Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
for the Tiananmen crackdown in 1989. The 85 Art by the Chinese Government and supported by Chinese
NewWave also ended with controversy in the same year. intellectuals and art practitioners. Chinas Middle Kingdom
Chinas avant-garde art, like the student movements that complex holds that Chinas great civilisation will eventually
were once regarded as liberal pursuits, was to blame for assimilate contradictory elements from other cultures while
causing social upheaval and chaos. Contemporary Chinese retaining the Chinese essence. The CCPs re-evaluation of
art was officially banned from any public sphere as a traditional culture, especially Confucianism, significantly
consequence. With the advanced participation in the strengthened the cultural nationalists confidence in this
international community, the CCP found it had to accept a set belief. By holding the conviction of cultural superiority, the
of universal values that ultimately influenced its domestic ancient Chinese refused to acknowledge a world of formally
affairs and put its legitimacy in crisis. By asserting that this equal nation-states and insisted that legitimate rule rested on
set of universal values served the idea of the centrality of the adherence to Confucian norms, which dominated the
West, the Party decided it was of crucial importance to development of Chinese culture for more than one thousand
emphasize and strengthen the study of the differences years [4].
between Eastern and Western culture [3]. The idea of Asian Moreover, by conflating nationalism with its patriotic
values was supported by the Chinese Government, which education, the CCP also silenced cultural nationalists
stated that Asia could provide an alternative to the Western questions towards its alien nature: communism. As Jiang
way of life [3]. In order to distinguish Chinese values from Zemin stated, in China today, patriotism and socialism are
the Western-centred universal values, traditional Chinese unified in essence [5]. As Zhao has argued, there are two
culture was re-evaluated as the authentic roots of Chinas sides to Chinas growing nationalism [6]. On the one hand,
own cultural values instead of a backward force, which was Chinas nationalism had a clear goal, which was
how it had been labelled since the early twentieth century. intrinsically linked with meeting the challenge of the West
Also, when socialism had become increasingly distanced [7]. It was of crucial importance for China to find its own
from social reality, the communist ideology was regarded by unique path toward modernization, and Chinese
cultural nationalists as one of those Western theories that nationalism should help China reconstruct its own national
should be excluded from the search for authentic Chinese identity from a synthetic combination of the best elements
cultural roots. In other words, in addition to the necessity of from the traditional and the modern, East and West [7]. On
defining Chinas global role as a Chinese nation, the Party the other hand, taking Lucian Pyes point of view, Chinas
also needed to reconstruct its identity as representing the nationalism was deeply linked with the interests of the
Chinese people instead of the great proletarian class in communist state. That is to say, essentially, Chinese
order to continue the Partys legitimacy in ruling the country. nationalism suffered from a lack of content [8].
A Chinese China was certain to be antagonistic to the
Pye has pointed to a void in the cultural ideas that could
Western-centred universal values. However, what exactly
provide the substantive content for Chinese nationalism
constituted Chineseness remained ambiguous. This
because the historical legacies of Chinese tradition have long
ambiguity is revealed in particular in discussions related to
been under heavy attack since the May Fourth movement of
contemporary Chinese art. In contemporary China the
1919. In particular, forty years of sustained attacks by the
understanding of concepts such as cultural diplomacy,
communist regime on traditional Chinese culture left China
nationalism, postcolonialism, modernity and contemporary
with a relatively inchoate and incoherent form of nationalism
Chinese art was often based on reinterpretations of those
without a substantive core that could be readily articulated
concepts that were consistent with Chinas national interests,
[8].
which were basically conflated with the Partys interests. To
put it another way, things had to be read in the Chinese way, Pye believes that Chinese nationalism in the PRC was
usually involving a nationalist sentiment. Still, reduced to the expression of a political partys current
Chineseness is an undefinable concept in contemporary policies, which contributes to Chinese intellectuals
China. Therefore, I argue that there is a void behind the inability to grasp concrete problems of cultural change.
