasteless
and odorless, the consumer associates taste and odor with contaminationand may prefer to
use a tasteless, odorless water that might actually pose more of a healththreat.
3.2.2. Chemical Characteristics

1. Total Solids
Total solids include the solids in suspension colloidal and in dissolved form. The quantity
ofsuspended solids is determined by filtering the sample of water through fine filter, drying
andweighing. The quantity of dissolved and colloidal solids is determined by evaporating
thefiltered water obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing the residue. The total
solidsin a water sample can be directly determined by evaporating the filtered water
obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing the residue. The total solids in a water
sample can be directly determined by evaporating the water and weighing the residue of
the residue of total solids is fused in a muffle furnace the organic solids will decompose

where as only inorganic solids will remain. By weighing we can determine the inorganic
solids and deducting it from the total solids, we can calculate organic solids.
2. Alkalinity
It is defined as the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize hydrogen ions.
Alkalinity is thus the measure of the ability of water to neutralize acids. By far the
mostconstituents of alkalinity in natural waters are carbonate (CO32-), bicarbonate
(HCO3-) and hydroxide (OH-). These compounds result from the dissolution of mineral
substances in the soilatmosphere.
Effects:
i) Non pleasant taste
ii) Reaction between alkaline constituent and cation (positive ion) produces precipitation
inpipe.
3. PH
PH is a measure of the concentration of free hydrogen ion in water. It expresses the
moralconcentration of the hydrogen ion as its negative logarithm. Water and other
chemicals insolution therein, will ionize to a greater or lesser degree. Pure water is only
weakly ionized.The ionization reaction of water may be written:
[H][OH]/ [HOH] = Kw
In which HOH, H, OH is the chemical activities of the water hydrogen and hydroxyl ion
respectively. Since water is solvent, its activity is defined as being unity. In dilute solution,
molar concentrations are frequently substituted for activities yielding
[H][OH) = Kw (10-14 at 20oC)
Taking negative logs of both sides, Log [H] + Log [OH] = -14
- Log [H] - Log [OH] = 14
Defining Log = p; pH + pOH = 14
In neutral solutions at equilibrium (OH) = (H), hence pH = POH = 7.
Mathematically it is expressed as; pH = -log [H+] = log1/ {H+} = 7
Increasing acidity leads to higher values of (H), thus to lower values of pH. Low pH is
associated with high acidity, high pH with caustic alkalinity. pH is important in the control

of a number of water treatment and waste treatment processes and in control of corrosion.
It may be readily measured potentially by use of a pH meter.
4. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Dissolved oxygen is present in variable quantities in water. Its content in surface waters is
dependent upon the amount and character of the unstable organic matter in the water.
Clean surface waters are normally saturated with DO. The amount of oxygen that water
can hold is small and affected by the temperature. The higher the temperature, the smaller
will be the DO. Gases are less soluble in warmer water.
Table: 3.1 Gases are less soluble in warmer water
Temperature (0C) 0 10 20 30
DO (mg/1) 14.6 11.3 9.1 7.6
Oxygen saturated waters have pleasant taste and waters lacking in DO have an insipid
tastes. Drinking water is thus aerated if necessary to ensure maximum DO. The presence of
oxygen in the water in dissolved form keeps it fresh and sparkling. But more quantity of
oxygen causes corrosion to the pipes material. Observing a heated pot of water, one can
observe that bubbles form on the walls of the pot prior to reaching the boiling point. These
cannot be filled with only water vapor because liquid water will not begin to vaporize until
it has reached its boiling point. One can surmise that this gas is oxygen, or at least a
mixture of gases from the air, because bubbles of this sort form in water from virtually
every source: what other gas mixture besides air is in constant contact with water? When
these bubbles form, they eventually grow to a sufficient size to leave the surface of the pot
and escape to the air: the dissolved gas in the liquid has decreased. This seems to support
the hypothesis that dissolved oxygen will decrease when temperature is increased.
5. Oxygen Demand
Organic compounds are generally unstable be oxidized biologically or chemically to stable,
relatively inner end produce such as CO2, H2O & NO3. Indicators used for estimation of
the oxygen demanding substance in water are Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD),
Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Oxygen Demand (TOD) and Total Organic Carbon (TOC).

An indication of the organic content of water can be by measuring the amount of oxygen
required for stabilization. BOD is the quality of oxygen required for the biochemical
oxidation of the decomposable matter at specified temperature within specified time.
(20oC and 5 day) It depends on temperature and time t.
6. Nitrogen
The forms most important to water quality engineering include;
A) Organic nitrogen: in the form of proton, amino acids and urea.
B) Ammonia nitrogen: nitrogen as ammonium salts. E.g. (NH4). CO3
C) Nitrate- nitrogen: an intimidate oxidation stage. Not normally present in large
quantity.
D) Nitrate- nitrogen: final oxidation product of nitrogen.
E) Gaseous nitrogen (N2)
The presence of nitrogen compounds in surface waters usually indicate pollution excessive
amount of ammonia and organic nitrogen may result from recent sewage discharges or
runoff contamination by relatively fresh pollution. Therefore, water containing high org-N
& ammonia (N) levels are considered to be potentially dangerous. While waters in which
most of nitrogen is in nitrate from are considered to somewhat stabilized to constitute prior
pollution.
7. Hardness
Hardness is caused by the sum of the alkali earth elements present in water although the
major constituents are usually calcium and magnesium. These materials in water react with
soap, causing precipitation which as scum or curd on the water surface. Until enough soap
has been dissolved to react with all these material s, no lather can be formed. Water that
behaves like this is said to be hard . The hardness compounds are temporary and
permanent:
1. Temporary hardness (carbonate hardness)
Calcium bicarbonate (Ca (HCO3) 2)
Magnesium bicarbonate (Mg (HCO3) 2)
2. Permanent hardness (non- carbonate hardness)
Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)

Magnesium chloride (MgSO4)

Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
Magnesium chloride (Mg Cl2)
The most usual compounds causing alkalinity, calcium and magnesium bicarbonate,
happen also to cause the temporally hardness. Hence, when the alkalinity and hardness are
equal, all the hardness is temporary. If the total hardness is greater than the alkalinity, then
the excess hardness represents permanent hardness. On the other hand, if the total hardness
is less than the alkalinity, the difference indicates the presence of sodium bicarbonate,
which adds to the alkalinity but doesnt increase the hardness. A generally accepted
classification of hardness is as follows:
Table: 3.2 classification of hardness
Soft <50 mg/1 as CaCo2
Moderately hard 50 150 mg/1 as CaCO3
Hard 150- 300mg/1 as CaCO3
Very hard >300 mg/1 as CaCO3
Generally a hardness of 100 to 150 mg/liter is desirable. Excess of hardness leads to the
following effects:
1. Large soap consumption in washing and bathing
2. Fabrics when washed become rough and strained with precipitates.
3. Hard water is not fit for industrial use like textiles, paper making, dye and ice cream
manufactures.
4. The precipitates clog the pores on the skin and make the skin rough
5. Precipitates can choke pipe lines and values
6. It forms scales in the boilers tubes and reduces their efficiency
7. Very hard water is not palatable
When softening is practices when hardness exceeds 300mg/lit. Water hardness more than
600mg/lit have to rejected for drinking purpose.
Methods of removal of hardness
1. Boiling
2. Lime addition

3. Lime soda process

4. Caustic soda process
5. Zeolite process
Methods 1 and 2 are suitable for removal of temporary hardness and 3 to 5 for both
temporary and permanent hardness.
Boiling
Lime
Lime soda process

In this method, the lime and is sodium carbonate or soda as have used to remove
permanent hardness from water. The chemical reactions involved in this process are as
follows.
Zeolite process

This is also known as the base-exchange or Ion exchange process. The hardness may be
completely removed by this process. Zeolites are compounds (silicates of aluminum and
sodium) which replace sodium Ions with calcium and magnesium Ions when hard water is
passes through a bed of zeolites. The zeolite can be regenerated by passing a concentrated
solution of sodium chloride through the bed. The chemical reactions involved are:
8. Chloride
The natural waters near the mines and sea dissolve sodium chloride and also presence of
chlorides may be due to mixing of saline water and sewage in the water. Excess of
chlorides is dangerous and unfit for use. The chlorides can be reduced by diluting the
water. Chloride may demonstrate an adverse physiological effect when present in
concentration greater than 250mg/l and with people who are acclimated. However, a local
population that is acclimated to the chloride content may not exhibit adverse effect from
excessive chloride concentration. Because of high chloride content of urine, chlorides have
sometimes been used as an indication of pollution.
9. Fluoride
It is generally associated with a few types of sedimentary or igneous rocks; fluoride is
seldom found in surface waters and appears in ground water in only few geographical
regions. Fluoride is toxic to humans and other animals in large quantities, while small
concentrations can beneficial. Concentrations of approximately 1.0mg/1 in drinking water
help to prevent dental cavities in children. During formation of permanent teeth, fluoride
combines chemically with tooth enamel, resulting in harder, stronger teeth that are more
resistant to decay. Fluoride is often added to drinking water supplies if quantities for good
dental formation are not naturally present. Excessive intakes of fluoride can result in
discoloration of teeth. Noticeable discoloration, called mottling, is relatively common
when fluoride concentrations in drinking water exceed 2.0mg/1, but is rare when
concentration is less that 1.5mg/1. Adult tooth are not affected by fluoride, although both

the benefits and liabilities of fluoride during teeth formation years carry over into
adulthood. Excessive concentrations of greater than 5mg/1 in drinking water can also result
in bone florists and other skeletal abnormalities.
3.2.3 Biological Characteristics

A feature of most natural water is that they contain a wide variety of micro organisms
forming a balance ecological system. The types and numbers of the various groups of
micro organisms present are related to water quality and other environmental factors.
Microbiological indicators of water quality or pollution are therefore of particular concern
because of their relationships s to human and animal health. Water polluted by pathogenic
microorganisms may penetrate into private and or public water supplies either before or
after treatment.
1. Bacterium
Many are found in water. Some bacteria are indicator of pollution but are harmless; other
few in number are pathogenic. Bacterial-born diseases include: typhoid fever, cholera, and
bacterial dysentery:
2. Viruses
These are group of infectious which are smaller that ordinary bacteria and that require
susceptible host cells for multiplication and activity. Viral-born diseases include infectious
hepatitis and poliomyelitis.
3. Algae
These are small, Chlorophyll bearing generally onecelled plants of varying shapes and
sizes which live in water. When present in large numbers they may cause turbidity in water
and an apparent color. They cause trouble in water works by undue clogging of filters, but
their most troublesome characteristics in the taste and odor that they may cause
4 protozoa
They are the lowest and simplest forms of animal life. Protozoaborn diseases include
giardiasis and amebic dysentery.

3.3. Examination of Water Quality

Examination of water is made to help informing an opinion of the suitability of a water
supply for public and other uses.
1. Sampling
Necessary to obtain a representation sample in a quantity sufficient for analysis complete
preservation of sample is practically impossible; however, freezing or adding suitable
preservatives may slow down changes in composition.
Plastic, glass or metal sample containers are able introduce contamination to sample.
Normally plastics are used for chemical analysis (except for oil & grease) and glass for
bacteriological analysis.
2. Standard Tests
i. Titration (volumetric) method
Using burettes, pipits, and other volumetric glass ware, standard solutions are prepared
using analytical and distilled water.
The recommended determinations to be made by titration method are: Chloride (Cl-),
carbonates (CO32-), bicarbonates (HCO3), DO, BOD, COD, calcium (Ca++), magnesium
(Mg++), bromide (Br), hydroxide (OH-), sulfide(S-), sulfite (SO3
2), acidity, alkalinity etc.
ii. Colorimetric method (using color as the basis): Measuring amount of color produced
by mixing with reagents at fixed wavelength (using spectrophotometer) or comparison
with colored standards or discs (comparator). The recommended determinations made by
colorimetric method are: color, turbidity, iron (Fe++), manganese (Mn++), chlorine (Cl2),
flurried (F-), nitrate (NO3), nitrite (NO2), phosphate (PO4---), ammonia (NH4+), arsenic,
phenols, etc.
iii. Gravimetric method (using weight as the basis): Using weight of insoluble
precipitates or evaporated residues in glassware or metal and accurate analytical balance.
The recommended determinations made by gravimetric methods are: sulfate (SO4), Oil
and grease, TDS, TSS, TS, etc.

iv. Electrical method:Using probes to measure electrical potential in mill volts against
standard cell voltage. The recommended determinations made by electrical methods are:
pH, Fluoride (F), DO, nitrate (NO3), etc.
v. Flame spectra (emission & absorption) method: At fixed wave length characteristics
to ions being determined measuring intensity of emission or absorption of light produced
by ions exited in flame or heated sources. The recommended determinations made by
flame spectra methods are: sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), lithium (Li+), etc.
3.4. Water Quality Standards
Public water supplies are obliged to provide a supply of wholesome water which is suitable
and safe for drinking purposes. Potable water is water which is satisfactory for drinking,
culinary and domestic purposes. Water quality standards may be set regional, national, or
international bodies. Guidelines for drinking water quality have established by the World
Health Organization (WHO) as shown in table below.
Table: 3.3(W.H.O) guideline for drinking water quality
Parameter units guide line value

Fecal coli forms Number/ 100 ml Zero*
Coli form organisms Number /100ml Zero*
Arsenic mg/1 0.05
Cadmium mg/1 0.005
Chromium mg/1 0.05
Cyanide mg/1 0.1
Fluoride mg/1 0.5 - 1.5(3)
Lead mg/1 0.05
Mercury mg/1 0.001
Nitrate mg/1 10
Selenium mg/1 0.01
Aluminum mg/1 0.2
Chloride mg/1 250
Color True color unit(TCU) 5(15)

Copper mg/1 1.0

Hardness mg/1(as CaCO3) 500
Iron mg/1 0.3(3)
Manganese 0.3
pH mg/1 6.5 to 8.5
Sodium mg/1 200
Total dissolved solids mg/1 1000
Sulfate mg/1 400
Taste and odor Non objectionable
Turbidity NTU 5(10)
Zinc mg/1 5.0
* Treated
*Treated water entering the distribution system

Water pollution is any chemical, biological, or physical change in water quality that has a
harmful effect on living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.as per the
definition of the pollution the following are the main sources of water pollution.
a) Point source: specific location (drain pipes, ditches, sewer lines).
b) Non point source: cannot be traced to a single site of discharge (atmospheric deposition,
agricultural / industrial / residential runoff)
1. Domestic Sewage
If domestic sewage is not properly after it is produced or if the effluent received at the end
of sewage treatment is not of adequate standard, there are chances of water pollution. The
indiscriminate way of hiding domestic sewage may lead to the pollution of underground
sources of water supply such, as wells. Similarly if sewage or partly treated sewage is
directly discharged into surface waters such as rivers, the waters of such rivers get
contained.
2. Industrial Wastes

If industrial wastes are thrown into water bodies without proper treatments, they are likely
to pollute the watercourses. The industrial wastes may carry harmful substances such as
grease, oil, explosives, highly odorous substances, etc.
3. Catchment Area
Depending upon the characteristics of catchment area, water passing such area will be
accordingly contained. The advances made in agricultural activities and extensive use of
fertilizers and insecticides are main factors, which may cause serious pollution of surface
waters.
4. Distribution System
The water is delivered to the consumers through a distribution of pipes which are laid
underground. If there are cracks in pipes or if joints are leaky, the following water gets
contaminated by the surrounding substances around the pipes.
5. Oily Wastes
The discharge of oily wastes from ships and tankers using oil as fuel may lead to pollution.
6. Radioactive Wastes
The discharge of radioactive wastes from industries dealing with radioactive substance
may seriously pollute the waters. It may be noted that radioactive substances may not have
color, odor, turbidity or taste. They can only be detected by and measured by the use of
special precise instruments.
7. Travel of Water
Depending upon the properties of ground through which water travels to reach the source
of water supply; it is charged with the impurities. For instance, ground water passing
through peaty land possesses brown color.
UNIT SUMMARY:-
Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and contains number of impurities in
varyingamounts. The treatment process should be designed such that, they should treat the
water up to the desired standard for which it is to be used. For the purpose of classification,
the impurities present in water may be divided into the following three categories.
Physical characteristic (Suspended impurities)
Chemical characteristic (Colloidal impurities)

Biological characteristic (Dissolved impurities)
CHAPTER FOUR
WATER TREATMENT
4.1 Introductions
Water available in various sources may contain various types of impurities and cannot be
directly used by the public for various purposes, before removing the impurities.
Therefore, removing these impurities up to certain extent so that it may not be harmful to
the public health is necessary. The process of removing the impurities from water is called
water treatment and the treated water is called wholesome water. The degree and methods
of treatment depend upon nature of the source, quality of the source and purpose for which
the water is supplied. The various treatment methods and the nature of source of impurities
removed by employing them are given in table 4.1
Table: 4.1.the nature of impurities and their removal process

It is not that all the treatment process tabulated above will be required for a treatment plant.
Treatment process selected will depend on the quality of water at the source and nature of
water required. For example, in the case of water which taken from a surface source,
generally the treatment unit required are plain sedimentation, coagulation, filtration and
disinfection to make the fit for domestic use.
4.2. Objective of treatment

The main objective of the treatment process is to remove the impurities of raw water and
bring the quality of water to the required standard. The objective may be summarized as
follow:
i) Preventing Disease Transmission
Organisms that cause disease must be removed or inactivated to make the water safe. Such
organisms are small animals (invertebrates) and their eggs (ova), protozoa and their +cysts,
bacteria which may form spores, and viruses.
Chlorine is most commonly used to inactivate such pathogens, but the effectiveness of
chlorine on some forms e.g. cysts and ova) is much less than on others, and suspended
material in the water may shelter the pathogens from the chlorine.
(ii) Making the Water Acceptable

If the consumers regard the water as unsatisfactory they may use an alternative source
which is hazardous. The taste, appearance and suitability for washing clothes shall all be
considered.
(iii) Protecting the distribution System
Corrosion of the system can be reduced by raising the PH of the water or adding
chemicals. Corrosion reduces the life of the pipes, reduces their carrying capacity, and
forms deposits which may colour the water. Harbour animals and interfere with valves.
Depositions in pipes may result from unsatisfactory addition of chemicals, reactions within
the system. or poor turbidity removal.
Location of treatment plant
The treatment plant should be located
Near to the town to which water is to be supplied and near to the source of supply. This
will prevent the water quality to depreciate after treatment.
Away from any source of pollution.
Away from the border of other countries and should be announced as a protected area.
During war time, a neighbor country may play foul game by damaging the plant, poisoning
the water.
At higher elevation if the natural topography permit.
Factors Affecting the Choice of Treatment Schemes
The following factors influence the choice of treatment alternative discussed below:
A) Limitation of capital
B) Availability of skilled and unskilled labour
C) Availability of equipment, construction material, and water treatment chemicals
D) Local codes, drinking water standards and material specifications
E) Local traditions, customs and cultural standards
F) National sanitation and pollution policies.
Consideration for Treatment unities in developing country
Consideration for Treatment unities in developing country
Use hydraulic devices instead of mechanical equipments e.g. for mixing of chemicals
Use indigenous materials & manufacturing to reduce the cost

Lower peak and per capital consumption

Lower design period
Organizational capacity to recruits and retrain
Head lose should be conserved possible
Impurities in water
The impurities which are present in water may be classified in the following three
categories.
a) Suspended impurities
b) Colloidal impurities
c) Dissolved impurities
a) Suspended impurities
These impurities are dispersion of solid particles that are large enough to be removed by
filtration or sedimentation.
Bacteria some cause diseases
Suspended impurities are Algae, protozoa odor, turbidity
Silt -muckiness or turbidity
b) Colloidal impurities
The finely divided dispersion of solid particles which are not visible to the naked eye
cannot be removed by ordinary filters are known as colloidal impurities. They are chief
source of epidemic because they are associated with bacteria. It is removed by coagulation.
c) Dissolved impurities
It includes organic compound, inorganic salt and gases etc.
High turbidity water which may occur particularly during the rainy season requires pre
treatment in the form of sedimentation, storage or roughing filtration to reduce much of the
suspended solids. This is an advantage otherwise a very large amount of chemicals may
have to be employed for chemical coagulation which can be expensive. Pre-treatment
provides cheaper treatment. Slow Sand Filters require raw water turbidity below 30NTU.

