General Principles of Drawing & Safety

Drawing Instrument :
a) Drawing sheet [IS 10711 : 2001]
The basic principle involved in arriving at the sizes are
a) x:y = 1: 2
b) xy = 1
x

x,y side
x, y surface area
x = 0.841 m
y = 1.189 m

A4

A3

Dimension, mm
Designation A2
Trimmed size
A0 841 1189
A1 594 841 A1
A2 420 594
A3 297 420
A4 210 297 Y
AO X

2.1 Draawing Sheet Formats

b) Drawing Board: [IS 1444:1989]

Made of softwood of about 25 mm thickness.
Standard size of drawing boards are

25 mm
D0 A0 1500 1000 [mm2]
D1 A1 1000 700
D2 A2 700 500
D3 A3 500 350
c) Mini-drafter:
It combines the function of T-square, set square, scales and protractor.
It is used for drawing horizontal, vertical, inclined, parallel, perpendicular line along its measurements.

1
 It is also used to trace angle.
Drawing board

Scales

Angle

Parallel bar arms

Protractor

Drawing sheet
Mini-daughter
Note :
i) Two types of set squares are generally used
i) 30 - 60
ii) 45 - 45
ii) Protractor that is used has a least count of 0.5
Note :
1. While using a compass and pencil to draw a circle, the pencil lead position w.r.t. the tip of the
compass should be at least 1 mm because the tip goes into the board for grip by 1 mm.
2. If curve is not a smooth one say circle, then to draw such curves french curves are used.
For example,

Curves such as parabola, ellipse etc. are drawn using french curves.

3. Various grades of pencils are available. [defined as per Graphite scale]

9H 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H 3H 2H H HB
F B 2B 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 9B

Hardness Softness
Firm Hard darkness
Lightness Black

H = Hardness
B = Softness [Blackness]

a) HB = soft grade Border lines, lettering, free sketching.

b) H = Medium grade Visible outlines, visible edges, boundary lines.
c) 2H = Hard grade Construction of lines, dimension lines, tension lines, centre lines, hatching
lines and hidden lines

2
 Pencil

Conical point
sketch work and
lattering

Chiesel
Long thin
lines of
uniform
thickness
Layout of drawing sheet

Trimmed edge

1 2 3 4 5 6 Border
Filling
Margin
A A A 0 , A1 20 mm

Drawing space A 2 , A 3 , A 4 10 mm
20 min B
B
Reference

C Grid
C
Centering 170 mm
mark 5mm
D Title Block D

1 2 3 4 5 6
Frame

Title Block: It is divided into two zones.

Part identification zone : Legal owner of drawing (name of firm/component etc.]
Additional information zone : technical information : [scale, projection symbol]
Note :
Sheet-Type-X [A0 A4]
Sheet-Type-Y Sheet [A4 only]
Grid Reference :
The number of divisions should be dividable by 2
The length of any side of rectangular comprising the grid shall not be less than 25 mm and not more
than 75 mm.
Multiple sheet drawing :
In case more than one sheet is required for particular drawing, the total number of sheet should be
shown on sheet 1.
Ex : Sheet no. = n/p ;
n sheet number
p total number of sheet

3
Dimension:
BIS [Board of Indian standards SP (Special Publication) 46:2003] defines dimension as a numerical
value expressed in appropriate units of measurements and indicated graphically on technical
drawings with lines, symbol and notes.

Different Lines in Dimensioning:

Termination
Dimension
Dimension Line
50
Extension/Projection
Line
(Light and continous)

Outline (dark and

continuous)
i) Dimension Line:
It is continuous narrow line, drawn parallel to edge or surface whose measurement be shown.
ii) Extension line / projection line:
It is a continuously narrow line drawn perpendicular to the outline to be dimensioned and without
leaving a gap from the outline.

~68 mm
50
~3 mm

iii) Outline: It forms the shapes of the object in a projected view.

Dimension line termination: The dimension lines will have terminations in the form of
arrowheads or oblique strokes or origin indication.
a) Arrow Head:

open closed closed

(1) and filled

15, 45, 90

(2) 3w 45

b) Oblique strokes: It is used when space is too small for an arrow head.

3mm
c) Origin Indication:

Header Lines:

A leader line is a line referring to a feature (object, outline, dimension). Leader line should be inclined
to the horizontal at an angle 30.
Leader line should terminate.

4
 a) With a dot, if they end within the outline of an object.

b) With arrowhead, if they end on outside of the object.

c) Without a dot or arrow head, if they end in dimension line.