concrete assertion of Chinas official cultural identity. Like Responding to Pyes argument, Lowell Dittmer and Samuel
Chinas nationalism, identity became a political ideology Kim argue that China, with its legitimate monopoly on
influenced by Chinas national interests; however, behind violence and its controlling interest in terms of manipulating
this identity is an ambiguous assertion of the glorious past the national symbol system, plays a determining role in the
and an ongoing anti-imperialist sentiment. The construction and management of a national identity dynamic
Chineseness promoted in contemporary Chinese art [8].
practices bears the same hollow face that is manifested in Martina Kppel-Yang provides insightful arguments about
Chinas cultural diplomacy. It is difficult to grasp what how the national symbol system was manipulated in the PRC
constitutes the communally inspired vision of identity other through a semiotic analysis of contemporary Chinese works
than a powerful China, nourished by the growing importance of art from the 1980s.
of Chineseness in defining Chinas cultural identity.
The art of the Chinese avant-garde of the 1980s rather
Still, it would be wrong to assume that social reality was
tends to be an extension of the dominant culture, as it
fully manifested in the dominant official discourse. A unified
develops in a semi-official space and forms a kind of
Chinese identity failed to explain the reality of
symbiosis with the official culture. Its definition of a modern
contemporary Chinese society. Yet the distinction between
Chinese identity is further more or less tightly related to the
Chinese culture and Western culture has been firmly asserted
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official program of modernization. [The semiotic analysis] achieved three years early. Last year [2012] a record 451
will show how a Chinese culture identity is defined in the new museums opened, pushing the total by the end of 2012 to
works of art. Official and alternative strategies of 3,866, says An Laishun, vice-president of the China Museums
interpretation are to be uncovered [9]. Association. By contrast, in America only 20-40 museums a
year were built in the decade before the 2008 financial crash
Drawing on Igor Golomstocks work in Totalitarian Art,
[12].
Kppel-Yang believes that the exploitation of art in the
service of ideology began early in China with the Chinese Chinese officials pointed out that the great cities of the
modernisation movement in 1917 and continued to be used world New York, Paris, London all have important
by the CCP as the strategic employment of images and signs museums and China should too [12]. They believed that it
by the official side [10]. She further states that during the was important to show off their ancient culture to locals and
Cultural Revolution, the total aestheticisation of all aspects foreigners alike, and talk of the importance of remembering
of life eliminated the boundary between art and life and in the past and of educating the younger generation [12]. In
Dengs era these basic principles did not change [10]. In her 2009, government policy already defined Chinese culture as
view, even the alternative trends of Chinese artists in the a strategic pillar industry and stressed that Chinese culture
1980s were impregnated with the impression that the was the spirit and soul of the nation and hence a powerful
function of art was mainly in the service of ideology and force for the countrys development [12]. The largest
discourses, which was a legacy of the Cultural Revolution contemporary art museum in the world will also be opened in
[11]. Kppel-Yang argues that works of art and discourses in Beijing in 2017.
China formed a dialectical relationship because both the
Government and artists believed that images were endowed Museums are an integral part of this policy, and they are
with a transformational power that could achieve the multiplying rapidlytoo rapidly in many cases. In Beijing
ideological or moral transformation of society. She terms the the government is planning to turn part of the Olympic park,
function of art in a totalitarian system the strategies of built for the 2008 games, into a culture hub. One of the
representation and interpretation due to the fact that art star attractions will be the new National Art Museum of
practices were conditioned with social and political norms, a China (NAMOC). The new NAMOC, close to the 798 art
set of cultural value concepts and discursive practices. The district will be six times as big as the current museum. The
identity, as engendered values, was hence evident in the winning bid for its design, by Jean Nouvel, a French
collective visual expressions. architect, is based on the Chinese symbol for the number one
If the development of contemporary Chinese art in the [12].