High turbidity waters require pre-treatment before slow sand filtration. There is, however,
a form treatment known as dynamic filtration (although it is not very popular) which
involves diverting a relatively large volume of water out of which a small percentage
(10%) settles through the slow sand filter while the remaining is used to wash off the solids
deposited on the sand top as the water moves horizontally via the sand bed.
4.3. Types of preliminary treatment

Intakes
Aeration
Screens
Plain sedimentation
Coagulation
Flocculation
Clarifier (secondary sedimentation)
Filtration
Disinfection
Miscellaneous treatment of water
4.3.1. Intakes
Proper design of the intake structure is one way of achieving preliminary treatment. The
intakes should be located in such a way that rolling debris at the bottom is prevented from
entering via the intake. Bar Screens are provided to screen out larger size floating and
suspended materials. Sometimes two filters are provided successively for coarse and fine
screening. A floating intake ensures intake from the top and relatively clean layer. Multiple
level intakes (low level intake in the dry season and to avoid algae at the top and high level
intake in the wet season to avoid suspended solids at the bottom) are provided in lakes and
reservoirs as we have try to see on chapter two types of intakes are as figure bellow.

Figure: 4.1.River Intake
Figure: 4.2.Lake Intake
Figure: 4.3 Channel Intakes

Example 1
Design a bell mouth intake for a city of 80,000 persons drawing water from a channel
which runs for 10hrs in a day with depth of 1.8m. Also calculate the head loss in intake
conduit if the treatment plant is km away .draw a net sketch of the canal intake assume
average consumption per person =150l/d.

Assume the velocity through the screen & the bell mouth to be less than 16cm/s & 32cm/s
respectively.
Solution:
1) Q through intake
Daily discharge=150*80,000=12,000,000l/d
Since the Channel runs only for 10 hrs
Intake load/hour= (12,000,000l/d))/(10hr/d)
= 1200m^3/hr=0.3333m^3/s
2) Area of Coarse Screen in Front of intake
. /
= = =2.083m2
. /
Let the area occupied by the solid bar be 30% of the total area
.
The actual area for the screen ( ) = 2.98
.
Let assume the minimum water level @ 0.3m below the normal water level.
Let as keep the bottom of the screen @ 0.2m above the channel bed.
Available height of screen =1.8-0.3-0.2=1.3m
Required length of screen =2.98m/1.3m=2.29m2.3m
Hence provide a screen size=1.3m*2.3m
3) Design a bell mouth entry
.
= = / / / = 1.042m2
.
.
Diameter of bell mouth Db = ( ) = 1.15
Hence provide a bell mouth of 1.2m

4) Design of intake conduit
Let us assume a velocity of 1.5m/s in the conduit
0.33333 4
= = 0.53
1.5
Provide=0.5m diameter intake conduit

.
Therefore the actual Velocity = = = 1.7 /
.

5) Head loss through the conduit

V=0.849CR0.63S0.54
But C=130 for cast iron
R=D/4=0.5/4=0.125
Substitute to the above Equation
1.7=0.849*130*0.1250.63S0.54
S=4.98*103
S=Hl/L
Hl=S*L
=4.98*103 *0.5*1000
= 2.49m
4.3.2. Aeration
It is the process of bringing water in intimate contact with air, while doing so water
absorbs oxygen from the air. Aeration may be used to remove undesirable gases dissolved
in water i.e. CO2, H2S, etc (degasification) or to add oxygen to water to convert
undesirable substance i.e. Iron (Fe 2+) & Manganese to more manageable form
(oxidation).
The Iron and Manganese may be removed as a precipitate after aeration. Chemically, these
Reactions may be written as follows:
4Fe2+ + O2 + 10H2O 4Fe (OH) 3 + 8H+
4Mn2+ + O2 + 2 H2O 2MnO2 + 4H+
Different types of aerators are available
Gravity Aerator
Spray aerator
Air diffuser
Mechanical Aerator
i. Gravity aerators
a) Cascade towers

b) Inclined apron possibly shaded with plates
Figure: 4.4 Gravity aerators

c) Tray aerator
In tray aerator water falls through a series of trays perforated with small holes, 5 - 12mm
diameter and 25- 75mm spacing center to center. They are often built in stacks of 4 - 6
trays giving a total height of 1.2 - 3m. The trays may be filled with layers of coke or gravel
of 50mm size to insure purification.
Figure: 4.5.Tray aerator

ii. Spray aerators: - spray droplets of water into the air from stationary or moving orifices
or nozzles. Water is pumped through pressure nozzles to spray in the open air as in
fountain to a height of about 2.5m

Figure: 4.6.Spray aerator

iii. Air diffuser
In diffused aeration systems, water is contained in basins. Compressed air is forced into
this system through the diffusers. This air bubbles up through the water, mixing water and
air and introducing oxygen into the water.
Figure: 4.7.Air diffusion aerator
iv. Mechanical Aerator

Mechanical aeration systems are fairly simple, but they are not among the most common
purification techniques. These aerators work by vigorously agitating source water with
mechanical mixers. As the waters churn, they become infused with purifying air.
Mechanical aeration systems are able to remove most volatile contaminants, but they are
limited to removals of 50 to 80 percent, depending on conditions.

Figure: 4.8.Mechanical aerator
4.3.3. Screening
Screening of water which is one form of pre-treatment is done by passing the water
through closely spaced bars, gratings or perforated plates. Screening does not change the
chemical or bacteriological quality of the water. It serves to retain the coarse material and
suspended matter that are larger than the screen openings.
Purposes:
(i) Removal of floating and suspended matter which clogs pipes, damages pumps, etc.
(ii) Clarification by removal of suspended matter to lighten the load on subsequent
treatment processes.
Bar screen spacing is typically between 0.5 and 5cm. Angle of inclination of bars is 60-750
if screening are very small and 30-450 if larger amount is retained over the screen bar.
Velocity of flow should be low towards the screen bar (0.1-0.2m/sec). it may be increased
to 0.3-0.5 after the screen to prevent settling there. Between the openings the velocity
should be restricted to up to 0.7m/sec to avoid forcing through the suspended solids. If
regular cleaning is done an allowance for loss of heads of up to 0.1 to 0.2m is made.
However to allow for delay and mechanical failures a loss of head allowance between 0.5
to 1.0m is made.

Figure: 4.9.Screen
. Head Loss Through Bar Screen
1 2 V1
=
2
Where
c=empirical discharge coefficient to account for turbulence and eddy motion. (c=0.7 for
clean bar and 0.6 for clogged bar screen)
V2=velocity of flow through openings
V1= approaching velocity of upstream channel
g= gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2)
Head Loss Through fine Screen

1
= ( )
(2 )
Example 1
Determine the building up of head loss through a bar screen .when 50% of the flow area is
blocked off by the accumulation of coarse solides assume the following conditions are
applied.
Approach velocity =0.6m/s
Velocity through a clean bar screen =0.9m/s
Open area for flow through clean bar screen =0.19m2
Solution:
Compute the Head Loss Through a clean Bar Screen

. .
= = = 0.327
. .
Compute the Head Loss Through a clogged Bar Screen

= And = but 50% of Ai is only open. Therefore, Af=50%Ai
50
= =
100 2
Q
= = 2 = 2Vi
Ai
From this the velocity through a clogged bar screen is doubled
V=0.9*2=1.8m/s
1 V2 V1 1 1.8 0.6
hl = = = 0.2
C 2g 0.6 2 9.81
Example 2
Determine the building up of head loss through a bar screen .when 25 % of the flow area is
blocked off by the accumulation of coarse solids. Assume the Conditions of the above
Example.
Solution
Compute the Head Loss Through a clogged Bar Screen
Vi = ( ) And = ( ) but 75% of Ai is only open. Therefore, Af=75%Ai
75Ai 3
= =
100 4
Q 4Q
= = = (4/3)Vi
Af 3 Ai
From this the velocity through a clogged bar Screen is
V=0.9*(4/3) =1.2m/s
1 2 1 1 1.2 0.6
= = = 0.09
2 0.6 2 9.81

4.3.4. Plain Sedimentation

Plain sedimentation is a form of pre treatment that provides a low velocity of flow through
a tank preferably excavated in the ground. The purpose is to settle some solids because of
this low velocity by gravity sedimentation. Plain sedimentation is favourable in a tropical
climate due to the high load of suspended solids to be settled as a result of erosion by
tropical high intensity rains, and also, because of the high temperature in the tropics and
the associated low viscosity water in the sedimentation tank that provides less viscous
resistance for the settlement of solids. Since plain sedimentation offers limited detention
period for the water its effectiveness is restricted in that sense. Significant reduction in
solids is obtained for high turbidity waters, and, the feasibility of reducing the turbidity
below 30 NTU - if the tank is provided as a pre treatment unit for a slow sand filter -must
be tested through a settling column test. The settlement of solids is dependent on the nature
of the suspension. The table below shows the typical values used in practice for the
parameters listed.
Table: 4.2.Design parameter for plain sedimentation
parameter Range of Values
Detention Time (Hrs) 0.5-3.0
Surface Loading(m/day) 20-80
Depth of the basin(m) 1.5-2.5
L/W Ratio 4:1-6:1
L/D Ratio 5:1-20:1
The tank may be rectangular, or, to minimize the need for thicker walls trapezoidal shape
(which also facilitates settlement to the bottom) tank can be used. Baffle walls are provided
at the inlet to dissipate the kinetic energy of the incoming water and provide quiescent
settlement. Less importantly though, they are also provided at the outlet to prevent
turbulence in the outlet zone. For trapezoidal channels a thin Ferro-cement wall lining may
be adequate. For waters laden with algae the outlet weir are arranged behind a deflecting
baffle. At least two settling baffles are provided each designed for 3/4 of the design flow so
that during cleaning of one of the tanks, the other takes the full load and will be overloaded

by 33% only. It is possible though to design both tanks to handle the full flow without
being overloaded. This is, however, an over design as cleaning is needed for a short while
and usually after a long period of operation. Manual cleaning can be done. Fixed nozzles
and fire hoses can be used to help with cleaning. The table below indicates the turbidity
removal to be anticipated with respect to varying raw water quality and provided with
different detention times (Experiment done in Iraq.)
Table: 4.3.Turbidity removal
Initial Turbidity Turbidity Remaining
After 2 Hrs. After 3Hrs.

500 145 90
1200 620 120
1800 450 90
2500 610 120
Discrete Particle Settlement Theory

Any particle which does not alter its size, shape, and weight while rising or settling in any
fluid is called discrete particle. All the particles having more specific gravity than the
liquid will move vertically downward due to gravitation force. It will accelerate until the
frictional resistance or drag become equal to the gravitational forces acting upon the
particle. At such stage the particle will settle at uniform velocity. This uniform velocity is
called Settling velocity.

Figure: Forces which are subjected on settling discrete particle

The impelling (gravitational) force at uniform settling velocity is equal to the effective
weight of the particle in the fluid.
I.e. FI = ( ps p ) * g * V (1)
Where
FI=Impelling force
ps = mass density of the particle
p = mass density of the fluid
V=Volume of the particle
g=Acceleration due to gravity
From the Newtons law for frictional resistance or drag
FD = Cd*P*A*Vp2/2 (2)
Equating equation 1 & 2 and putting the value of d2/4 for A, d3/6 for V.
mg Vp
(Pp Pw) = CdP Ap
Pp 2
2g Pp Pw V
Vp =
Cd Pw Ap
V d 4 2d
= =
Ap 6 d 3
4 /
=( ( ))
3
Cd is a of function the Reynolds Number
For RN < 0.5 Cd =
Pp Pw
=
18 Pw
Otherwise: Cd = + + 0.34

To avoid interpolation Camps dimensionless graph can be used. The basis of the graph is
Cd 4 Pp Pw
= g
RN 3 Pw Vp
4 (Pp Pw)gd
Cd RN = Pw
3

Figure:
4.10.Camps dimensionless graph
Example 1
Find the terminal settling Velocity of a spherical Particle with diameter of 0.5mm and a
specific
Gravity of 2.65 settling through water at (at 20 Co, =1.002*10-3Ns/m2, Pw =1000kg/m3)
Solution
Given
D=0.5mm
Sg=2.65
=1.002*10-3Ns/m2
Pw =1000kg/m3)
= , = = 1000 2.65 2650 /
Assume the flow is Laminar

Pp Pw 9.81(0.5 10 ) 2650 1000
= = = 0.22m/s
18 Pw 181.002 10 1000
Check the flow is laminar or not
24 Pw Vp d 1000 0.22 0.5 10
Cd = Re = = = 112(Not)
RN 1.002 10
The flow is transitional flow
24 0.3 24 0.3
Cd = + + 0.34 = + + 0.34 = 0.84
RN RN 112 112
4 4 9.81 0.5 10 2650 1000
=( ( )) = ( ( )) = 0.111m/s
3 3 0.84 1000

Check again Re
Pw Vp d 1000 0.11 0.5 10
Re = = = 55 (Ok)
1.002 10
Therefore Vp = 0.11m/sec
Example: 2
Find the diameter of the particle that has a settlement velocity of 0.1m/sec. Density of
particle = 2650 and density of water = 1000kg/m3.
Cd 4 Pp Pw 4 2650 1000
= g = 9.81 1.3 10 = 0.0281
RN 3 Pw Vp 3 (1000) (0.1)
From the curve RN is 50 for =0.0281
50 1.3 10
= = = 0.65
0.1 1000
Allens Law at intermediate Reynolds number
. . ( )
Vp = 0.153 . . , So, alternative formula
Example 3
Do Example 1 by this method (Ans. = 0.14m/s) Sphericity Factor
V/Ap < 2d/3 for particles in water
Phi = sphericity factor = ds /d (average)
ds is the sphere diameter having the same settlement velocity as the particle of diameter
da( The average size of the particular range can be found from the geometric mean size of
sieves passing and retaining the sample.
Sedimentation Tank

Sedimentation tank are classified as continuous flow or intermittent flow. The continuous
flow types are mostly used now days. Tanks also classified as horizontal flow when the
liquid passes through in the horizontal direction and as vertical flow when the liquid enters
near the bottom of the tank and is withdrawn at the surface .The vertical flow type is
generally used for sewage treatment.
Three common types of sedimentation basins are shown below:
Rectangular basins are the simplest design, allowing water to flow horizontally through a
long tank. This type of basin is usually found in large-scale water treatment plants.
Rectangular basins have a variety of advantages - predictability, cost-effectiveness, and
low maintenance. In addition, rectangular basins are the least likely to short-circuit,
especially if the length is at least twice the width. A disadvantage of rectangular basins is
the large amount of land area required.
Figure: 4.11Rectangular basins

2. Double-deck rectangular basins are essentially two rectangular sedimentation basins
stacked one atop the other. This type of basin conserves land area, but has higher operation
and maintenance costs than a one-level rectangular basin.
Figure: 4.12.double deck basins

3. Square or circular sedimentation basins with horizontal flow are often known as
clarifiers. This type of basin is likely to have short-circuiting problems.
Figure: 4.13.Square or circular sedimentation basins

A forth type of sedimentation is more complex. Solids-contact clarifiers also known as up
flow solids-contact clarifiers up flow sludge-blanket clarifiers combine coagulation,
flocculation and sedimentation within a single basin. Solids-contact clarifiers are often
found in packaged plants and in cold climates where sedimentation must occur in odour.
This type of clarifier is also often used in softening operation. All sedimentation basins
have four zones:
The inlet zone,
The settling zone,
The sludge zone, and
The outlet zone
(Fig.4.14). each zone should provide a smooth transition between the zone before and the
zone after. In addition, each zone has its own unique purpose.
Figure: 4.14.Zone of a settling tank

Inlet Zone

The two primary purposes of the inlet zone of a sedimentation basin are to distribute the
water and to control the water's velocity as it enters the basin. In addition, inlet devices act
to prevent turbulence of the water. The incoming flow in a sedimentation basin must be
evenly distributed across the width of the basin to prevent short-circuiting. Short-circuiting
is a problematic circumstance in which water bypasses the normal flow path through the
basin and reaches the outlet in less than the normal detention time. We will discuss short-
circuiting in the next lesson. In addition to preventing short-circuiting, inlets control the
velocity of the incoming flow. If the water velocity is greater than 0.5 ft/sec, then floc in
the water will break up due to agitation of the water. Breakup of floc in the sedimentation
basin will make settling much less efficient. . Two types of inlets are shown below. The
stilling wall, also known as a perforated baffle wall, spans the entire basin from top to
bottom and from side to side. Water leaves the inlet and enters the settling zone of the
sedimentation basin by flowing through the holes evenly spaced across the stilling wall.
Figure: 4.14.1.Types of Inlet Structure:

Water Works Operator's Manual
The second type of inlet allows water to enter the basin by first flowing through the holes
evenly spaced across the bottom of the channel and then by flowing under the baffle in
front of the channel. The combination of channel and baffle serves to evenly distribute the
incoming water.
Settling Zone
After passing through the inlet zone, water enters the settling zone where water velocity is
greatly reduced. This is where the bulk of floc settling occurs and this zone will make up
the largest volume of the sedimentation basin. For optimal performance, the settling zone
requires a slow, even flow of water. The settling zone may be simply a large expanse of

open water. But in some cases, tube settlers and lamella plates, such as those shown below,
are included in the settling zone.
Figure: 4.14.2.Settling zone

In a tube settlers and lamella plates, water flows up through slanted tubes or along slanted
plates. Floc settles out in the tubes or plates and drifts back down into the lower portions of
the sedimentation basin. Clarified water passes through the tubes or between the plates and
then flows out of the basin.
Tube settlers and lamella plates increase the settling efficiency and speed in sedimentation
basins. Each tube or plate functions as a miniature sedimentation basin, greatly increasing
the settling area. Tube settlers and lamella plates are very useful in plants where site area is
limited, in packaged plants, or to increase the capacity of shallow basins.
Determining the capacity of the settling zone
The capacity of the settling zone can be determined on the basis of over flow rate. It is
assumed that the settlement of a particle at the bottom of the tank does not depend on the
depth, but on the surface area of the tank. This assumption can be proved theoretically as
follow;
Let L=Length of the settling zone
W=Width of the tank
H=depth of the tank
C=Capacity of the tank
T=time of horizontal flow (detention time)
V=Horizontal velocity of flow
Q=Discharge of flow

v= velocity of settlement of a particular particle
Figure: 4.14.3.horizontal flow settling tank with continuous flow

Detention time =L/V=Capacity/Q=L*W*H/Q (3)
But T=Depth of the tank /velocity of the particle = H/v (4)
Equating (3) & (4), we get
L/Vf = L*w*H/Q = H/Vp
Vp/Vf = H/L (5)
Vp = Q/L*W = Q/A (6)
Equation (6) shows that the velocity of settlement of the particle is independent on the
depth of the tank, and it, inversely, varies as the surface area of the tank. This formula also
reveals that all the particle whose velocity of settlement is either equal to or greater than
v=Q/A will reach the sludge zone before the outlet end of the tank. All other particles with
settlement velocity vo will be removed in the proportion Vx/Vo. Assuming that Vx is
distributed uniformly over the vertical distance H.
= +
XT = Total removal of particles in the tank

