2ND CHAPTER STRUCTURE OF ATOM

Atoms consist of sub-atomic particles such as electrons, protons and neutrons. The protons are
positively charged particles and are present in the nucleus of the atom. The electrons are negatively
charged particles revolving around the nucleus and neutrons are present in the nucleus along with the
protons. Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.

DISCOVERY OF ELECTRONS CATHDE RAYS

A discharge tube fitted with metal plates connected to high voltage source. The tube is also connected
to a vacuum pump for controlling the pressure of gas inside the discharge tube. The inner side of the
tube is coated with a thin layer of fluorescent material.

Figure 1: A cathode ray discharge tube

When the high voltage is applied some rays are emitted from the cathode which started moving
towards anode. It can be seen by fluorescence produced. These rays are called cathode rays because
they started from cathode and ended at anode. These rays were found to consist of negatively charged
material particles, called electrons.

PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS

The cathode rays possess the following properties.

1. Cathode rays travel in straight lines.

2. Heating effect: When cathode rays are focused on a thin metal foil, it gets heated up to
incandescence.

3. Effect of electric field: When electric field is applied to a stream of cathode rays, they get
deflected towards positive place. It showed that cathode rays themselves are negatively
charged.

4. Effect of magnetic field: When magnetic field is applied, perpendicular to the path of cathode
rays, they get deflected in the direction as expected for negative particles. This further
confirmed that cathode rays are negatively charged.
 This further confirmed that cathode rays are negatively charged. The above mentioned
properties of cathode rays indicated that they consist of a fast-moving stream of negatively
charged material particles. These particles were named electrons by J.J.Thomson.

CHARGE TO MASS RATION (E/M) ELECTRONS

Sir J.J. Thomson (1897) studied the deflection of cathode rays under the simultaneous application
of electric and magnetic fields, applied perpendicular to each other as well as to the path of cathode
rays.

Figure 2 The apparatus to determine the change to the mass ratio of electron

The electric and magnetic fields applied in this way deviate the path of cathode rays in opposite
directions. It is possible to adjust the magnitudes of the two fields so that the cathode rays strike the
fluorescent screen at the same position as they do when neither field is applied it is possible to
calculate charge (e) to mass (m) ratio of the electrons. The value of e/m was found to be 1.758820
108 1 or 1.758820 1011 1

The e/m ratio for the particles in the cathode rays was found to be same irrespective of the nature of
cathode pr the nature of the gas taken in the discharge tube, thus showing that the electrons are basic
constituent of all atoms.

CHARGE ON THE ELECTRONS

The charge (e) on an electron was determined by R.A. Millikan in 1909 by oil drop experiment. In
this method a spray of oil droplets is produced by an atomizer.
Figure 3 The millikan oil drop apparatus for measuring charge e In chamber the

The oil droplets enter the apparatus through a small hole and are allowed to fall in between two
charged plates. The motion of the droplets is observed with a telescope. The space between charged
plates is irradiated with X-rays. The X-rays ionize the molecules of air. One or more electrons, thus
produced may be absorbed by an oil droplet. The oil droplet as a result becomes negatively charged.
By measuring the velocity of a given oil droplet as it falls freely under influence of gravity and then in
an electric field, it is possible to calculate charge (q) on the droplet.

Millikan found charge on all oil droplets could be expressed as whole number multiple of e, which
was considered to be electronic charge. The charge on the electron is found to be 1.6022 1019 .
This is taken as one unit negative charge.

MASS OF THE ELECTRON

By combining the e/m ratio and charge (e) of the electron, it is possible to calculate mass of the
electron.

Thomson experiment: = 1.758820 108

Milikan experiment: = 1.60 1019

Mass of the electron,

1.60221019
= = 1.75882108
=9.1094 1028

9.1094 1031 .

The mass of electron is very small and is approximately 11837 times the mass of n atom of
hydrogen.

An electron is a fundamental particle of atom carrying one unit negative charge and having mass
nearly equal to 11837th of mass of an atom of hydrogen.

ANODE RAYS OR CANAL RAYS

Goldstein in 1886, discovered the existence of a new type of rays in the discharge tube. He used a
perforated cathode (Fig. 2.6) in the discharge tube. On passing the electric discharge at low pressure
he observed a new type of rays streaming behind the cathode. These rays were named anode rays or
canal rays.

Further investigations of these rays showed that they consist of positively charged material particles.

Some the characteristics properties of anode rays are:

1. Anode rays travel in straight lines.

 2. Anode rays consist of material particles.

3. Anode rays are deflected by electric field towards negatively charged plate. This indicates
that they are positively charged.

4. When a magnetic field is applied in a direction expected for positive particles. This further
indicates that they are positively charged.

DISCOVERY OF THE PROTON

The charge to mass ratio of the particles in the anode rays was found to depend upon the nature of the
gas in the discharge tube. It was observed that e/m ratio was maximum when hydrogen gas was taken
in the discharge tube. This indicated that positive ions formed from hydrogen are lightest. These
highest positively charged particles were named protons. Charge on portion is opposite but equal in
magnitude to the charge on the electron i.e., 1.6022 1019 and mass of portion is 1.673
1027 .

A proton is a fundamental particles of atom carrying one unit positive charge and having mass
nearly equal to the mass of an atom of hydrogen.

DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRON

Neutrons were discoverd by James Chadwick in 1932. He bombarded a thin foil of beryllium with fast
moving particles and observed that highly penetrating rays consisting of neutral particles were
produced.
9
4 + 42 12
6 + 10

These neutral particles were found to have mass 1.675 1027 and were named neutrons.