1980s witnessed the continuous connection between art and Contemporary Chinese art played an important role in
official discourse domestically, the internationalisation of projecting Chinas international image yet was deeply
contemporary Chinese art in the 1990s revealed Chinas associated with Western evaluation systems and rules. The
concern of projecting its image globally. Nathan and Scobell CCP monitors contemporary art practices by placing them
contend that the CCPs emphasis on contemporary Chinese under implicit, rather than explicit, rules. For the thousands
art in the 1990s was less a coincidence than a strategy for its of museums in China, despite the fact that a Ministry of
diplomatic breakthrough in the West. As a result, Culture Notice in 2001 officially enabled local governmental
contemporary Chinese art mainly reveals conflicts between units to monitor contemporary art exhibitions, the rules to
China and the West, rather than tensions between China and judge why a certain work of art was or was not permitted to
other Asian countries. Nevertheless, the way that be displayed in a public space were never made explicit. In
contemporary Chinese art represented Chinas international most cases, the right of interpretation was left to the local
image in the early 1990s was not entirely under the CCPs authorities, who rarely referenced professional opinions. As
control. The international prestige of contemporary Chinese The Economist put it, in contemporary art, with its ironies
art was brought about by Western curators and institutions and its multiple readings, Chinese artists test the patience of
promotion, selection and interpretation. Their officialdom. The boundaries are fluid, but most Chinese
interpretation of contemporary Chinese culture inevitably know how far they can push them [12].
evoked the Chinese Governments and mainland Chinese The Party sought to homogenise ideas and elements of
intellectuals nationalist sentiment. The debate between contemporary art practices in China and to place Chinese
mainland Chinese artists and overseas Chinese artists over artwork within its own evaluation system. The Chinese
who had the right to represent and interpret China was one of pavilion at the Venice Biennale and the Shanghai Biennale
the examples that revealed the tension engendered when were two cases of this will. Authentic Chineseness and a
Chinese culture was believed to be subjected to Western modernised China were themes that could easily be traced
value judgements. The emergence of a large number of in their exhibitions. The Chinese pavilion at the 54th Venice
contemporary museums, biennales and triennials Biennale adopted unmistakeable traditional Chinese symbols
demonstrated the Chinese Governments resolution to tighten to represent contemporary China but was generally perceived
the control of its discursive power in contemporary Chinese to be a failure by mainland Chinese art critics, art scholars,
art. According to The Economist: the art media and artists. The exhibition delivered a strong
In 1949, when the Communist Party took control, China message of traditional Chinese culture but failed to explain
had just 25 museums. According to the current five-year its relationship with contemporary Chinese society. The
plan, China was to have 3,500 museums by 2015, a target it selected objects, such as wine, still existed in contemporary
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China, but the exhibition failed to elucidate why they were national community, the many as one, as being gradually
chosen to be placed in the global context other than to diminished by the less-than-one which undermined the
demonstrate the greatness of Chinese culture. homogenous totality with an iterative temporality [17]. He
Alternative discourses proposed in China also revealed the criticises the concept of cultural diversity for its
persistence in searching for Chinas own cultural roots. If it recognition of pre-given cultural contents and customs and
were wrong to assume a homogeneous cultural identity in its subsequent upholding of multiculturalism, which
China, the prevailing upholding of the ambiguous admitted the Utopianism of a unique collective identity [18].
Chineseness directed by the official discourse demanded Instead, he advocates the concept of cultural difference,
more explanation. As Chinas nationalism, the asserted which focuses on the problem of the ambivalence of cultural
Chineseness seemed to be a strong voice with a void in authority: the attempt to dominate in the name of a cultural
essence. The concerted responses in interviews I conducted supremacy which is itself produced only in the moment of
in 2011 pertinently echoed this paradox. When asked who differentiation [19]. Consequently, the pursuit of the very
could best represent contemporary Chinese art, almost all the authority of culture as a knowledge of referential truth would
interviewees gave the same firm response: No one. They ultimately witness the split of cultural identification, which,
went on to state that every artists work is part of according to Bhabha, is a split between the traditional
contemporary Chinese art but none of them represents culturalist demand for a model, a tradition, a community, a
contemporary Chinese art. stable system of reference and the necessary negation of the
Homi K. Bhabhas theory of the Third Space contends that certitude in the articulation of new cultural demands,
the meaning and symbols of culture have no primordial meanings, strategies in the political present, as a practice of
unity or fixity; even the same signs can be appropriated, domination, or resistance [19].