Xo is the fraction of particles with velocity V < Vo. A batch settlement process is used to
determine the integral fraction
Outlet Zone
The outlet zone controls the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin - both the
amount of water leaving the basin and the location in the basin from which the out flowing
water is drawn. Like the inlet zone, the outlet zone is designed to prevent short-circuiting

of water in the basin. In addition, a good outlet will ensure that only well-settled water
leaves the basin and enters the filter.
A typical outlet zone begins with a baffle in front of the effluent. This baffle prevents
floating material from escaping the sedimentation basin and clogging the filters. After the
baffle comes the effluent structure, which usually consists of a launder, weirs, and effluent
piping. A typical effluent structure is shown below:
Figure: 4.14.4 Outlet Zone

The primary component of the effluent structure is the effluent launder, a trough which
collects the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin and directs it to the effluent
piping. The sides of a launder typically have weirs attached. Weirs are walls preventing
water from flowing uncontrolled in to the launder. The weirs serve to skim the water
evenly of the tank.
A weir usually has notches, holes, or slits along its length. These holes allow water to flow
in to the wire. The most common type of hole is the V-shaped notch Shown on the picture
above which allows only the top inch or so of water to flow to out of the sedimentation
basin. Conversely, the weir may have silts cut vertically along its length, an arrangement
which allows for more variation of operational water level in the sedimentation basin.
Water flows over or through the holes in the weirs and in to the launder. Then the launder
channels the water to out let, or effluent, pipe. This pipe carries water away from the
sedimentation basin and to the next step in the treatment process.
Sludge Zone

The sludge zone is found across the bottom of the sedimentation basin where the sludge
collects temporarily. Velocity in this zone should be very slow to prevent re-suspension of
sludge. A drain at the bottom of the basin allows the sludge to be easily removed from the
tank. The tank bottom should slope toward the drains to further facilitate sludge removal.
In some plants, sludge removal is achieved continuously using automated equipment. In
other plants, sludge must be removed manually. If removed manually, the basin should be
cleaned at least twice per year or more often if excessive sludge buildup occurs. It is best to
clean the sedimentation basin when water demand is low, usually in April and October.
Many plants have at least two sedimentation basins so that water can continue to be treated
while one basin is being cleaned, maintained, and inspected.
If sludge is not removed from the sedimentation basin often enough, the effective (useable)
volume of the tank will decrease, reducing the efficiency of sedimentation. In addition, the
sludge built up on the bottom of the tank may become septic, meaning that it has begun to
decay an aerobically. Septic sludge may result in taste and odor problems or may float to
the top of the water and become scum. Sludge may also become re-suspended in the water
and be carried over to the filters. .
Sludge disposal
The sludge which is found in the bottom of a sedimentation tank is primarily composed of
water. The solids in the sludge are mainly excess coagulant, such as alum. Alum sludge
has a solid concentration of only about 1% when automatically removed from the basin. Or
about 2% if manually removed (the greater solid concentration of manually removed
sludge is due to a small amount of gravity thickening).
Many options exist for disposal of sedimentation sludge. Here we will discuss disposal in
streams, sanitary sewers, lagoons and landfills.
Factors Influencing Efficiency of the basin
Flock Characteristics
To a large extent, a sedimentation basin's efficiency will depend on the efficiency of the
preceding coagulation/flocculation process. The size, shape, and density of the floc
entering the sedimentation basin will all influence how well the floc settles out of the

water. Floc which is too small or too large, is irregularly shaped, or has a low density will
not tend to settle out in the sedimentation basin.
Even if the coagulation/flocculation process is very efficient, floc can disintegrate on its
way to or in the sedimentation basin. Previously formed floc will disintegrate if the water
velocity is too high, if there are sharp bends in the pipe at the inlet...
Figure: 4.15. Sharp bends in the pipe at the inlet

I. If water is discharged above the sedimentation basin water level or if throttle valves are
used.
Figure: 4.16.Water is discharged above the sedimentation basin

Short-circuiting
Another major cause of inefficiency in the sedimentation basin is short-circuiting, which
occurs when water bypasses the normal flow path through the basin and reaches the outlet
in less than the normal detention time. The picture below shows a basin in which the water
is flowing primarily through the left half of the basin. (Flowing water is shown as green
blobs.) An efficient sedimentation basin would have water flowing through the entire
basin, rather than through just one area.

Figure: 4.17.Short-circuiting
When water in the sedimentation basin short-circuit, floc does not have enough time to
settle out of the water, influencing the economy of the plant and the quality of the treated
water.
Short-circuiting in a sedimentation basin can be detected in a variety of ways. If areas of
water in the basin do not appear to be circulating, or if sludge build up on the bottom of the
basin is uneven, then tested may be called for. Floats or dyes can be released at the in-let of
the basin to determine current. . A variety of factors causes short-circuiting in a
sedimentation basin. Basin shape and design along with the design of the inlet and out-let,
can cause short-circuiting. You may remember from the last lesson that a long, thin
sedimentation basin is less likely to short-circuit than is a short broad one. Uneven
distribution of flow either at the inlet or out-let can also cause short-circuiting. If the weir
at the out-let is not level or if some of the notches clog, flow will be uneven and will cause
short-circuiting.
Designing a Rectangular Sedimentation Tank
Designing a rectangular sedimentation tank is similar in many ways to design a
flocculation chamber. However, water in a sedimentation basin is not agitated, so the
velocity gradient is not a factor in the calculation. Instead, two additional characteristics
are important in designing a sedimentation basin.
The overflow rate (also known as surface loading or the surface overflow rate) is equal to
the settling velocity of the smallest particle which the basin will remove. Surface loading is

calculating by dividing the flow by the surface area of the tank. Overflow rate should
usually be less than 1000gal/day ft2.
The weir loading is another important factor in sedimentation basin efficiency. Weir
loading, also known as weir overflow rate, is the number of gallons of water passing over a
foot of weir per day. The standard weir overflow rate is 10,000 to 14,000gpd/ft and should
be less than 20,000gpd/ft. Longer weirs allow more water to flow out of the sedimentation
basin without exceeding the recommended water velocity.
Design of Horizontal Flow Tanks
A depth of at least 3m is provided to allow for sludge storage. For a given flow rate, the
remaining variable to determine will be either the plan area or the detention time. It is
possible to run settling column tests to determine the expected percentage removal for a
given detention period. If a well defined zone of clear water is established, then there will
not be a need for Flocculation. A factor of 1.5 to 2 should be applied (the detention time
increased by 1.5 to 2) to allow for short-circuiting caused by wind temperature differences,
etc.
Inlet Arrangement
The flow should be distributed as uniformly as possible beyond the inlet zone. Weirs,
Orifices as well as perforated baffles can be provided to induce uniform distribution.
(Diagram below).
Design of perforated baffles should try to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The velocity through the ports should be 4 times higher than any approaching velocities
in order to equalize flows.
2. To avoid braking up flocs, the velocity gradient should be held to a value close to or a
little higher than that in the last Flocculator.
3. The maximum feasible number of ports should be provided to minimize the length of
the turbulent entry zone.
4. The port configuration should be such as to assure that the discharge jets will direct the
flow towards the basin outlet.

Outlet Arrangement
The outlet weir length should be long enough to reduce the turbulence at outlet from
travelling back to the settlement zone. The following formula can be used.
L = 0.2Q / (H.Vs)
Where:
H = Depth of the tank
Q = Flow rate
Vs = Settling velocity (m/day)
L = Combined weir length
Specifications
The sedimentation basin we will design in this lesson will be a rectangular sedimentation
basin with the following specificati
Figure: 4.18.Arectangular sedimentation basin
Rectangular basin
Depth:7-16 ft
Width:10-50ft
Length 4mwidth
Influent baffle to reduce the flow momentum

Slope of bottom to ward sludge hopper >1%

Continuous sludge removal with a scraper velocity <15ft/min
Detention time:4-8 hr
Flow through velocity :0.5ft/min
Overflow rate:500-1,000gal/day-ft2
Weir loading: 15,000-20,000gal/day-ft
Over view of calculations
We will determine the surface area, dimensions, and volume of the sedimentation tank as
well as the weir length. The calculations are as follows:
1. Divide flow in to at least two tanks.
2. Calculate the required surface area.
3. Calculate the required volume.
4. Calculate the tank depth.
5. Calculate the tank width and length.
6. Check flow through velocity.
7. If velocity is too high, repeat calculations with more tanks.
8. Calculate the weir length.
I. Divide the flow
The flow should be dividing in to at least two tanks and the flow through each tank should
be calculated using the formula shown below:
= /
Qc =flow in one tank Q=total flow n = number of tanks.
We will consider a treatment plant with a flow of 1.5MGD. We will divide the flow in to
three tanks, so the flow in one tank will be:
QC=1.5MGD/3
QC=0.5MGD
II. Surface area
Next, the required tank surface area is calculated. We will base this surface area on an
overflow rate of 500gal/day-ft2 in order to design the most efficient sedimentation basin.
The surface area is calculated using the following formula:

A=Qc/O.R.
Where:
A=surface area,ft2 Qc=flow, gal/day O.R. = overflow rate, gal/day-ft2 In our example, the
surface area of one tank is calculated as follows:
A = (500,000gal/day) (500gal/day-ft2)
A=1,000ft2
(Notice that we convert the flow from 0.5MGD to 500,000gal/day before beginning our
calculations.)
III. Volume
The tank volume is calculated just as it was for flocculation basins and flash mix
chambers, by multiplying flow by detention time. The optimal detention time for
sedimentation basins depends on whether sludge removal is automatic or manual. When
sludge removal is manual, detention time should be 6 hours. . We will consider a tank with
automatic sludge removal, so the detention time should 4 hours. The volume of one our
tanks is calculated as follows:
V=Qt
V=(500,000gal/day)(4hr)(1day/24hr)(1ft3/7.48gal) V=11,141ft 3
(Notice the conversions between days and hours between cubic feet and gallons.)
IV. Depth
The tanks depth is calculated as follows:
d=V/A
Where:
d=depth, ft V=volume,ft3 A= surface area, ft2
For our example, the depth is calculated to be:
d= (11,141ft3)/(1,000ft2) d = 11.1 ft
The specifications note that the depth should be between 7 and 16 feet. Our calculated
depth is within the recommended range. If the depth was too large, we would begin our
calculations again, using a larger number of tanks. If the depth is too shallo0w, we would
use a smaller number of tanks.
V. Width and Length

You will remember that the volume of the rectangular solid is calculated as follows:
V= L*W*d
Where:
V=volume L= length
W=width d=depth
For our tank, the length has been defined as follows: L= 4W
Combined these two formulas, we get the following formula used to calculate the width of
our tank: in the case of our example, the tank width is calculated as follows: W=15.8ft
The length is calculated as:
L = 4(15.8ft)
L= 63.2ft
Flow through velocity
Checking the flow through velocity is done just as it was for the flocculation basin. First,
the cross sectional area of the tank is calculated: Ax =Wd Ax = (18.5ft) (11.1ft) Ax =
175.4ft2
Then the flow through velocity of the tank is calculated (with a conversion from gallons to
cubic feet and from days to minutes):
V=Qc/Ax
V = (0.0000928ft3-day/gal-min)(500,000gal/day)/175.4ft 2
V=0.26ft/min
The velocity for our example is less than 0.5ft/min, so it is acceptable. As a result, we do
not need to repeat our calculations.
Weir length
The final step is to calculate the required length of weir. We will assume a weir loading of
15,000gal/day-ft and use the following equation to calculate the weir length: Lw = Qc/W.L
where:Lw: weir length, ft Qc: flow in one tank, gal/day W.L: weir loading, gal/day-ft so, in
our example, the weir length is calculated as follows: Lw =
(500,000gal/day)/(15,000gal/day-ft) Lw = 33.3ft The weir length should be 33.3ft.
Design Elements
Detention time: the time taken by the water particle to pass between entries and exist.


= =
Flow through periods (td)-the average time required for a batch of water to pass the settling
tank. Always Td<to because of short-circuiting.
Over flow rate or surface loading rate: the quantity of water passes per unit time horizontal
area. Vs = Q/A
Basin dimension
Surface area = Volume/surface loading
Length to width ratio minimum of 2:1 Preferable 3:1 to 5:1
Depth 2.5-5m (inclusive of allowance) Preferred value = 3m
Example 1
Find the dimension of a rectangular sedimentation basin for the following data
Volume of treated water =3*106l/s
Td=4hr =240min
Velocity of flow = 10cm/min
Solution
Length of tank = velocity of flow*td = 0.1*240=24m

Volume of water in = =

X sectional area (B*H)=V/L=500/24=20.8m2

Assuming the working depth = 3m
Width of tank = 20.8/3 = 7m
Provide 1m for sludge storage and 0.5m for free board
Total depth = 3+1.5 =4.5m
Provide the inlet zone = out-let zone =3m
Total length = 24+6 = 30m
Provide the Sedimentation tank =30*7*4.5
Example2
Design a sedimentation basin for the following data 1.1 flow rate
Maximum flow rate =10,000m3/day
Average flow rate 5790m3/day

2.1 design parameters

Td = 4hr
L/W=2
SOR=10m3/m2/d
Design flow rate to be 25% of maximum flow rate
Solution
Determine the number of tanks
No. of tanks=100/25 = 4
Q single = 10,000/4 = 2500m3/day
Determine the area of the sedimentation tank
Area = maximum flow rate/SOR
= 2500/10
= 250m2
A = 1*w = 2w2
W = 11.18m = 11m
L = A/W =23m
Determine the effective height (H)
H =SOR*td
= 1.67m
Provide the sludge and the free board zone of 0.5m
Ht=2+0.5+0.5=3m
Assume the inlet and out-let zone to be to be equal to the effective depth of the tank. Our
plant should build a sedimentation tank which is 11.1feet deep, 15.8feet wide, and 63.2feet
long. This tank will have a surface area of 1,000ft2 and a volume of 11,141ft3. The flow
through velocity will be 0.26ft/min. The weir length will be 33.3ft.
Design of a sedimentation basin involves the following steps:
Divide flow in to at least two tanks.
Calculate the required surface area.
Calculate the required volume.
Calculate the tank depth.

Calculate the width and length.

Check flow through velocity.
If velocity is too high, repeat calculations with more tanks
Calculate the weir length.
New Formulas Used
To calculate tank surface area: A=Qc/O.R.
To calculate tank depth: d=V/A
To calculate width of a rectangular tank where length is four times the
width:
To calculate length of a rectangular tank where length is four times the
width: L=4W
To calculate flow through velocity: V=Qc/Ax
To calculate weir length; Lw = Qc/W.L
4.3.5. Coagulation
In this lesson we will answer the following questions:
How do coagulation and flocculation fit into the water treatment process?
Which chemical principles influence coagulation and flocculation?
Which chemicals are used in coagulation?
What factors influence coagulation and flocculation?
Purpose
The primary purpose of the coagulation/flocculation process is the removal of turbidity
from the water. Turbidity is a cloudy appearance of water caused by small particles
suspended therein. Water with little or no turbidity will be clear.

Figure: 4.19.Appearance of turbidity

Coagulation is the process by which colloidal particles and very fine solid suspensions
initially present in a wastewater are combined into larger agglomerates that can be
separated via sedimentation, flocculation, filtration, centrifugation or other separation
methods
Coagulation is commonly achieved by adding different types of chemicals (coagulants) to
the waste water to promote destabilization of the colloid dispersion and agglomeration of
the resulting individual colloidal particles.
Location in the Treatment Plant
After the source water has been screened and has passed through the optional steps of pre
chlorination and aeration, it is ready for coagulation and flocculation.
Principle of coagulation
It has been found that when certain chemicals are added to water an insoluble, gelatinous,
flocculent is formed .this gelatinous precipitate during its formation and descent through
the water absorb and entangle very fine suspended matter and colloidal impurities. The
gelatinous precipitate therefore has the property of removing fine and colloidal particle
quickly and completely than by plain sedimentation. These coagulants further the
advantage of removing color, odor and taste from the water. These coagulants if properly
applied are harmless to the public.First the coagulant are mixed in the water to produce the
required precipitate ,then the water is sent in the sedimentation basins where sedimentation
of fine and colloidal particle takes place through the precipitate.
The principle of coagulation can be explained from the following two conditions:

I. Flock formation
When coagulants (chemicals) are dissolved in water and thoroughly mixed with it, they
produce a think gelatinous precipitate. This precipitate is known as flocand this floc has
got the property of arresting suspended impurities in water during downward travel
towards the bottom of tank. The gelatinous precipitate has therefore, the property of
removing fine and colloidal particles quickly.
II. Electric charges
Most particles dissolved in water have a negative charge, so they tend to repel each other.
As a result, they stay dispersed and dissolved or colloidal in the water.
The purpose of most coagulant chemicals is to neutralize the negative charges on the
turbidity particles to prevent those particles from repelling each other. The amount of
coagulant which should be added to the water will depend on the zeta potential, a
measurement of the magnitude of electrical charge surrounding the colloidal particles. You
can think of the zeta potential as the amount of repulsive force which keeps the particles in
the water. If the zeta potential is large, then more coagulants will be needed.
Coagulants tend to be positively charged. Due to their positive charge, they are attracted to
the negative particles in the water, as shown below.
Figure: 4.20.Negatively charged particle and positively charged coagulants

The combination of positive and negative charge results in a neutral. As a result, the
particles no longer repel each other.
The next force which will affect the particles is known as van der Waal's forces. Van der
Waal's forces refer to the tendency of particles in nature to attract each other weakly if they
have no charge.

Figure: 4.21.Neutrally charged particles attract due to van der Waal's forces.
Once the particles in water are not repelling each other, van der Waal's forces make the
particles drift toward each other and join together into a group. When enough particles
have joined together, they become floc and will settle out of the water.
Factors affecting coagulation:

1. Type of coagulant
2. Dose of coagulant
3. Characteristic of water
1. Type and quantity of suspended matter
2. Temperature of water
3. pH of water
4. Time and method of mixing
Common Coagulants
Coagulant chemicals come in two main types - primary coagulants and coagulant aids.
Primary coagulants neutralize the electrical charges of particles in the water which causes
the particles to clump together. Coagulant aids add density to slow-settling flocs and add
toughness to the flocs so that they will not break up during the mixing and settling
processes.
In water treatment plants, the following are the coagulants most commonly used:
1. Aluminum sulfate [Al 2(SO4) 3.18H2O].
It is also called Alum. It is the most widely used chemical coagulant in water purification
work. Alum reacts with water only in the presence of alkalinity. If natural alkalinity is not
present, lime may be added to develop alkalinity. It reacts with alkaline water to form
aluminum hydroxide (floc), calcium sulphate and carbon dioxide. Due to the formation of
calcium sulphate, hardness and corrosiveness of water is slightly increased. .

