Complex numbers and Eulers formula

We need complex numbers so every quadratic equation can be solved. The

names complex and imaginary are unfortunate: these are numbers as good
as any others. They just happen to be less familiar because we learn others
first.
A complex number has the form

c = a + bi

where a and b are real numbers and i2 = 1. The number a is the real part
of c, written a = Re(c), and b, not bi, is the imaginary part of c, b = Im(c).
Graphical representations of complex numbers usually put the real part on the
x-axis and the imaginary part on the y-axis.

imaginary

b a+bi

a real

Complex numbers also have polar representations. The modulus, |c|, of a

complex number c is the distance between that number and the origin, the
value r of its polar representation. The argument, arg(c), of c is the angle of
its polar representation.
 
p b
|c| = r = a2 + b2 and arg(c) = = arctan
a
Polar and Cartesian representations are related in the obvious way,

a = r cos() and b = r sin()

This emphasizes that is defined only up to addition of some multiple of 2.

Usually we assign to its principal value, the value of satisfying < .
Next, we learn the basic arithmetic of complex numbers.

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Arithmetic
To add complex numbers, add their real parts and add their imaginary parts.

(a + bi) + (u + vi) = (a + u) + (b + v)i

For example,
(2 + 3i) + (3 2i) = 5 + i
Complex numbers are multiplied as binomials, remembering that i2 = 1.

(a + bi) (u + vi) = au + (bi)u + a(vi) + (bi)(vi)

= (au bv) + (bu + av)i

For example,

(2 + 3i) (3 2i) = (2 3 3 (2)) + (3 3 + 2 (2))i = 12 + 5i

Multiplication is particularly simple using the polar representation: multiply

the moduli and add the arguments. Viewed this way, squaring a complex number
is just squaring the modulus and doubling the argument. Easy consequences
are as n ,

|cn | 0 if |c| < 1,

|cn | = 1 if |c| = 1, and
|cn | if |c| > 1.

Division uses a trick, that (a + bi) (a bi) = a2 + b2 . Then

u + vi u + vi a bi
=
a + bi a + bi a bi
(u + vi) (a bi)
=
a2 + b 2
(ua + vb) + (va ub)i
=
a2 + b 2
ua + vb va ub
= 2 + 2 i
a + b2 a + b2
For example,
2 + 3i (2 + 3i) (3 + 2i) (6 6) + (9 + 4)i
= = =i
3 2i 32 + 22 13
In the polar representation, divide the moduli and subtract the arguments.
Square roots are computed easily using the polar representation. Viewed
that way, squaring a complex number is squaring the modulus and doubling the
argument, so taking the square root is taking the square root of the modulus
and halving the argument. Of course, we expect two square roots. A momemts
thought will show how to find the second.

2

Take c = 1 + 3i, so the polar representation is
q
r = 12 + ( 3)2 = 2

and
= arctan( 3/1) = /3

Then c has polar representation r = 2 and = /6, so
p
c = 2 cos(/6) + 2 sin(/6)i = 3/2 + (1/ 2)i

And the other square root? Just the negaive of this one
p
c = 3/2 (1/ 2)i

Complex functions
Replacing the real variable x by the complex variable z = x + yi, we can
write many complex functions. Complex polynomials and rational functions
look just like their real cousins, and the product, quotient, and chain rules for
differentiation work the same way. Power series work pretty much the same
way, too, and this is how we define the complex exponential, sine, and cosine
functions.
z2 z3 z4 z5
ez = 1 + z + + + + +
2! 3! 4! 5!
z3 z5 z7 z9
sin(z) = z + +
3! 5! 7! 9!
z2 z4 z6 z8
cos(z) = 1 + +
2! 4! 6! 8!

Eulers formula
First apply the power series for ez to z = yi, obtaining
(yi)2 (yi)3 (yi)4 (yi)5
eyi = 1 + yi + + + + +
2! 3! 4! 5!
y2 y3 y4 y5
= 1 + yi i + + i +
2! 3! 4!  5!
y2 y4 y3 y5
 
= 1 + + y + i
2! 4! 3! 5!
= cos(y) + i sin(y)

Setting y = in eyi = cos(y) + i sin y gives the remarkable formula

ei = cos() + i sin() = 1

Rearranging slightly, we obtain one of Richard Feynmanns favorite formulas

ei + 1 = 0

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Because, Feynmann said, this single formula relates five of the most important
constants in mathematics: e, i, , 1, and 0. Who wouldnt love that?
If we repeat the argument giving eyi = cos(y) + i sin(y) for complex z, and
using the power series for ez , cos(z) and sin(z), we obtain Eulers formula,

eiz = cos(z) + i sin(z)

We can decompose the complex exponential a bit further,

ex+iy = ex eiy = ex (cos(y) + i sin(y))

We expect the complex sine and cosine functions to be periodic, like their
real cousins. In Exercise D5 we see this is true. Surprisingly unlike the real
exponential, the complex exponential is periodic, with period 2i.

ez+2i = ez e2i = ez (cos(2) + i sin(2)) = ez

These are the very first steps of an immense field. Calculus of complex
functions is like that of real functions in many ways, but some aspects are
mysteriously different. If you are interested, Google, or any book on complex
variables, is your friend.