translated, rehistoricized and read anew [13]. Regarding the The split in the performative present of cultural
structure of meaning and reference as an ambivalent process, identification in China, however, was ignored by the more
Bhabha rejects the reading of cultural knowledge as an pressing common pursuit: an independent and powerful
integrated unit. He challenges the perception of the historical China. As Chinese scholars pointed out, if a choice had to be
identity of culture as a homogenizing, unifying force, made between a powerful China and a democratic but chaotic
authenticated by the originary Past, kept alive in the national China, most people, including intellectuals, would opt for the
tradition of the People [14]. He remarks that it is only when former. Therefore, a stable system of reference in terms of
we understand that all cultural statements and systems are authentic Chinese cultural roots was necessary in order to
constructed in this contradictory and ambivalent space of support Chinas official cultural identity and Chinas global
enunciation, that we begin to understand why hierarchical role. As a consequence, when mainland Chinese art scholars,
claims to the inherent originality or purity of cultures are art critics and artists attempted to criticise the Government
untenable, even before we resort to empirical historical for merely showing a Chinatown culture by juxtaposing
instances that demonstrate their hybridity [13]. the Chinese pavilion at the Venice Biennale with the
Bhabha holds that the revisiting of the Past did not connect Chinese Years projects organised by the Chinese
the present with an origin of the past. On the contrary, it Government to promote Chinese culture overseas, they also
renewed the past, refiguring it as a contingent failed to provide a more convincing interpretation of
in-between space, that innovates and interrupts the Chineseness.
performance of the present [15]. In this sense, the The uncertain, unstable and ambivalent elements
past-present becomes part of the necessity, not the nostalgia, engendered by the collision of cultures, as Bhabha states,
of living [15]. The CCPs re-evaluation of the past, similarly, denotes the vulnerability of an assertive and authoritative
never meant to re-pose the past as a definite resource for the cultural identity. However, he does not explain how
present. Just like the upholding of Confucianism, it would be
alternative discourses actively contributed to a collusive
a mistake to read the CCPs gesture as re-embracing
present in a totalitarian system. The complicity in effect
Confucian values. In other words, the Chineseness was
between official and unofficial/alternative discourses may be
used more to define the Other than to define the Self.
regarded as a necessary strategy for unofficial/alternative
Although nationalism and Confucianism in China were of
discourses to become the supplementary element of the
crucial importance in reinventing Chinas official cultural
powerful official discourse. Still, it remains unclear how
identity, the values they promoted were by no means allowed
alternative discourses can internalise their values as part of
to override the Partys interests. The extent to which
the official identity when the discursive power was under
nationalists and Confucians could engage with society was
strict control. Also, although Bhabhas concept of the
restricted by the Partys implicit policies. As the additional
resettlement of the borderline sees identity as being
elements that the CCP adopted to reconstruct its identity in
order to consolidate its rule, drawing on Foucaults theory, performatively formed through the iteration and recreation
the mechanisms brought into play in power relations were of the self, the ideas that influence the performative
strategies [16]. These strategies renewed the past while formation of identity in China are different. Traditional
claiming a return to the past and brought instabilities to the Chinese philosophy, in fact, highly valued the concept of
Partys rule, as they contradicted the Partys socialist pre-given cultural contents and customs in the way Bhabha
identity. criticises. That is: different cultures would be accepted and
Though he mainly refers to the minority discourse in assimilated as long as a pre-given condition to recognise the
postcolonial nations, in Bhabhas opinion the origin of the Chinese culture as the supreme culture was ensured.
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