Chemical Reaction Taking Place

i) Al 2(SO4) 3.18H2O + 3Ca (HCO3) 2 2Al (OH) 3 + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2 +18 H2O
ii) Al (SO4) 3.18H2O+ 3Ca (OH) 2 2Al (OH) 3 +3CaSO4 + 18H2O
iii) Al2 (SO4) 318H2O+3Na2CO3 2Al (OH) 3 + 3Na2SO4 + 3CO2 + 18H2O
The chemical is found to be most effective between pH ranges of 6.5 to 8.5. Its dose may
vary from 5 to 30mg/lit, for normal water usually dose being 14mg/l. actually, dose of
coagulant depends on various factors such as turbidity, colour, taste, pH value, temperature
etc.
Due to the following reason, Alum is the most widely used chemical coagulant.
1. It is very cheap
2. It removes taste and color in addition to turbidity
3. It is very efficient
4. Flocs formed are more stable and heavy
5. It is not harmful to health
6. It is simple in working, doesnt require skilled supervision for dosing
2. Sodium aluminates (Na2Al2O4)
In the process of coagulation, it can remove carbonate and non-carbonate hardness. It
reacts with calcium and magnesium salts to form flocculent aluminates of these elements.
Chemical reactions:
i) Na2Al2O4 + Ca (HCO3) 2 CaAl2O4 + Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
ii) Na2Al2O4 + CaSO4 CaAL2O4 + Na2SO4
iii) NaAl2O4 + CaCl2 CaAl2O4 + 2NaCl
The pH should be within the range of 6 and 8.5.
2. Chlorinated Copperas
Combination of Ferric sulphate and Ferric chloride. When solution of Ferrous Sulphate is
mixed with chlorine, both Ferric sulphate and Ferric chloride are produced.
6FeSO4.7H2O + 3Cl2 2Fe3 (SO4)2 + 2FeCl3 + 42H2O
Ferric sulphate and Ferric chloride each is an effective floc and so also their combination.
Both Ferric sulphate and Ferric chloride can be used independently with lime as a
coagulant

If alkalinity is insufficient, lime is added.

Chemical reaction taking place
2FeCl3 + 3Ca (OH) 2 2Fe (OH)3 + CaCl2
Fe SO4 7H2O+Ca (OH) 2 Fe (OH2) + CaSO4+7H2O+Ca (OH)2+CaO+H2O
Ferric chloride effective pH range 3.5 6.5 or above 8.5 and Ferric sulphate is effective
with pH range of 4 7 or above 9.
4. Poly electrolytes
They are special types of polymers. They may be anionic, cationic, and non-ionic
depending upon the charge they carry. Out of these only cationic poly electrolytes can be
used independently.
Example 1
Find out the quantity of alum required to treat 18million liters of water per day. The dosage
of alum is 14mg/lit. Also work out the amount of CO2 released per liter of treated water.
Solution
Quantity of alum per day=( 14*18*106)/ 106=252kg
The chemical reaction as follow:
Al2 (SO4)18H2O+3Ca (HCO3)2 2Al (OH) 3+3CaSO4+18H2O+6CO2
Molecular weight of alum:
=2*26.97+3*32.066+36*1.008+30*16=666
Molecular weight of CO2= (1*12.0)+2*16) = 44
Thus
666mg of alum release 6*44mg of CO2
14mg of alum will releases= (14*6*44)/666 =5.55mg of CO2
Exercise
A water treatment plan uses ferrous sulphate and lime as a coagulant at the rate of 10mg/l
of water .Find out the quantity of ferrous sulphate and the required to treat 27 million liters
of water.
Fe SO4 7H2 O+3Ca (OH)2 Fe (OH2) + CaSO4+7H2 O + Ca (OH) 2+CaO2+H2 O

Feeding of coagulant
In order to feed chemicals to the water regularly and accurately, some type of feeding
equipment must be used.
Coagulants may be put in raw water either in powder form or in solution form.
I. Dry-feed Type
Dry powder of coagulant is filled in the conical hopper. The hoppers are fitted with
agitating plates which prevent the chemical from being stabilized. Agitating plates are used
to prevent arching of chemicals. Feeding is regulated by the speed of toothed wheel or
helical spring (fig 4.22). Activated carbon and lime are added to raw water in powder form.
Figure: 4.22.Dry feeding devices

II. Wet feeding type
First, solution of required strength of coagulant is prepared. The solution is filled in the
tank and allowed to mix in the mixing channel in required proportion to the quantity of
water. It can be easily controlled with automatic devices.
Mixing devices
The process of floc formation greatly depends upon the effective mixing (rapid mixing) of
coagulant with the raw water.
Rapid mixing of the mixture of coagulant and raw water is used to:
- Disperse chemicals uniformly throughout the mixing basin
- Allow adequate contact between the coagulant and particles
- Formation of microflocs
The mixing is done by mixing device.
1. Hydraulic jump - flume with considerable slope is developed
2. Pump method - centrifugal pump is used to raise raw water

3. Compressed air method compressed air is diffused from bottom of the mixing tank
4. Mixing channels
Mixing of raw water and coagulant is made to pass through the channel in which flume has
been done. Vertical baffles are also fixed at the end of the flumed part on both sides of the
channel.
5. Mixing basin with baffle wall
6. Mechanical mixing basins
Mechanical means are used to agitate the mixture to achieve the objective of thorough
mixing. Flash mixers and deflector plate mixers are used.
Figure: 4.23. Mixing channel

A. Flash mixer
The mixing of coagulant in water is achieved by rotating vigorously fans fixed in the
mixing basin. The deflecting wall avoids short circuiting and deflects the water flow
towards the fan blades. Chemical pipe discharges the coagulant just near the rotating fan
(fig 4.24).
Figure: 4.24.Flash mixer

Design criteria of flash mixer:
1. Detention period 30 to 60 sec

2. Velocity of flow 0.9m/sec

3. Depth 1 to 3m
4. Rotation per minute of blade 100
5. Power required 0.041kW/1000m3/day
B. Deflector plate mixer
Mixing is achieved by diffusing water through a deflection plate. Water enters from inlet
pipe and comes out through a hole provided below the deflector plate where it gets
agitated. Chemical pipe discharges the coagulant just near the deflector plate, where it gets
thoroughly mixed with water (fig 4.25).
Figure: 4.25.Deflector plate mixer
4.3.6. Flocculation
After adding the coagulant to the raw water, rapid agitation is developed in the mixture to
obtain a thorough mixing. Next to rapid mixing, mixture is kept slowly agitated for about
30 to 60min. slow mixing process in which particles are brought into contact in order to
promote their agglomeration is called flocculation. The tank or basin in which flocculation
process is carried out is called flocculation chamber. The velocity of flow in the chamber
is kept between 12 18cm/sec. Activated carbon in powder form can be used to speed up
the flocculation
The rate of agglomeration or flocculation is dependent upon
- Type and concentration of turbidity
- Type of coagulant and its dose
- Temporal mean velocity gradient G in the basin

The mean velocity gradient is the rate of change of velocity per unit distance normal to the
section - (meter per second per meter) (T-1). The value of G can be computed in terms of
power input by the following equation
Where P power dissipated (watt)

- Absolute viscosity (Ns/m2)
V - The volume to which P is applied (m3)
G - Temporal mean velocity gradient (s-1)
The flocculation technique most commonly used involves mechanical agitation with
rotating paddle wheels or vertical mounted turbines (fig 54).
The design criteria of a horizontal continuous flow rectangular basin flocculatoIi
Depth of tanker :3 to 4.5 m
detenntion Time :10 to 40 min ,normal :30 min
Velosity of flow :0.2 to 0.8 m/s, normal 0.4m/s
Total area of paddles :10 to 25% 0f the cross-sectional area of the tank
Peripheral velosity of blades :0.2 -0.6m/s,normal 0.3 to 0.4 m/s
Velosity gradient (G) :10 to 75 s-1
Factor G.t :104 to 105
Power consemption :10 to36 KW/mld
Out let flow velosity :0.15 to 0.25m/s
Figure: 4.26Flocculator

Flocculent settling
Flocculent particles resulting from coagulation will agglomerate while settling with a
resultant increase in particle size. The density of the composite particle will decrease due
inclusion of water, however, the settling velocity will increase. (0.1 to 3mm best floc size)
The clarification of dilute suspensions of flocculating particle is a function of:
- Settling property of the particles
- Flocculating characteristic of the suspension
Example1
Design a conventional vertical-shaft rapid mix tank unit for uniformly dispersing coagulant
in 10 MLD of settled raw water as per design parameters given below:
Detention time (t): 20 60 s
Ratio of tank height (H) to diameter (D): (1:1 to 1:3)
Ratio of impeller diameter (DI) to tank diameter (D): (0.2:1 to 0.4:1)
Velocity gradient (G): >300 /s
Gt: 10000 20000
Tank diameter (D): <3m
Paddle tip speed (vp): 1.75 2.0 m/s
Velocity of paddle relative to water (v): 0.75 x paddle tip
speed
Paddle area (Ap)/Tank section area (AT): 10:100 20:100
Coefficient of drag on impeller blade (CD): 1.8
Maximum length of each impeller blade (L): 0.25 x impeller
diameter
Maximum width of impeller blade (B): 0.20 x impeller
diameter
Impeller height from bottom (HB): 1.0 x impeller
diameter
Kinematic viscosity ( ) 1.003 x 10-6 m2/s
Dynamic viscosity of water: ( ) 1.002 x 10-3
N.s/m2

Determine tank dimensions (provide a freeboard of 0.5 m), impeller diameter, paddle
dimensions, number of paddles, clearance of the impeller from tank bottom, paddle
rotation speed and power input requirement.
Solution:
Let the detention time (t) be 40 s.
Therefore volume of tanker Vt= (40/60*60*24)*10000 = 4.63m3
Let the tank diameter (D) be 2 m
Tank cross-sectional area (Acs) = 3.14 m2
Tank height (H) = 1.47 m, provide freeboard of 0.5 m
Total height (HT) = 1.97 m, say 2 m.
Tank height (H) to tank diameter (D) ratio =1.47/2 = 0.736, (within the range of 0.331.0,
hence okay)
Let velocity gradient, G = 400 s-1
Therefore, G.t = (400). (40) = 16000 (within the limit of 10000-20000, hence okay)
Let the paddle tip speed (vp) be 1.8 m/s
Hence, velocity of paddle relative to water (v) = 0.75. (1.8) = 1.35 m/s
Or, Ap = 0.335m2
Tank sectional area = (D). (H) = (1.47). (2) = 2.94 m2
, which is around 0.15, hence okay.
Let the impeller diameter be 0.8 m, i.e, , which is okay
Choose length of each impeller blade (L) as 0.20m, i.e. (okay)

Choose breadth of each impeller blade (B) as 0.15m, i.e. (okay)

Area of each blade = (L.B) = (0.2).(0.15) = 0.03 m2
Therefore, number of blades to be provided = , say 12

Clearance of the paddles from the tank bottom = 0.8 m
Paddle rotation speed (w, radians/s) = radians/s,
I.e. revolutions per minutes
Power requirement is given by, or, or,

P = 742 Watts, i.e., provide 1 KW motor for driving the impeller at 45 rpm.
Exercise:
1) Design a settling tank (coagulationsedimentation) with continuous flow for treating
water for a population of 48,000 persons with an average daily consumption of 135lit/head.
Take detention period of 3hrs and maximum day factor of 1.8.
2) Design a conventional rectangular horizontal-shaft flocculation tank unit for 10 MLD of
settled raw water after coagulant addition and rapid mixing as per design parameters given
below:
Detention time (t): 10 30 minutes
Velocity gradient (G): 20 75 /s
Gt: 2 x 104 6 x 104
Tank Depth (D): <5m
Paddle tip speed (vp): 0.25 0.75 m/s
Velocity of paddle relative to water (v): 0.75 x paddle tip speed
Paddle area (Ap)/Tank section area (AT): 10:100 to 20:100
Coefficient of drag on paddle blade (CD): 1.8

Maximum length of each paddle (l): 5.0 m

Maximum width of each paddle (b): 0.50 m
Kinematic viscosity: 1.003 x 10-6 m2/s
Dynamic viscosity of water: 1.002 x 10-3 N.s/m2
Freeboard: 0.50 m
Draw a net sketch of the designed tank (top and front view) clearly showing tank
dimensions, paddle shaft position, paddle blade dimensions, water level, etc. Also mention
paddle rotation speed and power requirement.
4.2.7. Filtration
Theory of Filtration
The effluent obtained after coagulation does not satisfy the drinking water standard and is
not safe. So it requires further treatments. Filtration is one of the water purification process
in which water is allowed to pass through a porous medium to remove remaining flocs or
suspended solids from the previous treatment processes.
Filtration process assist significantly by reducing the load on the disinfections process,
increasing disinfection efficiency.
Filtration consists of passing water through a thick layer of sand. During the passage of
water through sand, the following effects take place.
i) Suspended matter and colloidal matter are removed
ii) Chemical characteristic of water get changed
iii) Number of bacteria considerably reduced.
These phenomena can be explained on the basis of the following mechanisms of filtration.
I. Mechanical straining
Mechanical straining of suspended particles in the sand pores.
II. Sedimentation and Adsorption
- The interstices between the sand grains act as sedimentation basins in which the
suspended particles smaller than the voids in the filter-bed settle upon the sides of the sand
grains.

- The particles stick on the grains because of the physical attraction between the two
particles of matter and the presence of the gelatinous coating formed on the sand grains by
the previously deposited bacteria and colloidal matter.
III. Electrolytic action
Due to the friction between medium and suspended solids, certain amount of dissolved and
suspended matter is ionized. Suspended matter in water is ionized, carries charge of one
polarity and the particles of sand in filter which are also ionized, possess electrical charges
of opposite polarity. These neutralize each other; change the chemical character of water.
IV. Biological Action
The growth and life process of the living cells, biological metabolism. The surface layer
gets coated with a film in which the bacterial activities are the highest and which feed on
the organic impurities. The bacteria convert organic impurities by a complex biochemical
action into simple, harmless compounds purification of water.
Types of filters
Two types of filter:
1. Gravity filter system
i. Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
ii. Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
2. Pressure filter system
i. Slow Sand Filters
The slow sand filter removes particles from the water through adsorption and straining. It
also removes a great deal of turbidity from water using biological action. A layer of dirt,
debris, and microorganisms builds up on the top of the sand. This layer is known as
schmutzdecke, which is German for "dirty skin." The schmutzdecke breaks down organic
particles in the water biologically, and is also very effective in straining out even very
small inorganic particles from water.
Slow sand filters are best suited for the filtration of water for small towns. The sand used
for the filtration is specified by the effective size and uniformity coefficient. The effective
size, D10, which is the sieve in millimeters that permits 10% sand by weight to pass. The
uniformity coefficient is calculated by the ratio of D60 and D10.

Construction of slow sand filter

Slow sand filter is made up of a top layer of fine sand of effective size 0.2 to 0.3mm and
uniformity coefficient 2 to 3. The thickness of the layer may be 75 to 90 cm. Below the
fine sand layer, a layer of coarse sand of such size whose voids do not permit the fine sand
to pass through it. The thickness of this layer may be 30cm. The lowermost layer is a
graded gravel of size 2 to 45mm and thickness is about 20 to 30cm. The gravel is laid in
layers such that the smallest sizes are at the top. The gravel layer is used to retain the
coarse sand layer and is laid over the network of open jointed clay pipe or concrete pipes
called under drainage. Water collected by the under drainage is passed into the out
chamber.
Figure: 4.27.Slow sand filter

Operation
The water from sedimentation tanks enters the slow sand filter through a submersible inlet
as shown in fig 11. This water is uniformly spread over a sand bed without causing any
disturbances. The water passes through the filter media at an average rate of 2.4 to
3.6m3/m2/day. This rate of filtration is continued until the difference between the water
level on the filter and in the inlet chamber is slightly less than the depth of water above the
sand. The difference of water above the sand bed and in the outlet chamber is called the
loss of head.
During filtration as the filter media gets clogged due to the impurities, which stay in the
pores, the resistance to the passage of water and loss of head also increases. When the loss
of head reaches 60cm, filtration is stopped and about 2 to 3cm from the top of bed is
scrapped and replaced with clean sand before putting back into service to the filter.

The scrapped sand is washed with the water, dried and stored for return to the filter at the
time of the next washing. The filter can run for 6 to 8 weeks before it becomes necessary to
replace the sand layer.
Uses
The slow sand filters are effective in removal of 98 to 99% of bacteria of raw water and
completely all suspended impurities and turbidity is reduced to 1 N.T.U. Slow sand filters
also removes odours, tastes and colours from the water but not pathogenic bacteria which
requires disinfection to safeguard against water-borne diseases. The slow sand filter
requires large area for their construction and high initial cost for establishment. The rate of
filtration is also very slow.
Maintenance
The algae growth on the overflow weir should be stopped. Rate of filtration should be
maintained constant and free from fluctuation. Filter head indicator should be in good
working condition. Trees around the plant should be controlled to avoid bird droppings on
the filter bed, No coagulant should be used before slow sand filtration since the floc will
clog the bed quickly.
ii.Rapid Sand Filter
The rapid sand filter differs from the slow sand filter in a variety of ways, the most
important of which are the much greater filtration rate ranging from 100 to 150m3/m2/day,
the ability to clean automatically using backwashing and require small filter area. The
mechanism of particle removal also differs in the two types of filters - rapid sand filters do
not use biological filtration and depend primarily on adsorption and some straining.
The main features of rapid sand filter are as follows
Effective size of sand - 0.45 to 0.70mm
Uniformity coefficient of sand - 1.2 to 1.7
Depth of sand - 60 to 75cm
Filter gravel - 2 to 50mm size
(Increase size towards bottom)
Depth of gravel - 45cm
Depth of water over sand

During filtration - 1 to 2m
Overall depth of filter
Including 0.5m free board - 2.5m
Area of single filter unit - 100m2 in two parts of each
50m2
Loss of head - Max 1.8 to 2.0m
Turbidity of filtered water - 1 NTU
Operation
The water from coagulation sedimentation tank enters the filter unit through inlet pipe and
uniformly distributed on the whole sand bed. Water after passing through the sand bed is
collected through the under drainage system in the filtered water well. The outlet chamber
in this filter is also equipped with filter rate controller. In the beginning the loss of head is
very small. But as the bed gets clogged, the loss of head increases and the rate of filtration
become very low. Therefore the filter bed requires its washing.
Washing of Filter
Washing of filter is done by the back flow of water through the sand bed as shown in
Fig.4.28
First the value V1 is closed and the water is drained out from the filter leaving a few
centimeter depth of water on the top of sand bed. Keeping all values closed the compressed
air is passed through the separate pipe system for 2-3 minutes, which agitates the sand bed
and stirrer it well causing the loosening of dirt, clay etc. inside the sand bed.
Now value V4 and V5 are opened gradually, the wash water tank, rises through the
laterals, the strainers gravel and sand bed. Due to back flow of water the sand expands and
all the impurities are carried away with the wash water to the drains through the channels,
which are kept for this purpose.

Figure: 4.28.Rapid sand filter

Construction of rapid sand filter
Rapid sand filter consists of the following five parts:
1. Enclosure tank A water tight tank is constructed either masonry or concrete
2. Under drainage system may be perforated pipe system or pipe and stretcher system
3. Base material gravel should free from clay, dust, silt and vegetable matter. Should be
durable, hard, round and strong and depth 40cm.
4. Filter media of sand The depth of sand 60 to 75cm
5. Appurtenances Air compressors useful for washing of filter and wash water troughs
for collection of dirty water after washing of filter.
Washing process is continued till the sand bed appears clearly. The washing of filter is
done generally after 24 - 48hours and it takes 10 minutes and during back washing the
sand bed expands by about 50%.
Rapid sand filter bring down the turbidity of water to 1 N.T.U. This filter needs constant
and skilled supervision to maintain the filter gauge, expansion gauge and rate of flow
controller and periodical backwash.
i. Pressure Filter
Pressure filter is type of rapid sand filter in closed water tight cylinder through which the
water passes through the sand bed under pressure. All the operation of the filter is similar
to rapid gravity filter; expect that the coagulated water is directly applied to the filter
without mixing and flocculation. These filters are used for industrial plants but these are
not economical on large scale.