A neutron is a subatomic particle carrying no charge and having mass 1.675 1027 kg which
is almost equal to that of a hydrogen atom.

The mass of the atom is largely due to protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.

Except for the hydrogen atoms, the atoms of all other elements contain all the three fundamental
particles; electrons, protons and neutrons. The atom of hydrogen contains only one proton and one
electron.

Properties of Fundamental particles of Atoms

Particles Symbol Relative Absolute charge Mass (kg) Mass Approximate mass
charge (C) (amu) (amu)

Electron e 1 1.6022 1019 9.10939 1031 0.0005 0

Proton p +1 +1.6022 1027 1.67262 1027 4 1

Neutron n 0 0 1.67493 1027 1.00727 1

1.0086
 7

RADIOACTIVITY

The discovery of cathode rays and anode rays showed that the atoms are divisible into subatomic
particles. This was further supported by the phenomenon of radioactivity discoverd by Becquerel in
1896.

The spontaneous emission of active radiations by certain element like uranium is called
radioactivity and the elements are called radioactive elements.

On placing a sample of uranium mineral in a lead block and allowing the emitted rays to pass through
strong electric or magnetic fields, the radiation is resolved into three directions.

(a) The rays which deflected slightly towards negative plate were named as rays.

(b) The rays which deflected towards positive plate were named as rays.

(c) The rays which remained undeflected were named as .

2+
particles.

THOMSONS MODEL OF ATOM

Thomson (1898) was the first to propose a detailed model of the atom:

Assumptions:

i. Atom is spherical with the uniform distributions of protons.

ii. In atom the electrons are distributed similar to seeds in watermelon or raisin pudding. This
model of atom is known as the plum-pudding model or raisin pudding model or
watermelon model.

iii. Mass of the atom is evenly spread over the entire atom. Total positive charge of protons in
neutralized by the negative charge of electrons thus the atom is neutral.
 Figure3: Thomson model of atom

This model could explain electrical neutrality of atom but failed to explain the observations of
Rutherfords particle scattering experiment.

RUTHERFORDS NUCLEAR MODEL OF ATOM

ALPHA PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

Rutherford bombarded obtained from radioactive element on a thin sheet of gold foil, a
circular fluorescent screen coated with zinc sulphide () was placed around the foil to detect the
deflection suffered by as shown in figure.

Figure-4 B. Schematic molecular view of the gold foil

Whenever an particle struck the screen a tiny flash of light was produced at that point.

Rutherford observed that:

i. Most of the (nearly 99.9%) passed through the gold foil undeflected. It
indicates that the most of the space in an atom is empty.

ii. Some of the were deflected by small angles. being positively

charged and having considerable mass could be deflected only by some heavy, positively
charged centre. The small angle of deflection of indicated the presence of a
heavy positive centre in the atom. Rutherford named this positive centre as nucleus

iii. A very few (1 in 20000) were either deflected by very large angle or were
actually reflected back along their path. which make head-on collision with
heavy positive centre are deflected through large angles. Since the number of such
is very small, the space occupied by the heavy positive centre must be very small.

RUTHERFORDS NUCLEAR MODEL OF ATOM

 On the basis of scattering experiment Rutherford put forward nuclear model of atom. Main
points of this model are:

1. Most of the mass and all the positive charge of an atom is present in a very small region
called nucleus. Size of the nucleus is very small as compared with the size of the atom.

2. The positive charge on the nucleus is due to protons.

3. Electrons are revolving around the nucleus in circular path. The electrostatic force of
attraction between electrons and the nucleus is balanced by the centrifugal force acting on the
revolving electrons.

4. Total negative charge on the electrons is equal to the positive charge on the nucleus so that
atom on the whole is electrically neutral.

5. Most of the space inside an atom is empty.

Nuclear model of atom can be compared with the solar system. In an atom the electrons
revolve around the nucleus in just the same way as the planets revolve around the nucleus in
just the same way as the planets revolve around the sun. Due to this comparison revolving
electrons are sometimes called planetary electrons and Rutherfords nuclear model of atom
is known Planetary model of atom.

FAILURE OF RUTHERFORDS MODEL

According to Maxwell a moving charged particle when accelerated emits energy in the form
of electromagnetic radiaton. Since electrons are charged particles, therefore, electron revolving in an
orbit should continuously emit radiations. Thus it would slow down and get attracted by the nucleus.
hence, it moves closer and closer to the nucleus and finally falls in the nucleus by following a spiral
path (Fig). This means atom should collapse. But actually we known atom is stable.

Figure 5 Electron
Thus,

1. Rutherfords model failed to explain stability of atoms.

2. It does not explain the arrangement of electrons in the atom.

3. Rutherfords model also failed to explain the existence of certain definite lines in the
hydrogen spectrum.

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protein in the nucleus or equal to the number
of electrons in a neutral atom. It is denoted by the letter Z.

Atomic Number (Z)= Number of protons

= Number of electrons

MASS NUMBER

protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus are called nucleons. total number of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus is called mass number of the atom. it is generally represented by the letter
A.

Mass Number (A) = Number of protons+ number of neutrons

= Number of nucleons

ISOTOPES

Isotopes are the atoms having same atomic number but differ in mass number or the atoms having
same number of protons but differ in number of neutrons.

Ex: 1) Three isotopes of hydrogen can be represented as 11, 21 31

2) three isotopes of carbon are represented as 126, 136 146.

Isotopes contain same number of electrons hence they show similar properties.

ISOBARS

Isobars are the atoms having same mass number but differ in atomic number for example,