Pressure filters may be vertical pressure filter and horizontal pressure filter. Backwash is
carried by reversing the flow with values. The rate of flow is 120 to 300m3/m2/day.
Figure: 4.29.Vertical Pressure filters

Example1
10 MLD of water after secondary sedimentation (average turbidity: 10 NTU) is to be
filtered through a battery of rapid sand filters to reduce water turbidity to < 2.5 NTU.
Based on pilot plant studies, it was determined that 60 cm filter beds of sand (0.5 mm
average sand diameter) were suitable for this purpose. It was further determined that such
beds could be operated for 7.5 hours at a filtration rate of 10 m3/m2/hr before the terminal
head-loss of 3 m was reached. Filter backwashing rate was 1 m3/m2/min and the backwash
time was 5 minutes. A filter unit will be off-line for 30 minutes during each backwash
operation. Based on this information, determine the numbers of filter units to be provided
and dimensions of each unit. Determine how much filtered water is required for
backwashing each day and hence determine the filtered water production per day.
Solution:
Nominal filtration rate: 10 m3/m2/h
Filter is off-line for 1.5 hours every 24 hours
Therefore, effective filtration rate = m3/m2/h
Therefore, required filter cross-sectional area = m2

Let two filters be provided for this purpose

Let the length of each filter be 5.5 m and width 4.1 m (length: width = 1.34)
Therefore total filter cross-section area provided = 2. (5.5). (4.1) = 45.1 m2
Corrected actual filtration rate = m3/m2/h

Filtered water required for backwashing = 1. (5). (45.1) .3 = 676.5 m3/d
Hence total filtered water production = 10 0.676 = 9.324 MLD
Example2
Design a rapid sand filter to treat 10 million liters of raw water per day allowing 0.5% of
filtered water for backwashing. Half hour per day is used for backwashing. Assume
necessary data.
Solution:
.
Total filtered water = =0.42766Ml/h
.
Let the rate of filtration be 5000 l / h / m2 of bed.

.
Area of filter = =85.5m2
.
Provide two units. Each bed area: = 85.5/2 = 42.77 L/B = 1.3; 1.3B2 = 42.77
B = 5.75 m; L = 5.75 x 1.3 = 7.5 m
Assume depth of sand = 50 to 75 cm.
Under drainage system:
Total area of holes = 0.2 to 0.5% of bed area.
.
Assume 0.2% of bed area = 42.77=0.086m2
Area of lateral = 2 (Area of holes of lateral)

Area of manifold = 2 (Area of laterals)
So, area of manifold = 4 x area of holes = 4 x 0.086 = 0.344 = 0.35 m2.
. /
Diameter of manifold = ( ) = 0.66 cm
Assume c/c of lateral = 30 cm. Total numbers = 7.5/ 0.3 = 25 on either side.
Length of lateral = 5.75/2 - 0.66/2 = 2.545 m.
C.S. area of lateral = 2 x area of perforations per lateral. Take dia of holes = 13 mm

Number of holes: (1.3) =0.086*104=860cm2


Therefore:= =648, say 650
( . )
Number of holes per lateral = 650/50 = 13

Area of perforations per lateral = 13 x (1.3)2 /4 = 17.24 cm2
Spacing of holes = 2.545/13 = 19.5 cm.
C.S. area of lateral = 2 x area of perforations per lateral = 2 x 17.24 = 34.5 cm2.
. /
= Diameter of lateral =( ) = 6.63 cm
Check: Length of lateral < 60 d = 60 x 6.63 = 3.98 m. l = 2.545 m (Hence acceptable).

Rising wash water velocity in bed = 50 cm/min.
Wash water discharge per bed = (0.5/60) x 5.75 x 7.5 = 0.36 m3/s.
Velocity of flow through lateral = 0.36 = 0.36 x 104 = 2.08 m/s (ok)
Total lateral area 50 x 34.5
.
Manifold velocity = =1.04 m/s < 2.25 m/s (ok)
.
Wash water gutter

Discharge of wash water per bed = 0.36 m3/s. Size of bed = 7.5 x 5.75 m.
Assume 3 troughs running lengthwise at 5.75/3 = 1.9 m c/c.
Discharge of each trough = Q/3 = 0.36/3 = 0.12 m3/s.
Q =1.71 x b x h3/2
Assume b =0.3 m
h1/2 =0.12/1.71*0.3= 0.234
h = 0.378 m = 37.8 cm = 40 cm = 40 + (free board) 5 cm = 45 cm; slope 1 in 40
Clear water reservoir for backwashing
. .
For 4 h filter capacity, Capacity of tank = = 1725m3
Assume depth d = 5 m. Surface area = 1725/5 = 345 m2

L/B = 2; 2B2 = 345; B = 13 m & L = 26 m.
Die of inlet pipe coming from two filter = 50 cm.
Velocity <0.6 m/s. Diameter of wash water pipe to overhead tank = 67.5 cm.
Air compressor unit = 1000 l of air/ min/ m2 bed area.
For 5 min, air required = 1000 x 5 x 7.5 x 5.77 x 2 = 4.32 m3 of air.
Exercise

1) Design a slow sand filter for a community of 40,000 population. The per capita water
demand of the water supply is 180lit/capita per day and the rate of filtration is
150lit/m2/hr. MDF = 1.8.
2) Design a rapid sand filter to treat water for 240,000 population, the per capital water
consumption of the town is 200lit/head/day. The filter works all the 24hrs. Assume rate of
filtration as 100lit/m2/min and maximum day factor is 1.8.
3) Determine the percentage of filtered water required for wash water based on the
following criteria:
Flow, Qf = 300 L/s
Rate of filtration, Vof = 170m3/m2/day
Time of washing = 10 min
Rate of washing, VoBW = 15 mm/s
4.3.8. Disinfection
In this lesson we will answer the following questions:
What disinfection requirements must be met in treating drinking water?
How does chlorination fit into the water treatment process?
How does chlorination work chemically?
What factors influence the efficiency of chlorination?
What equipment is used for chlorination?
What other methods can be used to disinfect water?
Disinfection
Before water treatment became common, waterborne diseases could spread quickly
through a population, killing or harming hundreds of people. The primary goal of water
treatment is to ensure that the water is safe to drink and does not contain any disease-
causing microorganisms. The best way to ensure pathogen-free drinking water is to make
sure that the pathogens never enter the water in the first place. However, this may be a
difficult matter in a surface water supply which is fed by a large watershed. Most
treatments plants choose to remove or kill pathogens in water rather than to ensure that the
entire watershed is free of pathogens.

Pathogens can be removed from water through physical or chemical processes. You may
remember that some previously discussed treatment processes, notably sedimentation and
filtration, can remove a large percentage of bacteria and other microorganisms from the
water by physical means. Storage can also kill a portion of the disease-causing bacteria in
water.
This lesson will be concerned with disinfection, which is the process of selectively
destroying or inactivating pathogenic organisms in water, usually by chemical means.
Disinfection is different from sterilization, which is the complete destruction of all
organisms found in water and which is usually expensive and unnecessary. Disinfection is
a required part of the water treatment process while sterilization is not.
Location in the Treatment Process
During pre chlorination, chlorine is usually added to raw water after screening and before
flash mixing. Post chlorination, in contrast, is often the last stage in the treatment process.
After flowing through the filter, water is chlorinated and then pumped to the clear well to
allow a sufficient contact time for the chlorine to act. From the clear well, the water may
be pumped into a large, outdoor storage tank such as the one shown below. Finally, the
water is released to the customer.
Requirements of Good Disinfectant
1) Destroy bacteria/pathogens within a practicable period of time, over an expected range
of water temperature.
2) Effective at variable compositions, concentration and conditions of water treated.
3) Neither toxic to humans and domestic animals nor unpalatable or otherwise
objectionable in required concentration.
4) Not change water properties
5) Have residual in a sufficient concentration to provide protection against recontamination
6) Can be determined easily, quickly, and preferably automatically.
7) Dispensable at reasonable cost
8) Safe and easy to store, transport, handle and supply
9) Not form toxic by-products due to their reactions with any naturally occurring materials
in water.

Methods of Disinfection
The disinfection of water can be done by one of the following methods:
a) Boiling of water
b) UltraViolate rays
c) Iodine and bromine
d) Ozone O3
e) Excess lime
f) Potassium permanganate [KMnO4]
g) Chlorine
In most situations chlorine is selected as one of the disinfecting agent that most closely
satisfies the requirement of chemical disinfectants namely:
(i) Quick and effective at killing micro-organisms
(ii) Readily soluble at the concentration needed for disinfection
(iii) Tasteless and odorless at the concentration required
(iv) Non-toxic to human life at the concentration required
(v) Easy to handle, transport and apply
(vi) Easy to detect and concentration easy to measure
(Vii) Capable of providing protection against later contamination.
(viii) Readily available
(xi) Cheap
The most common method of disinfection is the use of chlorine i.e. chlorination. The
various chlorine compounds which are available in the market and used as disinfectants
are:
1. Calcium hypo chlorite [Ca (OCl) 2] powered form
2. Sodium hypo chlorite [NaOCl] liquid form
3. Free chlorine Cl2- Gaseous form
Chlorination
Chlorination is the application of chlorine to water to accomplish some definite purpose. In
this lesson, we will be concerned with the application of chlorine for the purpose of
disinfection, but you should be aware that chlorination can also be used for taste and odor

control, iron and manganese removal, and to remove some gases such as ammonia and
hydrogen sulfide. Chlorination is currently the most frequently used form of disinfection in
the water treatment field. However, other disinfection processes have been developed.
These alternatives will be discussed at the end of this lesson.
Chlorination Chemistry
When chlorine is added to water, a variety of chemical processes take place. The chlorine
reacts with compounds in the water and with the water itself. Some of the results of these
reactions (known as the chlorine residual) are able to kill microorganisms in the water. In
the following sections, we will show the chemical reactions which occur when chlorine is
added to water.
Chlorine Demand
When chlorine enters water, it immediately begins to react with compounds found in the
water. The chlorine will react with organic compounds and form trihalomethanes. It will
also react with reducing agents such as hydrogen sulfide, ferrous ions, manganous ions,
and nitrite ions.
Let's consider one example, in which chlorine reacts with hydrogen sulfide in water. Two
different reactions can occur:
Hydrogen Sulfide + Chlorine + Oxygen Ion Elemental Sulfur + Water + Chloride
Ions
H2S + Cl2 + O2- S + H2O + 2Cl-
Hydrogen Sulfide + Chlorine + Water Sulfuric Acid + Hydrochloric Acid
H2S + 4Cl2 + 4H2O H2SO4 + 8HCl
In the first reaction, hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine and oxygen to create elemental
sulfur, water, and chloride ions. The elemental sulfur precipitates out of the water and can
cause odor problems. In the second reaction, hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine and
water to create sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid. Each of these reactions uses up the
chlorine in the water, producing chloride ions or hydrochloric acid which has no
disinfecting properties. The total amount of chlorine which is used up in reactions with
compounds in the water is known as the chlorine demand. A sufficient quantity of chlorine

must be added to the water so that, after the chlorine demand is met, there is still some
chlorine left to kill microorganisms in the water.
Reactions of Chlorine Gas with Water
At the same time that chlorine is being used up by compounds in the water, some of the
chlorine reacts with the water itself. The reaction depends on the type of chlorine added to
the water as well as on the pH of the water itself.
Chlorine gas is compressed into a liquid and stored in metal cylinders. The gas is difficult
to handle since it is toxic, heavy, corrosive, and an irritant. At high concentrations, chlorine
gas can even be fatal.
When chlorine gas enters the water, the following reaction occurs:
Chlorine + Water Hypo chlorous Acid + Hydrochloric Acid
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl
The chlorine reacts with water and breaks down into hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric
acid. Hypochlorous acid may further break down, depending on pH:
Hypochlorous Acid Hydrogen Ion + Hypochlorite Ion
HOCl H+ + OCl-
The concentration of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions in chlorinated water will
depend on the water's pH. A higher pH facilitates the formation of more hypochlorite ions
and results in less hypochlorous acid in the water. This is an important reaction to
understand because hypochlorous acid is the most effective form of free chlorine residual,
meaning that it is chlorine available to kill microorganisms in the water. Hypochlorite ions
are much less efficient disinfectants. So disinfection is more efficient at a low pH (with
large quantities of hypochlorous acid in the water) than at a high pH (with large quantities
of hypochlorite ions in the water.)
Hypochlorites
Instead of using chlorine gas, some plants apply chlorine to water as a hypochlorite, also
known as a bleach. Hypochlorites are less pure than chlorine gas, which means that they
are also less dangerous. However, they have the major disadvantage that they decompose
in strength over time while in storage. Temperature, light, and physical energy can all
break down hypochlorites before they are able to react with pathogens in water.

There are three types of hypochlorites - sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, and
commercial bleach:
Hypochlorites and bleaches work in the same general manner as chlorine gas. They react
with water and form the disinfectant hypochlorous acid. The reactions of sodium
hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite with water are shown below:
Calcium hypochlorite + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Calcium Hydroxide
Ca(OCl)2 + 2H2O 2HOCl + Ca(OH)2
Sodium hypochlorite + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Sodium Hydroxide
NaOCl + H2O HOCl + NaOH
Chloramines
Some plants use chloramines rather than hypochlorous acid to disinfect the water. To
produce chloramines, first chlorine gas or hypochlorite is added to the water to produce
hypochlorous acid. Then ammonia is added to the water to react with the hypochlorous
acid and produce a chloramine. Three types of chloramines can be formed in water -
monochloramine, dichloramine, and trichloramine. Monochloramine is formed from the
reaction of hypochlorous acid with ammonia:
Ammonia + Hypochlorous Acid Monochloramine + Water
NH3 + HOCl NH2Cl + H2O
Monochloramine may then react with more hypochlorous acid to form a dichloramine:
Monochloramine + Hypochlorous Acid Dichloramine + Water
NH2Cl + HOCl NHCl2 + H2O
Finally, the dichloramine may react with hypochlorous acid to form a trichloramine:
Dichloramine + Hypochlorous Acid Tri chloramine + Water
NHCl2 + HOCl NCl3 + H2O
The number of these reactions which will take place in any given situation depends on the
pH of the water. In most cases, both mono chloramines and di chloramines are formed.
Monochloramines and dichloramines can both be used as a disinfecting agent, called
combined chlorine residual because the chlorine is combined with nitrogen. This is in
contrast to the free chlorine residual of hypochlorous acid which is used in other types of
chlorination.

Chloramines are weaker than chlorine, but are more stable, so they are often used as the
disinfectant in the distribution lines of water treatment systems. Despite their stability,
chloramines can be broken down by bacteria, heat, and light. Chloramines are effective at
killing bacteria and will also kill some protozoans, but they are very ineffective at killing
viruses.
Dosage of Chlorine
The amount of chlorine needed to disinfect water will vary from source to source. waters
should be clear, and free from organic matters and suspended solids.
When chlorine is added to water some is used immediately to oxidize any organic matter
and to kill bacteria in the water. Any that is not used straight away remains in solution in
water as residual chlorine and protects against any possible future contamination of the
water. There is no purpose in adding to little chlorine to water, because the chlorine will be
used up in oxidation of the organic material, and there may be insufficient chlorine to kill
bacteria present. Disinfection is performed by any chlorine that remains after organic
matter has been oxidized, and therefore is carried out by the last, and not the first, few parts
per million of chlorine in the water. A sufficient quantity of chlorine should be added to
leave un adequate chlorine residual in the water. The residual chlorine level should not,
however, be so great as to cause consumers to complain about the taste of chlorine in the
water.
Applied chlorine dosage rates are usually in the range of 0.5 to 2.0mg/l, depending up on
the initial quality of the water. a suitable contact time following addition of chorine should
be provided to allow the water to be fully disinfected before it reaches the consumers.
Contact times are between 10 and 30 minutes, with a time of 30 minutes being
recommended. After this contact time the water should have a chlorine residual of 0.2 to
0.5mg/l.
Higher chlorine dosage may be necessary for disinfecting new water mains, new wells or
reservoirs, or other items that may have been contaminated. Samples of water should be
taken immediately after disinfection to ensure that no coli forms are present.
New water mains need to be disinfected prior to commissioning, and older mains should be
disinfected after repairs or after any major cleaning program if they are found to be

contaminated. First of the entire pipe lines should be flushed out with clean water and a
foam swab passed through the pipe to remove slime, dirt and deposits. pipe lines may then
be disinfected by filling them with water containing chlorine at a concentration of 20mg/l (
50mg/l is frequently used) and leaving this in the pipe line for not less than 24 hours for
draining the chlorine solution away.
Wells, reservoirs and storage tanks should also be disinfected before being put in to service
following construction, repairs, cleaning or maintenance. The walls should brush down as
thoroughly as possible using a strong chlorine solution containing between 50 and 100mg/l
of chlorine. Prior to this, reservoirs and storage tanks may be washed down using high
pressure water jets. Following cleaning the well, reservoir or tank should be filled with
water containing at least 20mg/l of chlorine and left to stand for not less than 24 hours
before the contents are drained away to waste. The tank should then be refilled with fresh
water to remove any chlorine that may create undesirable taste in water.
(A) Plain Chlorination
Plain chlorination is the process of addition of chlorine only when the surface water with
no other treatment is required. The water of lakes and springs is pure and can be used after
plain chlorination. A rate of 0.8mg/lit/hour at 15N/cm2 pressure is the normal dosage so as
to maintain in residual chlorine of 0.2 mg/lit.
(B) Super Chlorination
Super chlorination is defined as administration of a dose considerably in excess of that
necessary for the adequate bacterial purification of water. About 10 to 15 mg/lit is applied
with a contact time of 10 to 30 minutes under the circumstances such as during epidemic
breakout water is to be de chlorinated before supply to the distribution system.
(C) Brake Point Chlorination
The graph below shows what happens when chlorine (either chlorine gas or a hypochlorite)
is added to water. First (between points 1 and 2), the water reacts with reducing
compounds in the water, such as hydrogen sulfide. These compounds use up the chlorine,
producing no chlorine residual.

Figure: 4.30.Break point chlorination

Next, between points 2 and 3, the chlorine reacts with organics and ammonia which is
naturally found in the water. Some combined chlorine residual is formed - chloramines.
Note that if chloramines were to be used as the disinfecting agent, more ammonia would
be added to the water to react with the chlorine. The process would be stopped at point 3.
In contrast, if hypochlorous acid is to be used as the chlorine residual, then chlorine will be
added past point 3. Between points 3 and 4, the chlorine will break down most of the
chloramines in the water, actually lowering the chlorine residual.
Finally, the water reaches the breakpoint, shown at point 4. The breakpoint is the point at
which the chlorine demand has been totally satisfied - the chlorine has reacted with all
reducing agents, organics, and ammonia in the water. When more chlorine is added past
the breakpoint, the chlorine reacts with water and forms hypochlorous acid in direct
proportion to the amount of chlorine added. This process, known as breakpoint
chlorination, is the most common form of chlorination, in which enough chlorine is added
to the water to bring it past the breakpoint and to create some free chlorine residual.
(D) De-chlorination
Removal of excess chlorine resulting from super chlorination in part or completely is
called De-chlorination. Excess chlorine in water gives pungent smell and corrodes the
pipe lines. Hence excess chlorine is to be removed before supply. Physical methods like
aeration, heating and absorption on charcoal may be adopted. Chemical methods like
sulphur dioxide (SO2), Sodium Bi-sulphate (NaHSO3), Sodium Thiosulphate (Na2S2O8)
are used.
Points of Chlorination

Chlorine applied at various stages of treatment and distribution accordingly they are
known as pre, post and re-chlorination.
A) Pre-Chlorination
Chlorine applied prior to the sedimentation and filtration process is known as Pre-
chlorination. This is practiced when the water is heavily polluted and to remove taste,
odour, colour and growth of algae on treatment units. Pre-chlorination improves
coagulation and post chlorination dosage may be reduced.
The residual chlorine is useful in several stages of the treatment process - aiding in
coagulation, controlling algae problems in basins, reducing odor problems, and controlling
mud ball formation. In addition, the chlorine has a much longer contact time when added at
the beginning of the treatment process, so pre chlorination increases safety in disinfecting
heavily contaminated water.
b) Post Chlorination
Post chlorination is the application of chlorine after water has been treated but before the
water reaches the distribution system. At this stage, chlorination is meant to kill pathogens
and to provide a chlorine residual in the distribution system. Post chlorination is nearly
always part of the treatment process, either used in combination with pre chlorination or
used as the sole disinfection process.
c) Re-Chlorination
In long distribution systems, chlorine residual may fall tendering the water unsafe.
Application of excess chlorine to compensate for this may lead to unpleasant smell to
consumers at the points nearer to treatment point in such cases chlorine is applied again
that is re-chlorinated at intermediate points generally at service reservoirs and booster
pumping stations.
Example
Consider water from a polluted river having BOD5 = 5 mg/L, TKN = 1 mg/l (as N), and
MPN: 106 organisms / mL. This water will be treated in a conventional water treatment
plant and supplied for potable purposes. Compute the chlorine dose (in mg/L as Cl2)
required per liter of this water (consider both pre and post-chlorination) such that after
treatment BOD5, TKN, NH3-N are negligible and MPN < 1organism/mL.

Assumptions:
Assume that 1 mg/L (as Cl2) chlorine is required to destroy 1 mg/L of BOD5.
Assume TKN is completely converted to NH3-N during pre-chlorination.
The average time between post-chlorination and water consumption by the end users is 1
hour
The product of disinfectant dose (C in mg/L) and the contact time (t in minutes) for 5 and
6 log-kills using free residual chlorine as disinfectant is 96 and 120 respectively.
Assume 2 log-kill of microorganism during water treatment up to just before the post-
chlorination step.
Solution:
Chlorine dose required during pre-chlorination for destruction of BOD5 = 5 mg/L as Cl2
All TKN in water is converted to NH3-N during this process.
Hence ammonia concentration in water before post-chlorination = 1 mg/L (as N)
Breakpoint chlorination has to be performed to destroy ammonia in water.
Relevant equation:
Ammonia concentration in water: 1/14=0.0714 moles/L

Chlorine required for destruction of ammonia = 1.5. (0.0714) = 0.1071 moles/L,
Therefore, breakpoint chlorination dose = 71. (0.1071) = 7.6 mg/L
Initial microorganism concentration = 106 /mL
Removal during water treatment up to post-chlorination = 2 Log
Hence microorganism concentration just before post chlorination = 104 /mL
To get this concentration below 1 /mL, 5 log kills are required
C.t for 5 log kills = 96
Contact time = 1 hour = 60 minutes
Therefore required free chlorine residual dose =96/60=1.6mg/L as Cl2
Therefore, total chlorine dose required = 5 + 7.6 + 1.6 = 14.2 mg/L as Cl
Chlorine Gas
Chlorine gas is a yellowish green gas that is denser than air. It may be purchased in
cylinders containing liquified gas at high pressure ( containing about 30 Kg of liquid

chlorine) or drums (containing about 860 kg o f liquid chlorine). Chlorine gas may also be
produced on site by passing an electric current through a solution of salt in water.
Chlorine should never be injected in to water supply directly from cylinders or drums.
Direct injection is a dangerous practice and it is not possible either to control or know with
any accuracy how much chlorine is being applied. In all usual situations it is necessary to
use chlorinating equipment that controls and measures the doses of chlorine applied.
The chlorine dose is usually applied to the water to be disinfected by being sucked in to the
water at a narrowing of the pipe, known as venturi constriction. The narrowing of the pipe
causes the speed of the water to be increased and the pressure to be reduced, so allowing
chlorine to be sucked in. Following the addition of chlorine, thorough mixing is necessary
to ensure that the chlorine is uniformly distributed through the water.
For small supplies salts of hpochlorous acid may be used to provide chlorination for swift
disinfection of water, sodium hypochlorite solution known as Javel water contains about 5-
16% available chlorine by weight. Bleaching powder ( or chloride of lime) contains 20-
35% available chlorine, and high test hypochlorite (HTH) contains 60-70%. The chlorine
content of these various compounds and solutions made from them cam be expressed in
various ways.
By the percentage ( by weight) of chlorine in parts per million (ppm), or milligrams of
chlorine per litter. (Only for dilute solutions.)
In order to convert from one unit to another, a 1% solution contains 10 grams of chlorine
pet liter (1000 parts per million)
Javel water, bleaching powder and high test hypochlorite are the most commonly used
chlorine compounds, the choice of chemical being influenced by the reactive costs and
availabilities, and by the ease with which they can be transported.
In composition bleaching powder contains a mixture of calcium hypo chlorite, calcium
chloride and calcium hydroxide. The costs of transport and storage are high because
bleaching powder contains excess lime that serves no purpose in disinfection. Lime is also
insoluble in water, and solutions made from bleaching powder should be allowed to stand
after mixing and the solids allowed sinking. The solution on top should then be decanted in
to a storage tank. Any lumps of cemented bleaching powder should then be broken up

prior to mixing, and the bleaching powder added to water NOT the water added to then
bleaching powder. The sediment, lime residue resulting from preparation of chlorine
solution from bleaching powder is of no value to the disinfection process and should be
thrown away, using a safe disposal system. Failure to remove insoluble material results in
the blocking of valves and pipes.
High test hypochlorite consists of Calcium hypochlorite, and allows chlorine to be released
slowly. it has certain advantages over bleaching powder, being more stable, less likely to
deteriorate during storage even in tropical climates, and having good solubility so that
relative clear solutions may be prepared. Storage and handling conditions should be as for
bleaching powder. The stability of High Test Hypochlorite should not be overestimated,
however. The high percentage of available chlorine and the good solubility in water results
in low transport and storage costs than for bleaching powder. High test hypochlorite may
be supplied in powder, tablet or granular form, and chlorine solution should be prepared
using the same method as for bleaching powder. Javel water ( Sodium Hypochlorite
Solution) is convenient because it is supplied as a clear solution which is unlikely to cause
blockage of dosing equipment. On the other hand because the solution contains a large
proportion (by weight) of water, the handling and transport costs are high.
Storage of Chlorine Compounds
Bleaching powder can be handled easily, but it is bulky and unstable, losing some of the
available chlorine during storage. Loss of chlorine results from exposure to the
atmosphere, moisture, light or heat. The powder, and solution prepared from it, should
therefore be stored in cross - resistant containers in cool, dry, dark locations. Sealed drums
of bleaching powder should be used within two years of productions, and once opened
should be used within three weeks.
High test hypochlorite is more stable than Bleaching powder, but the same storage
requirements apply to both components. javel water should also be stored in sealed
containers and in dark conditions. Once containers of Javel water are opened their contents
should be used within a week.
The rate at which chlorine is lost from chlorine compounds during storage cannot be
estimated reliably. Before a concentrated solution should be made, and the strength of this

solution measured. A solution should then be prepared of the strength and volume required
for dosing purposes. For a sample of bleaching power containing 30% available chlorine,
33.3 grams of bleaching powder in 1 liter of water will produce a 1% chlorine solution (10
grams of chlorine per liter) which could be used to dose 10,000 liters ( 10 cubic meters) of
water at a dosage of 1mg/l. For high test hypochlorite containing 65% available chlorine,
only 15.3 grams of the sample would be needed to produce an equivalent solution.
Unfortunately, in practice it is not usually possible to know what is the percentage of
available chlorine in a sample of bleaching powder or high test hypochlorite prior to
making a chlorine solution.The following tables indicate the quantities of various chlorine
compounds that should be used to produce chlorine solutions and to disinfect water
supplies. To make X liters of chlorine solution of Y% strength from a compound
containing Z% chlorine by weight.the amount of compound to be used is: X x Y x 10 x
100 b grams of chlorine compound.
Table: 4.4.weights in grams of chlorine compounds needed to produce 1% chlorine
solutions for dosing purposes.
Table: 4.5.Volumes (liter) of 1% chlorine solution required for disinfection of water

supplies.

The volume of A% chlorine solution needed to chlorinate B cubic meters of water at a

dosage rate of c mg/l is:B X C ------- Litters 10 X A
Sample Constant Rate Systems for Dosing Chlorine Solution
A variety of constant rate chlorine dosing systems have been designed, and the designs can
often be copied or adapted to make use of locally available materials. Two of the more
reliable devices are the constant head siphon and the floating bowl solution feeder. Despite
its reliability, the outlets of these devices may become partially obstructed by sediment and
scale. Chlorine solutions should be added to a flow of water, ensuring that the chlorine
solution added can be adjusted so that the required level of residual chlorine is maintained
after the necessary contact time. For the constant head syphon flow rates remain constant
because the head causing flow remains steady. The driving head is the difference in level
between the base of the air inlet tube (where Pressure is atmospheric) and the siphon outlet.
The siphon device is very reliable. Giving constant feed rates irrespective of the level of
water in the reservoir. Construction, operation and maintenance is simple, although care
should be taken to ensure that the reservoir is well sealed and that air cannot enter the
siphon tube from the air inlet pipe.
Flow control can be achieved by moving the air inlet tube, changing the height of the
siphon with respect to the air inlet tube, or by use of a tap on the siphon outlet. The air inlet
tube should not be obstructed, and flow control by use of a tap on the air inlet is
unsatisfactory.

The floating bowl solution feeder may be of two possible designs; either with the inlet
above the outlet, or with the inlet below the outlet. Ether design may be used, but the bowl
may require some ballast (such as gravel) and a vertical guide wire should be provided to
prevent the bowl from tilting over and to keep it floating in a controlled manner as the
bowl descends during dosing. Flow control by altering the sizes of the tubes or by
adjusting the levels of the tubes in the bowl.
Chlorination of Wells
Water obtained from wells and boreholes is very difficult to disinfect with any reliability,
and under-dosing or overdosing is almost inevitable. The volume of water contained in a
well or borehole is seldom known accurately and rates of extraction will very from day to
day and during each day.
Simple disinfection may be used to provide residual chlorine in waters of high initial
quality, but the most reliable form of ensuring accurate dosing is to store the water
obtained from a well or borehole in a reservoir, and to disinfect the water, whose volume
and chlorine requirement can be measured, in the storage reservoir.
The practice of adding chlorine solution directly to a well or borehole is not recommended,
as the only factor that can be controlled is the residual relative to the original dose. The
chlorine solution may not mix thoroughly with the water in the well, and any metal lings or
fittings may become corroded.
It has been reported that water in wells may be disinfected by the use of chlorination pots,
containing a mixture of sand and either bleaching powder or HTH. The problems
associated with this technique are not so widely reported.
Chlorination pots are not widely used, although certain publications would lead one to
believe otherwise. The operating principle for these chlorination pots assumes that water
soaks into the chlorine compound used, forms a chlorine solution which then mixes with
the remainder of the water in the well. In reality, the outer layer of the chlorine compound
adsorbs water and then sets hard, like cement, forming a hard shell that effectively prevents
water from reaching the interior of the mixture. Tests have shown that by adding a small
quantity (about 5% by weight) of sodium Hexametaphosphate to the bleaching powder or
HTH, the mixture remains soft, but the difficulty of controlling the dosing rate remains.

A practical problem associated with chlorination pots is related to patterns of water use.
During the night, when little or no water is taken, the water in contact with the pot may
develop such high chlorine content that it becomes unacceptable for drinking purposes.
Through the day, as water is extracted and stocks of water are replenished, the chlorine
level decreases, reaching a minimum level by evening.
Chlorination Techniques
Various chlorination techniques may be used. The type of chlorination used in a particular
situation depends on the quality of the water to be disinfected, but for most situations
chlorine is added following other water treatment processes (post - chlorination).
In conclusion, various disinfection methods can be used in order to ensure that water is of
good bacteriological quality. Chlorine and chlorine based chemicals are the most
commonly used products, and over many years and in a variety different condition these
have proved to be simple and reliable to use. Disinfection should not be considered to be
complete water treatment process in itself, but should be used in conjunction with other
treatment operations to produce waters that are consistently safe and of good quality and
appearance.
4.4 miscellaneous water treatment

4.4.1 Removal of Taste and Odor Problem
The sense of odour is closely related to that of taste. In fact it is normally correct to suggest
that most 'tastes' in water are really a sensation of smell. There are only four sensation of
taste (1) sour, sweet, salty and bitter-all other sensations are of odour although not
necessarily noticed until the water is in the mouth (2). some tastes in water are unrelated to
odour and these include the brackishness associated with relatively high concentrations of
salts such as sodium chloride or magnesium sulphate. Iron and manganese in water often
produce an astringent taste. Chalk derived waters are frequently described as possessing a
'sharpness' _ possibly due to Co2 or bicarbonate _while surface waters deficient in
dissolved oxygen are often 'flat' to the taste.
Consumers identify and accept water as being pure as a result of its lack of colour, its
clarity and its lack of taste and odour. Hence it is not only necessary that water is pure but
that it also appears to be pure.

some substances, such as many inorganic salts do not create sensations of odour or taste
until present in a concentration of several hundreds or even thousands of mg/1. Others such
as commercial grade parathion (0.003 mg/1) and sodium fluoride (2,4 mg/1) become
noticeable at much lower concentrations. People also vary in their sensitivity to odour and
taste and some people are perhaps as much as eleven times as sensitive as others. In
addition many causes of odour and taste in water possess additive, synergistic or
antagonistic effect, so that the mixing of two sources of water, each possessing only a
limited odour can result in a combined water with a pronounced odour problem.
Conversely, mixing odoriferous water can produce a non-offensive supply.
4.4.2. Causes of Odor and Taste

Concentrations of inorganic salts (brackishness)
Hydrogen sulphide
Contact with painted surfaces
Industrial discharges _ pesticides, phenols etc
Metabolites of actinomycete, algae etc
Dead and decaying organic material including sewage and algae
Chlorination
Some of these may be prevented by various means while others must be cured. Hydrogen
sulphide is commonly found in ground waters from deep wells. Formation of H2s on other
water supplies should be prevented by maintaining the water always in an aerobic
condition. Chlorination should be carefully controlled to prevent excessive odor and taste
in the treated water.
4.4.3. Prevention of odours and tastes from microorganisms

Bacteria - Some bacteria reduce sulphate to sulphide (H2S) and these are controlled by
aeration and chlorination.
Actinomycete (mold-like bacteria) - grow frequently in mains as a slime on the inside of
the pipes. They may be controlled by treating reservoirs with copper sulphate or by
ensuring there is residual chlorine throughout the mains, or by biological control
employing Bacillus cereus to reduce the obnoxious metabolites produced.

Iron bacteria _ grow in water containing appreciable concentrations of iron and in which
the d.o. is limited. They produce objectionable odours and tastes as well as leading to the
precipitation of iron. The remedies are removal of iron, chlorination or dosing with copper
sulphate.
Plankton (algae, protozoa) _ these either produce taste or odour as a result of normal
metabolic activity or as a result of death and decay. Growth may be controlled by limiting
nutrients, desertification of reservoir, mechanical removal of plants, and chemical control.
In addition the levels of water containing the troublesome microorganisms may be avoided
by varying the level of the water intake. Chemical control is nearly invariably by the
addition of small quantities of copper sulphate.
4.4.4. Recommended method to remove test and odour problem

1. Aeration
This is of limited value, particularly with the only slightly volatile odors resulting from the
decomposition of vegetation. However, concentrations of odoriferous metabolites
emanating from living microorganisms can be decreased, thus reducing the amount of
activated carbon required at a later stage.
2. Chlorine
Marginal chlorination is not sufficient to remove odoriferous compounds and also may add
a noticeable smell of chlorine. In the presence of phenols a pronounced smell of
chlorinated phenols will become apparent. Super chlorination with more than a breakpoint
dosage will destroy most malodorous compounds. Ammonia/chlorine treatment can be
useful in preventing chlorophenolic, odours.
3. Ozone
Usually deals effectively with odors that are only accentuated by chlorine.Modest doses of
1 to 2 mg/1 will completely destroy phenols at any likely PH value. Ozone reduces H2s
odors and tastes and also the odors from decaying vegetable matter. Algae must be
removed prior to the addition of ozone. Partial breakdown by the addition of zone of
previously non-biodegradable organic material can result in the production of soluble
substrate to encourage growth of obnoxious microorganisms in the distribution system.
4. Hydrogen peroxide

This is occasionally used for odor control. It works by releasing 'nascent' oxygen but is
generally too costly.
5. Chlorine Dioxide
Cl02 is particularly effective at removing phenolic odors from water. It does not react with
ammonia and hence its treatment strength is not dissipated. It is most effective when mixed
with an excess of chlorine.
6. Potassium Permanganate
It is one of the most effective chemical reagents for odour taste control. It is normally
applied as a solution and as such is easy to control. In the USA it is widely used and is
most effective between PH8.o and PH8.3 (3). The benzene rings of both phenol and aniline
are broken by permanganate. Although it is about three times as costly as activated Carbon
it has been claimed to be up to five times as effective.
7. Activated Carbon
Relies on its large surface area and physical adsorption for its effect and tends to remove
larger, rather than smaller organic molecules and non-polar rather than polar compounds. It
is used either as powdered activated carbon or as granular activated carbon.
Powdered activated carbon is a fine black powder which is formed into slurry before use
and applied either to the raw water, or the mixing basin, on the settling basin or directly
before the filters. It is not recoverable. A normal dose might be 2.0 mg/1 to clarified water
although it has been applied at rates up to 125 mg/1 to raw water (4)
Granular activated carbon consists of relatively large grains and is held in filter towers
through which the water is continually passed. Periodically the carbon beds are cleaned by
back washing and when approaching exhaustion the carbon is regenerated in a furnace in
carefully regulated oxidizing conditions at about 800oc.
At low levels of taste and odour powdered activated carbon is suggested as being more
economic than the granular variety but the reverse is true once higher dosages are required
The PH of the water to which the carbon is added is of importance, as the adsorptive
properties appear to be about four times as great at PH5 to PH6 than between PH9 and
PH10. Chlorine is effectively removed by activated carbon treatment and hence post-
chlorination is necessary.

UNIT SUMMARY
Sedimentation basin efficiency is influenced by floc characteristics, water temperature,
short-circuiting, and gases in the water, algal growth on tank walls, intermittent tank
operation, surface loading, and weir loading. To insure optimal performance, the operator
should test turbidity and temperature of the water and should visually survey the basin.
Design of a sedimentation basin involves the following steps:
Divide flow in to at least two tanks.
Calculate the required surface area.
Calculate the required volume.
Calculate the tank depth.

CHATER FIVE
WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
5.1. Introduction
After treatment, water is to be stored temporarily and supplied to the consumers through
the network of pipelines called distribution system. The distribution system also includes
pumps, reservoirs, pipe fittings, instruments for measurement of pressures, flow leak
detectors etc. The cost of distribution is about 40 to 70% of the total cost of the entire
scheme. The efficiency of the system depends upon proper planning, execution and
maintenance. Ultimate aim is to supply potable water to all the consumers whenever
required in sufficient quantity with required pressure with least lost and without any
leakage.
5.2. Requirement of Distribution System

1. The system should convey the treated water up to consumers with the same degree of
purity
2. The system should be economical and easy to maintain and operate
3. It should safe against any future pollution. As per as possible should not be laid below
sewer lines.
4. Water should be supplied without interruption even when repairs are undertaken
5. The system should be so designed that the supply should meet maximum hourly
demand.
5.3. System of Distribution

For efficient distribution it is required that the water should reach to every consumer with
required rate of flow. Therefore, some pressure in pipeline is necessary, which should force
the water to reach at every place. Depending upon the methods of distribution, the
distribution system is classified as the follows:
1. Gravity system
2. Pumping system
3. Dual system or combined gravity and pumping system
1. Gravity System

When some ground sufficiently high above the city area is available, this can be best
utilized for distribution system in maintaining pressure in water mains. This method is also
much suitable when the source of supply such as lake, river or impounding reservoir is at
sufficiently higher than city. The water flows in the mains due to gravitational forces. As
no pumping is required therefore it is the most reliable system for the distribution of water
as shown in fig.5.1
Figure: 5.1.Gravity systems

2. Pumping System
Constant pressure can be maintained in the system by direct pumping into mains. Rate of
flow cannot be varied easily according to demand unless numbers of pumps are operated in
addition to stand by ones. Supply can be affected during power failure and breakdown of
pumps. Hence diesel pumps also in addition to electrical pumps as stand by to be
maintained. During fires, the water can be pumped in required quantity by the stand by
units.
Figure: 5.2.pumping system

3. Combined Pumping and Gravity System
This is also known as dual system. The pump is connected to the mains as well as elevated
reservoir. In the beginning when demand is small the water is stored in the elevated
reservoir, but when demand increases the rate of pumping, the flow in the distribution

system comes from the both the pumping station as well as elevated reservoir. As in this
system water comes from two sources one from reservoir and second from pumping
station, it is called dual system. This system is more reliable and economical, because it
requires uniform rate of pumping but meets low as well as maximum demand. The water
stored in the elevated reservoir meets the requirements of demand during breakdown of
pumps and for fire fighting.
Figure: 5.3.Dual system of distribution
5.4. Methods of Supply of Water

The water may be supplied to the consumers by either of the two systems.
1. Continuous System
This is the best system and water is supplied for all 24 hours. This system is possible when
there is adequate quantity of water for supply. In this system sample of water is always
available for fire fighting and due to continuous circulation water always remains fresh. In
this system less diameter of pipes are required and rusting of pipes will be less. Losses will
be more if there are leakages in the system.
2. Intermittent System
If plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is divided into zones and each zone
is supplied with water for fixed hours in a day or on alternate days. As the water is
supplied after intervals, it is called intermittent system. The system has following
disadvantages:
1. Consumers have to store water for non-supply hours.
2. Bigger sized pipes are to be laid, because full days supply is to be provided within few
hours of supply.

3. Pipelines are likely to rust faster due to alternate wetting and drying. This increases the
maintenance cost.
4. There is also pollution of water by ingress of polluted water through leaks during non-
flow periods.
5. More wastage of water due to the tendency of the people to store more water than
required quantity and to waste the excess to collect fresh water each time.
5.5. Layouts of Distribution System

Generally in practice there are four different systems of distribution which are used. They
are:
1. Dead End or Tree system
2. Grid Iron system
3. Circular or Ring system
4. Radial system
1. Dead End or Tree System
This system is suitable for irregular developed towns or cities. In this system water flows
in one direction only into sub-mains and branches. The diameter of pipe decreases at every
tree branch.
Figure: 5.4.Dead End Systems

Advantages:
1. Discharge and pressure at any point in the distribution system is calculated easily
2. The valves required in this system of layout are comparatively less in number.
3. The diameter of pipes used are smaller and hence the system is cheap and economical
4. The laying of water pipes is used are simple.

Disadvantages:
1. There is stagnant water at dead ends of pipes causing contamination.
2. During repairs of pipes or valves at any point the entire downstream end are deprived of
supply
3. The water available for firefighting will be limited in quantity
2. Grid Iron System
From the mains water enters the branches at all junctions in either direction into sub-mains
of equal diameters. At any point in the line the pressure is balanced from two directions
because of interconnected network of pipes.
Figure: 5.5Grid iron method

Advantages
1. As water is supplied from both the sides at any point, very small distribution area willbe
affected during repair.
2. Every point receives supply from two directions and with higher pressure
3. In case of fire, more quantity of water can be diverted towards the affected area, by
closing the valves of nearby localities.
4. There is free circulation of water and hence it is not liable for pollution due to
stagnation.
Disadvantages:
1. More length of pipes and number of valves are needed and hence there is increased cost
of construction
2. Calculation of sizes of pipes and working out pressures at various points in the
distribution system is laborious, complicated and difficult.
3. Circular or Ring System

Supply to the inner pipes is from the mains around the boundary. It has the same
advantages as the grid-Iron system. Smaller diameter pipes are needed. The advantages and
disadvantages are same as that of grid-Iron system.
Figure: 5.6.Circular of ring system

4. Radial System
This is a zoned system. Water is pumped to the distribution reservoirs and from the
reservoirs it flows by gravity to the tree system of pipes. The pressure calculations are easy
in this system. Layout of roads needs to be radial to eliminate loss of head in bends. This is
most economical system also if combined pumping and gravity flow is adopted.
Figure: 5.7.Radial systems
5.6 Pressure in the Distribution System

When the water enters in the distribution main, the water head continuously is lost due to
friction in pipes, at the entrance of reducers, due to valves, bends, meters etc till it reaches
the consumers tap. The net available head at the consumers tap is the head at the entrance
of the water main minus all the losses in the way. The effective head available at the
service connection to a building is very important, because the height up to which the

water can rise in the building will depend on this available head only. The greater the head
the more will be the height up to which it will rise. If adequate head is not available at the
connection to the building, the water will not reach the upper storey (i.e 2nd, 3rd, 4th etc.)
to overcome this difficulty the required effective head is maintained in the street pipe lines.
The pressure in the water supply mains and distribution mains should be such that water
may reach to consumers located at the remotest spots of the locality with adequate
pressure. The pressure in the distribution system depends upon the factors as listed below:
i. The height of highest building where water should reach with adequate pressure, without
boosting
ii. Pressure required for fire hydrant
iii. The distance of the locality from the distribution reservoir.
The following pressures are considered satisfactory in the case of multi-storied buildings.
a. One storey only 7m head
b. Two storey building 12m head
c. Three storey building 17m head
d. 3 to 6 storey heights 2.1 to 4.2kg/cm2 (21 to 42m)
e. 6 to 10 storey heights 4.2 to 5.2kg/cm2
f. Above 10 storey 5.27 to 7kg/cm2
5.7. Service/Distribution Reservoirs

A service reservoir has four main functions:
1. To balance the fluctuating demand from the distribution system, permitting the source
To give steady or differently phased output.
2. Provide a supply during a failure or shutdown of treatment plant, pumps or trunk main
leading to the reservoir.
3. To give a suitable pressure for the distribution system and reduce pressure fluctuations
therein.
4. To provide a reserve of water to meet fire and other emergency demands.
It is seldom possible or economic for a source to give a fluctuating output in step with
demand. Filtration plants need to be run 24 hours a day with only infrequent, carefully
controlled changes of output. Pumps need to be run near their design point for maximum

efficiency, whilst electricity tariffs may influence their running times; it is not economical
for a long supply main to have an overlarge capacity simply to meet the peak demand of a
few hours duration. A technical and economic study of the capital and operating costs of
the various options available, including possible silting for a service reservoir is necessary
before deciding service reservoir requirements.
Position and Elevation of Reservoirs
If the service reservoir is to be of maximum value as a safeguarded against break down of
the supply to consumers then it should be positioned as near as possible to the area of
demand. From the service storage the distribution system should spread directly with such
interconnection of mains that, should a break of any one main occur, a supply may be
maintained by rerouting the water. It is, of course, not always possible to find a high point
which in the center of the distribution area and the best must be done in the circumstances.
If the high point is remote from the area of demand the aim should be to feed the demand
area by two major mains from the service reservoirs which are interconnected at
appropriate points. If there is some high ground which is not quite high enough, then a
water tower or several water towers may meet the demand. It is also usually necessary to
site the reservoir at such elevation that a steady pressure is maintained at all points of the
distribution system, sufficient to give an adequate flow to the top most storey of three or
four storey buildings.
The elevation at which it is desirable to position a service reservoir depends up on both the
distance of the reservoir from the distribution area and the elevation of the highest building
to be supplied. If the distribution area varies widely in elevation it may be necessary to use
two more service reservoirs at different levels, so that the lower area does not receive an
unduly high pressure. Wherever possible the use of non-stand pipes for high pressures
should be avoided as such pipes are expensive.
Types of Service Reservoirs
Generally, there are two types of service reservoirs:
1. Surface reservoir (Ground Reservoir or Non-elevated)
2. Elevated reservoir (Over head Tank)

Figure: 5.8.Elevated and surface reservoir

Accessories of Service Reservoirs
The service reservoirs are to be provided with the following accessories:
1. Inlet Pipe: For the entry of water
2. Ladder: To reach the top of the reservoir and then to the bottom of the reservoir, for
inspection and cleaning
3. Lightening Conductor: In case of elevated reservoirs for the passage of lightening
4. Man holes: For providing entry to the inside of reservoir for inspection and cleaning
5. Outlet pipe: For the exit of water
6. Outflow Pipe: For the exit of water above full supply level
7. Vent pipes: For free circulation of air
8. Washout pipe: For removing water after cleaning of the reservoir
9. Water level indicator: To know the level of water inside the tank from outside.
Figure: 5.9.Accessories of service reservoirs

Design Capacity of Service Reservoirs
The three major components of service storage are:
i) Equalizing or operating storage
ii) Fire reserve

iii) Emergency reserve

Equalizing or operating capacity: can be obtained:
1) Analytically by finding out maximum cumulative surplus during the stage when
pumping rate is higher than water consumption rate and adding to this
maximumcumulative deficit which occurs during the period when the pumping rate is
lower than the demand rate of water.
2) By drawing mass curves (graphical method)
Mass curve method
A mass diagram is the plot of accumulated inflow (i.e. supply) or outflow (i.e. demand)
versus time. The mass curve of supply (i.e. supply line) is, therefore, first drawn and is
superimposed by the demand curve. The procedure to construct such diagram is as follows:
From the past records, determine the hourly demand for all 24 hours for typical days
(maximum, average and minimum).
Calculate and plot the cumulative demand against time, and thus plot the mass curve of
demand.
Read the storage required as the sum of the two maximum ordinates between demand and
supply line.
Repeat the procedure for all the typical days (maximum, average and minimum), and
determine the maximum storage required for the worst day.
Breakdown Storage: The breakdown storage or often called emergency storage is the
storage preserved in order to tide over the emergencies posed by the failure of pumps,
electricity, or any of the mechanism driving the pumps. A value of about 25% of the total
storage capacity of reservoirs, or 1.5 to 2 times of the average hourly supply, may be
considered as enough provision for accounting this storage.
Fire Storage: The third component of the total reservoir storage is the fire storage. This
provision takes care of the requirements of water for extinguishing fires. A provision of 5
to 10% of the total storage is sufficient to meet the requirement.
The total reservoir storage can finally be worked out by adding all the three storages.

Example 1:
A small town with a design population of 1600 is to be supplied water at 150liters per
capita per day. The demand of water during different periods is given in the following
table:
Determine the capacity of a balancing reserve if pumping is done 24 hours at a constant

rate.
Solution:
Per capita water consumption = 150l/c/d
Total water demand = demand * population = 150*1600 = 240,000liters
Rate of pumping = 240,000/24 = 10,000lit/hr = 30,000lit/3hr
A. Analytical Method
Maximum cumulative surplus = 15,000 liters

Maximum cumulative deficit = 10,000 liters
Balancing storage = 15000 + 10000 = 25,000lit = 25m3

If the reservoir is circular with depth, h = 3.0 m, = 3.4

Example 2: Consider example 1, if the pumping is done for:

a) Eight hours from 8 hrs to 16 hrs
b) Eight hrs from 4 hrs to 8 hrs and again 16 hours to 20 hrs.
Calculate the capacity of the balancing reserve.
Solution:
Total water demand = 240,000lit/hr
Rate of pumping = 240,000/8 = 30,000l/h = 90,000lit/3hrs
a) Eight hours from 8 hrs to 16 hrs
A) Analytical Method

Maximum cumulative surplus = 70,000

Maximum cumulative deficit = 65,000
Balancing storage, S = 135,000lit = 135m3
B) Graphical Method
b) Eight hrs from 4 hrs to 8 hrs and again 16 hours to 20 hrs.

A) Analytical Method

Maximum cumulative surplus = 55,000

Maximum cumulative deficit = 50,000
Balancing storage, S = 105,000lit = 105m3
B) Graphical Method
(Graph paper is required)

Depth and Shape of Service Reservoirs

The following are some notes on the salient features of service reservoirs and the
alternatives that may be adopted.
A. Depth
There is an economical depth of service reservoir for any given site. For a given quantity
of water either a shallow reservoir having long walls and a large floor area may be
constructed or, alternatively. A deep reservoir may be constructed with high retaining walls
and a smaller floor area. Depths usually used are as follows:
Table: 5.1.recommended depth
These figures dont apply to water towers or pre-stressed concrete reservoirs. Factors
influencing depth for a given storage are:
1. Depth at which suitable foundation conditions are encountered
2. Depth at which the out let main must be laid
3. Slope of ground, nature and type of back fill
4. The need to make the quantity of excavated material approximately equal to the amount
required for backing, so as to reduce unnecessary carting of surplus material to tip.
5. The shape and size of land available
B. Shape
Circular reservoir is geometrically the most economical shape, giving the least amount of
walling for a given volume and depth: it has the attraction of allowing construction of a
thin reinforced concrete dome shaped roof, free of all supporting columns, resting on ring
beam fixed to the top of the wall for diameters of up to about 60m.
However, this shape is seldom adopted. It is unsuitable for division in to two
compartments, which would allow one half to be drained for maintenance without taking
the whole reservoir out of service.
Its shape frequently does not permit best use of available land, and

Problems of design will arise if it is to be partially buried in sloping ground

A rectangular reservoir with a length to width ratio 1.2 to 1.5:
Usually proves most economical when division walls are incorporated
Floors and roof should be sloped to not flatter than 1:250 for drainage ( such slopes should
be parallel to maintain uniform column and wall heights)
The total depth of the reservoir must be sufficient to allow the maximum inflow assumed
in the design calculation to pass over the over flow weir, with a safety margin of at least
150mm below the underside of roofing beam.
It is good practice to set the over flow weir slightly higher, say by 50mm, than the top
water level at which the supply is cut off by a ball valve or an electrode.
5.8. Pipes Used in the Water Distribution System
Pipe Materials
Pipe materials used in transmission and distribution systems must have the following
characteristics: Adequate tensile strength and bending strength to withstand external loads.
High bursting strength to withstand internal water pressure. Ability to resist impact loads
to water flow suitable for handling and joining facilities. Resistance to both internal and
external corrosion
The types of pipes used for distributing water include:
1. Cast iron pipe
2. Steel pipe
3. Concrete pipe
4. Plastic pipe
5. Asbestos cement pipe
6. Copper pipe
7. Lead pipe
A pipe material is selected based on various conditions:
Cost
Type of water to be conveyed
Carrying capacity of the pipe
Maintenance cost

Durability, etc.
Cast iron pipes
Advantages:
The cost is moderate
The pipes are easily joined
The pipes arent subjected to corrosion
The pipes are strong and durable
Service connections can be made easily
Disadvantage:
The breakage of this pipe is large
Carrying capacity decreases with increase in life increase (especially beyond F1200mm)
The pipes become heavy and uneconomical when their sizes
Galvanized Iron Pipes
Advantages:
The pipes are cheap
Light in weight and easy to handle and transport
Easy to join
Disadvantage:
These pipes are liable to incrustation (due to deposition of some materials inside
part of pipe)
Can be easily affected by acidic or alkaline water
Short useful life
Plastic Pipes
Advantages:
- The pipes are cheap
- The pipes are flexible and possess low hydraulic resistance (less friction)
- They are free from corrosion
- The pipes are light in weight and it is easy to bend, join and install them
- The pipes up to certain sizes are available in coils and therefore it becomes easy to
transport

Disadvantage:
- The coefficient of expansion for plastics is high, the pipes are less resistant to heat
- Some types of plastics may impart taste to the water
5.9 Appurtenances in the Distribution System

The various devices fixed along the water distribution system are known as appetencies. In
water works, the various types of pipe apparatus such as valves, sluices, sockets, elbows,
etc. are needed to control the flow of water, to release the excessive pressure in the
pipeline, to eliminate the accumulation of air in the summits of the pipe line. Again, in
house plumbing various types of pipe fitting such as taps, sockets, elbows, nipples, stop
cocks, gate valves, check valves, tees, etc are required.
The following are the some of the fixtures used in the distribution system.
i) Valves
(ii) Fire hydrants and
(iii)Water meter
1. Types of Valves
In water works practice, to control the flow of water, to regulate pressure, to release or to
admit air, prevent flow of water in opposite direction valves are required.
The following are the various types of valves named to suit their function
1. Sluice valves
2. Check valves or reflex valves
3. Air valves
4. Drain valves or Blow off valves
5. Scour valve
Sluice Valves
These are also known as gate-valves or stop valves. These valves control the flow of water
through pipes. These valves are cheaper, offers less resistance to the flow of water than
other valves. The entire distribution system is decided into blocks by providing these
valves at appropriate places. They are provided in straight pipeline at 150-200m intervals.
When two pipes lines interest, valves are fixed in both sides of intersection. When sluice
valve is closed, it shuts off water in a pipeline to enable to undertake repairs in that

particular block. The flow of water can be controlled by raising or lowering the handle or
wheel.
Check Valve or Reflux Valve
These valves are also known as non-return valves. A reflux valve is an automatic device
which allows water to go in one direction only. The swing type of reflux valve as shown in
fig 70 is widely used in practice.
Figure: 5.10.Check/ non-return valve

When the water moves in the direction of arrow, the valve swings or rotates around the
pivot and it is kept in open position due to the pressure of water. When the flow of water in
this direction ceases, the water tries to flow in a backward direction. But this valve
prevents passage of water in the reverse direction.
Reflux valve is invariably placed in water pipe, which obtain water directly from pump.
Whenpump fails or stops, the water will not run back to the pump and thus pumping
equipments willbe saved from damage.
Air Valves
These are automatic valves and are of two types namely
1. Air inlet valves
2. Air relief valves
1. Air Inlet Valves
These valves open automatically and allow air to enter into the pipeline so that the
development of negative pressure can be avoided in the pipelines. The vacuum pressure
created in the down streamside in pipelines due to sudden closure of sluice valves. This
situation can be avoided by using the air inlet valves.
2. Air Relief Valves

Sometimes air is accumulated at the summit of pipelines and blocks the flow of water due
to air lock. In such cases the accumulated air has to be removed from the pipe lines. This is
done automatically by means of air relief valves.
Drain Valves or Blow off Valves
These are also called wash out valves they are provided at all dead ends and depression of
pipelines to drain out the waste water. These are ordinary valves operated by hand.
Scour Valves
These are similar to blow off valves. They are ordinary valves operated by hand. They are
located at the depressions and dead ends to remove the accumulated silt and sand. After the
complete removal of silt; the value is to be closed.
2. Water Meter
These are the devices which are installed on the pipes to measure the quantity of water
flowing at a particular point along the pipe. The readings obtained from the meters help in
working out the quantity of water supplied and thus the consumers can be charged
accordingly. The water meters are usually installed to supply water to industries, hotels,
big institutions etc. metering prevents the wastage of purified water.
3. Fire Hydrants
A hydrant is an outlet provided in water pipe for tapping water mainly in case of fire. They
are located at 100 to 150 m a part along the roads and also at junction roads.
They are of two types namely.
1. Flush Hydrants. 2. Post Hydrants
The flush hydrants are kept in underground chamber flush with footpath covered by C.I.
cover carrying a sign board.
The post hydrant remain projected 60 to 90cm above ground level as shown in fig 7.4 They
have long stem with screw and nut to regulate the flow. In case of fire accident, the fire
fighting squad connects their hose to the hydrant and draws the water and sprays it on fire.
A good fire hydrant
1. Should be cheap
2. Easy to connect with hose
3. Easily detachable and reliable

4. Should draw large quantity of water
Figure: 5.11.Post fire hydrants
5.10. Determination of Pipe Sizes

Permissible velocities for best results for different pipe sized pipes are within the range of
0.3 to 2m/s. For small size pipes flowing with high velocity of flow, loss of head due to
friction is more. Once the velocity of flow is established loss of head due to friction, bends
and other reasons can be computed. The head required to develop a particular velocity in a
particular sized pipe is then calculated. The size of the pipe used in the water distribution
system or the velocity of flow through the pipe can be determined by one of the following
formulas:

1. Darcy Weisbach formula: =
. .
2. Hazen-Williams formula: = 0.278 , =
/ .
3. Mannings Formula: =
The most common pipe flow formula used in design and evaluation of a water distribution
system is the Hazen-Williams formula. Water supply pipes sizes commercially available
are given in the following ( table: 23)
Table: 5.2.Water supply pipes sizes commercially available

Example 1:
Given
Total population of a town = 80,000
Average daily consumption of water = 150liters/capita/day
If the flow velocity of an outlet pipe from intake = 1.5 m/s, determine the diameter of the
outlet pipe.
Solution
Total flow, Q = Demand* Population = 150*80,000 = 12x106 lit/day
12 10
= 0.139m /s
(24 60 60 10
.
Required pipe area,A = = =D= , D = 343mm
.
But the pipe size available on the market is 300mm & 350mm, then take D = 350mm
Example 2:
A town has a population of 100,000 persons. It is to be supplied with water from a
reservoir situated at a distance of 6.44km. It is stipulated that one-half of the daily supply
of 140lit/capita should be delivered in 6 hours. If the loss of head is estimated to be 15m,
calculate the size of pipe. Assume f = 0.04.
Solution
Total daily supply =140*100.000/10=140.000m3
Since half of this quantity is required in 6 hours
Maximum flow =14.000/(2*6*60*60) =0.324m3/s
According to the Darcy-Weisbach formula:
0.04 6440 0.324
= , 15 = 0.683 = 683
12.1 12.1
Where, hf = 15m, f = 0.04, L = 6440m
But available pipe sizes 675mm & 750mm, take 750mm diameter pipe
What size of pipe line (L = 1000m) should be used to supply 100l/s so that the head loss
does not exceed 10m. Use both the three formula, C = 100, n = 0.013, f = 0.035, find also
the velocity.
5.10 Energy Losses in Pipes

i. Major head loss

The major energy loss (head loss) in pipes can be found by one of the following formulas:
Darcy-Weisbach formula

=
2
Where, hf = head loss (m)
f = friction factor (which is related to the relative roughness of the pipe material & the fluid
flow characteristics)
L = length of pipe (m)
V = velocity of flow (m/s)
D = diameter of pipe (m)
g = Acceleration due to gravity
The term hf represents the energy loss that occurs in any distribution system. The major
loss of energy is due to friction between the moving water and pipe material; however,
energy losses also occur from flow disturbance caused by valves, bends in pipes line, and
changes in diameter.
Exercise
Calculate the head loss in 600mm pipe, 1500m long smooth walled concrete ( = 0.001)
pipe line carrying a water of 0.30m3/s [Ans, hf = 2.43m)
b. Hazen-Williams formula
. .

= 0.278 , =
Where, C = Coefficient that depends on the material and age of the pipe
S = Hydraulic gradient (m/m)

Table: 5.3.Values of C for the Hazen-Williams formula

PIPE Material C
Asbestoses cement 140
Cast iron
cement lined 130-150
new ,un lined 130
5years old unlined 120
20years old, unlined 100
Concrete 130
Copper 130-140
Plastic 140-150
New welded still 120
New riveted still 100
Nomo graphs shown in fig solve the equation for C = 100. Given any two of the
parameters (Q, D, hf or V) the remaining can be determined from the intersections along a
straight line drawn across the nomograph.
Exercise 3
For Q = 30l/s, D = 200mm, C = 100, L = 1500, Find hf.
Solution
From nomograph, hf = 12.15m
Using the formula, hf = 12.30m
c. Mannings Formula
/ /
D
= , R = , S = hf/L
4
Where, n = Coefficient of roughness depending on pipe material, usually
n = 0.013 GI pipes
n = 0.009 Plastic pipes
n = 0.015 Clay concrete pipes

Exercise 4:
For Q = 30l/s, D = 200mm, n = 0.013, L = 1500
hf 10.93n Q L 10.93 0.013 0.03 1500
S =
, hf = , = 13.25
L D / 0.2 /
From Nomograph, hf/L = 0.00825
= 0.00825*1500 = 12.38m
ii. Minor head loss
- Loss of head due to bends
- Loss of head due to appurtenances
- Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
- Loss of head due to sudden contraction
- Loss of head at the entrance to pipe
5.11 Procedure of Analyzing Pipe Size and Pressure

The procedures of analyzing pipe sizes and pressure at various points for dead end system
of distribution and grid iron systems.
a. Dead end system
1. Detailed maps are prepared for the area to be supplied with water. Normally the whole
area is sub-divided into small districts or blocs. All the districts should be thoroughly
surveyed and mapped.
2. The layout of pipes is then marked along the main roads, streets and the direction of
flow should be clearly indicated. The expected positions of valves, fire hydrants and other
fittings should be anticipated and marked.
3. The water requirements should then be determined by counting the population to be
served and the other civic requirements on each block length of the pipe. Block length of
the pipe is generally taken as the length between two sluice valves or between adjacent
junctions.
By knowing the population concentration on each block length of the pipe and quantity of
water required for other civic uses, the quantity of water to be supplied through each block
can be computed.

4. Analyzing the system. Analysis is started from the tail end and carried out towards the
distribution reservoir. The total quantity of water to be carried by each section of the pipe
is then found out on cumulative basis. This gives the average flow to be carried by the
pipes.
5. The peak flow for which pipe is usually designed which is based on the peak hour factor
of the town times the average flow. In the case of intermittent supply the peak flow rate
may be as high as 4 to 5 times the average rate of consumption.
6. The pipe sizes are assumed in such a way that the velocity of flow in the pipes may lie
between 0.6m/s to 2.3m/s. If smaller pipes are used for higher velocities of flow the
pressure drop due to frictional resistance will be excessive.
7. Knowing the pipe diameter, velocity of flow and the lengths, the head lost in friction in
each length of pipe is found out by using Darcys- Wesbach formula or Hazen-Williams
nomograph.
8. After calculating the head lost in friction in various lengths of the pipe, the residual
pressures all along the pipe network can be calculated by deducting these from the initial
pressure heads available at the distribution reservoir. These pressures should be sufficient
to make water to reach the highest building in the locality. If these pressures couldnt be
sufficient, the assumed sizes of the pipes will have to be increased and fresh calculation
should be done until the desired pressure and discharge is obtained.
Example
A typical layout of pipes in dead end patter is given in the figure below. The rate of supply
is 180lit/capita/day and the populations in different residential blocks of houses are given
in the table below. The R.L of the bottom of the elevated storage tank is 150, R.L of points
A, B, C and D are 130, 129, 131, 128 respectively. If the minimum pressure head of water
is to be 10m,
Design suitable size of pipes AB, BC and CD length are 300, 400 and 500m respectively.
Assume peak rate of demand to be 2.5 times the average demand.

Solution:
Population to be served from point D
= population of block 16, 22 and 23
= 500 + 200 + 500 = 1200
Population between local C and D
= Population of blocks 15, 17, 18 and 20
= 700 + 600 + 800 + 1000 =3100
Population to be served from point C
= population of block 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23
= 3100 + 1200 + 300 + 1800 = 6400
Population between B and C points
= population of 11 and 12

= 500 + 700 =1200

Total population to be served from point B
= 6400 + 1400 + 1400 + 1200 = 10400
Population between A and B points (local)
= population of block 4, 5 and 6
= 600 + 700 + 700 = 2000
Total population to be served from point A
= 10400 + 2000 = 12400
Maximum discharge between C and D point
Population to be served = 4300
Per capita supply per day = 180lit
Peak hour factor = 2.5
Total discharge required in a day = 4300*180*2.5 = 1,935,000lit = 22.4lit/sec
Discharge between B and C
= 39.6lit/sec
Discharge between A and B
= 64.6lit/sec
Selection of pipe sizes
Using Nomograph, select sizes for CD 200mm, for BC 225mm and for AB 300mm
Head loss
To determine the head loss in section AB, BC and CD of the pipe line use Hazen-William
diagram or using equations.
Minimum head available is 14.7m (> 10m) which is quite sufficient.

b. Grid Iron System

In this system of supply, water reaches different points from different routes. The
computation in this method is of very complex nature. In the analysis of such a distribution
system, the first step will be to calculate the quantity of water flowing through each route.
Once the discharges are known, designs can be carried out on the same basis as dead end
system. Hardy cross method is commonly employed method for the analysis of pressures
and pipe diameters in grid iron system.
The conditions to be satisfied in any network of pipes are as follows:
1. According to the principle of continuity the flow into the junction must be equal to the
flow out of the function.
2. The DarcyWeisbach equation must be satisfied for flow in each pipe.
Minor losses may be neglected if the pipe lengths are large. However, if the minor losses
are large, they must be taken into account by considering them interims of the head lost
due to friction in equivalent pipe lengths
According to Darcy-Weisbach equation the loss of head hf though any pipe discharging
at the rate of Q can be expressed as: Hl = rQ .... (1)
Where r = proportionality factor which can be determined for each pipe, knowing the
friction factor f, length L, and the diameter D of the pipe.r = (2)

.
n = an exponent having a numerical value ranging from 1.72 to 2.0.

3. Consider different loops and compute the net head loss around each circuit considering
the head loss in clockwise flows as positive and in anti-clockwise flows as negative. For a
correct distribution of flow, the net head loss around each loop should be equal to zero, so
that the circuit will be balanced. However, in most of the cases, for the assumed
distribution of flow the head loss around the circuit will not be equal to zero. The assumed
flows are then corrected by introducing a correction DQ for the flows, until the circuit is
balanced.
The value of the correction DQ to be applied to the assumed flows of the circuit may be
obtained as follows:
For any pipe if Qo is the assumed discharge and Q is the corrected discharge, then:
Q = Qo + Q . (3)
And the head loss for each pipe is: Hl = rQ = r(Qo + Q) ...(4)

Thus for the complete circuit: Hl = rQ = (Qo + Q) .. (5)
By expanding the terms the terms in the brackets in binomial theorem:

rQ = r(Q + nQo Q + ) .. (6)
If DQ is small, compared with Qo, all terms of the series after the second one may be
dropped.
Thus, rQ = rQo + rnQo Q... (7)
For the correct distribution the circuit is balanced and hence rQ = 0
Therefore, rQo = Q rnQo = rQo|Q| + Q rn |Q| = 0. (8)
In the above expression DQ has been taken out of the summations as it is same for all the
pipes in the circuit. Solving for DQ:
| |
= | |
= | |
= (9)
Corrections are now applied to each pipe & to all loops. For pipes common to two loops
or circuits, a correction from both the loops will be required to be applied. Clockwise
direction is considered as positive & anticlockwise as negative direction.
With the corrected flows in all the pipes, a second trial calculation is made for all the
loops and process is repeated until the corrections DQ become negligible.
Procedures can be expressed as follows:
1. Assume any internally consistent distribution of flow. The sum of the flows entering any
junction must equal the sum of the flows leaving
2. Compute the head losses in each pipe by means of an equation or diagram.
Conventionally,
Clockwise flows are positive and produce positive head losses.
3. With due attention to sign, compute the total head loss around each circuit: hL = KQ n
4. Compute, without regard to sign, for the same circuit, the sum of: _KnQn-1.
5. Apply the corrections obtained from equation (9) to the flow in each line. Lines common
to two loops receive both corrections with due attention to sign.

Example.1
1. The pipe network shown in fig. 4 has supply of 5m3/s of water at A delivers to other
Pipes at B, C, D and E to the extent of 1.5, 1.5, 1.0 and 1.0 m3/s respectively. What are
the flows in each pipe, and the pressures at B, C, D and E if the pressure head at A is 35m?
The pipe characteristics and elevation at the nodes are given below.


Exercise 1
Find the flow distribution in the gravity supply system through the following pipe network
Shown below. Use Hazen Williams formula (C= 100). If the pressure at point A is 490.5
KPa, find the pressures at points B & C. Assume all pipe junctions are at the same
elevation.

Exercise 2
Determine the flow rates in all the pipes in the network shown below. Use the DW
equation to relate head losses to flow rates. If the pressure head at point a is 40 m, find
the pressure head at d (which might represent a fire demand, for example).
The friction coefficient f for ab = 0.019, be = 0.025, ed = 0.021, dc = 0.021, ca = 0.021, dg

=0.022, gf = 0.02, fc = 0.022, eh = 0.025 and 0.025.

6. CHAPTER SIX PREPARATION OF WATER SUPPLY

PROJECTS
When a water supply scheme is to be prepared for a newly developed town or city or an
already existing scheme has to be expanded, the following investigations should be
conducted for the preparation of the project.
1. Reconnaissance Survey /Feasibility Study/
During the reconnaissance survey the following points should be noted:
a. Total area to be covered
b. Existing population, habits of the people, type of industries, etc.
c. Existing source of water
d. An index map is to be prepared showing the population densities at different zones
e. Trends of development of the town or city
f. Intensity of public demand for the water supply scheme.
2. Demand of Water
A water supply scheme should be designed to serve the probable population for at least
three decade. So, the total demand of water for the next three decades should be
ascertained. For this purpose, the following points should be considered.
a. Depending upon the present population, the probable population for the next three
decades is estimated by the usual methods
b. The daily rate of demand per capital is worked out depending on the habits of the
people.
c. The demand of water for industries, sewarage system, fire demand, public demand, etc.
should be worked out.
d. The total water demand for the peak hours is estimated considering the system of water
supply (continuous or intermittent)
3. Source of Water
Source of water may be in two forms:
- Surface sources
- Subsurface sources
4. Preparation of Topographical Map

A topographical map of the town has to be prepared. It should indicate the location of
roads, streets, lanes, houses, playground, parks, etc.
5. Layout map of the scheme
On the topographical map, the layout of the scheme is marked by using different color
convention or any suitable convention so that the work can be conducted in different
phases.
The layout should indicate the following information:
a. Position of intake work
b. Position of treatment plant
c. Conveyance route from intake point to treatment plant
d. Position of service reservoir or pump house
e. Network of main and distribution pipe lines
f. The specific points such as position of check valve, fire hydrant, inspection chamber,
junction points, etc.
6. Maps and Drawings to be Prepared
The following maps should accompany the scheme:
a. A topographical map (to suitable scale)
b. A layout map of the scheme (to suitable scale)
c. Detailed drawing of intake work, pump house, deep well tube (if necessary), distribution
reservoir, etc. after design. The design should accompany the drawings.
7. Office Work
The office work includes the design, drawing and detailed estimate of the scheme or
project for the following items:
a. Intake work
b. Treatment plant
c. Conveyance pipe line
d. Sinking of deep tube well (if necessary)
e. Construction of pump house (if necessary)
f. Service reservoir
g. Distribution network of pipe lines

h. Compensation payable (if required)

i. Other allied expenditure
j. Total cost of the scheme including the above items and 20% provision for future
extensions
8. Project Report
When all the investigation works, design, drawing, estimation, etc. have been completed, a
report should be prepared and submitted to higher authorities for approval.
The report should contain following information:
a. Introduction
b. Necessity and background
c. Justification of taking up the present scheme
d. Procedure adopted for land acquisition
e. The compensation statement which should include the nature of property, name of
owner, amount of property, amount of compensation according to present market price,etc.
f. Detailed estimate of the scheme
g. Detail specification for construction work
h. Conclusion and recommendation


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WATER AND WASTE MANAGEMENT MODULE

Time Frame of the Course

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

1.2. Objective of water supply system

ASSL: HASEN.H - 1- AKU

1.3. Rate of Water Demand

No. Activity House Yard Public Rural

ASSL: HASEN.H - 2- AKU

No. Activity House Yard connection Public Rural

ASSL: HASEN.H - 3- AKU

1 Drinking 1.5 1.5 3.5

2. Commercial Water Demand

Categories Typical rate of water use per day

ASSL: HASEN.H - 4- AKU

ASSL: HASEN.H - 5- AKU

1gal. = 3.7854 lit

Where Q = Quantity of water required in 1/min.

ASSL: HASEN.H - 6- AKU

Name of Formula Formula Fire Demand in l/min

Knuckling Q = 3182* P1/2 =31820 --------------

> 30.5 1890

ASSL: HASEN.H - 7- AKU

< = 3.0 5670 7560*

* For continuous construction use 9450 lit/min

Table 1.7.Fire flow duration

Required fire flow in l/min Duration in hrs

ASSL: HASEN.H - 8- AKU

= 34.13*106 liters = 1,551 lit/capita/day

ASSL: HASEN.H - 9- AKU

ASSL: HASEN.H - 10- AKU

Daily and hourly fluctuation

Figure: 1.1Variation in rate of water consumption throughout the day

ASSL: HASEN.H - 11- AKU

Figure: 1.2 Seasonal variation of water demand

ASSL: HASEN.H - 12- AKU

1.5. Design Period

S. No Name of Unit Design period in years

ASSL: HASEN.H - 13- AKU

1.6. Population Forecasting

ASSL: HASEN.H - 14- AKU

Where; Pn = population at n decades or years

Year 1940 1950 1960 1970

ASSL: HASEN.H - 15- AKU

Where Po = initial population

Where P = present population

ASSL: HASEN.H - 16- AKU

4. Decrease growth rate method

K may be determined from the successive census

Where P and P0 are populations recorded n years apart.

ASSL: HASEN.H - 17- AKU

Where Ps = Saturation population

ASSL: HASEN.H - 18- AKU

Example 7: Solve example 3 above by using graphical extension method

ASSL: HASEN.H - 19- AKU

k = growth rate in percentage

ASSL: HASEN.H - 20- AKU

SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY

2.1.1 Surfaces Sources

ASSL: HASEN.H - 21- AKU

2.1.2 Subsurface Sources

ASSL: HASEN.H - 22- AKU

Figure: 2.1 Infiltration Galleries

Figure: 2.2 Infiltration Well Figure: 2.3 Jack Well

ASSL: HASEN.H - 23- AKU

Water Supply & Treatment Module

Water Supply & Treatment Module