Methods of Dimensioning:
Method I : [Aligned Method]
Dimension should be placed parallel to and above their dimension lines and preparedly at the middle
and clear of the line.
Dimension may be written so that they can be read from the bottom or right side of the drawing.
Horizontal dimensional lines are not broken to place the dimension in both cases.
Example:
16

39
28

60
30

16

20 10
50

Method-II: Unidirectional Method:

Dimension should be indicated so that they can be read from the bottom of the drawing only.
Non horizontal dimension lines are interrupted, preferably in the middle of insertion of the dimension.
Horizontal dimensional lines are not broken to place the dimension in both cases.
16

39

28 60

30
16
20 10
50

5
Arrangement of Dimensions:
I. Chain (continuous) dimensioning: successive dimensions are arranged in a straight line.

12 8 15 12

55

II. Parallel (Progressive) dimensioning:

Placement of a number of single dimension lines parallel to one another
Smaller dimensions should always be placed nearer the view.

12

20
35

43

55

III. Combined dimensioning:

When both chain dimensioning and parallel dimensioning are used in single drawing.
Ex:

8 8

20 15 8

Circular Holes:
A hole is usually dimensioned by giving its diameter instead of radius.

20 15
0
4

When more than one hole of the same size forms a pattern, it is not necessary to dimension each
one.
3 20
(or)

6
 (or 3 HOLES 20)

Dimensioning of arcs:
An arc is usually dimensioned by giving its radius. The dimension indicating radius should be
preceded by symbol R and the position of center of arc is denoted by a +.
Ex.

R10

20 R5
R

R5

(a) (b) (c)

Dimensioning of cylinders:
Cylindrical features should be dimensioned by giving their diameters.
They should be dimensioned in the views in which they appear as rectangles.
40
30
20

36

50
35

25
40
60

Dimensions Spheres :
Spherical features may be dimensioned by giving either the radius or diameter of a sphere.
Symbol SR of must precede the dimension for radius or diameter respectively.

7
 SR12

S50

60
SR
S40

Dimensioning of Squares:
30
30

(i) (ii)

Dimensioning of Conical Object:

75
25
40

75 75
11

25
40

1
0.2:1 Taper
5
Conical taper symbol

8
 Dimensioning of flat tapered object

Flat taper symbol

1
Taper
4
0.25:1 Slop 1
:4

20
60 60

Lettering : [IS 6909:2001]

It is defined as writing of titles, subtitles, dominions etc on a drawing.

Single Stroke Letters :

The thickness of the letter should be uniform as if it is obedient in one stroke of the pencil.

Types of Single Stroke Letters :

(1) Lettering Type A:

(i) Vertical

(ii) Sloped @ 75 to the horizontal

(iii) Height of the capital letter is divided into 14 equal parts.

75

(2) Lettering Type B:

(i) Vertical

(ii) Sloped @ 75 to the horizontal

(iii) Height of the capital letter is divided into 10 equal parts.

Note :

Type B is preferred over type A because of the division height

Vertical letters are preferred over sloped letters.

Lettering in drawing should be in upper case.

Standard heights of capital letters and numerals are 1.8, 2.5, 3.5, 5.7, 10, 14 and 20 mm.
Recommended height h of letters / numerals by BIS.

1. Main title of drawing : 5 mm, 7 mm or 10 mm

2. Sub-titles : 3.5 mm, 5 mm

3. Dimensions, numerals, notes etc. : 2.5 mm, 3.5 mm, 5 mm

9
Lines
Thickness and Proportional Dimension of Lines:

Two thicknesses of lines are used. The ratio of the thick to the thin line shall not be less than 2:1. Grading
of lines is in 2 increments.

The thickness of lines should be chosen according to the size and the type of the drawing from the
following range:

0.18, 0.25, 0.35, 0.5, 0.7, 1, 1.4 and 2 mm.

For all views of one piece to the same scale, the thickness of the lines should be the same.
Note: Owing to difficulties in certain methods of reproduction, the line thickness of 0.18 mm should be
avoided.

Table

Line Description General applications

A ___________________ Continuous thick
B___________________ Continuous thin (straight or
curved)
Continuous thin freehand
C
Continuous thin (straight)
D with zigzags
See figures 1 & 2 .
A1 Visible outlines
A2 Visible edges
B1 Imaginary lines of intersection
B2 Dimension lines
B3 Projection lines
B4 Leader lines
B5 Hatching
B6 Outlines of revolved sections in place
B7 Short centre lines
C1 Limits of partial or interrupted views and
sections, if the limit is not a chain thin
D1 Line (see figures 53 and 54)

E Dashed thick E1 Hidden outlines

E2 Hidden edges
F Dashed thin F1 Hidden outlines
F2 Hidden edges
G Chain thin G1 Centre lines
G2 Lines of symmetry
G3 Trajectories
H Chain thin, thick at ends and H1 Cutting planes
changes of direction

J Chain thick J1 Indication of lines or surfaces to which a special

requirement applies

K Chain thin double-dashed K1 Outlines of adjacent parts

K2 Alternative and extreme positions of movable
parts
K3 Centroidal lines

10
 y

B2
G2

B2 G3 G1
K2 y B4
F1
B3 A1

B5
B6

B7
D1
B1 J1 G1

D1

K1

Fig. 1

C1

K3

Fig. 2
Spacing of Lines : The minimum space between parallel lines; including hatching, should never be less
than twice the thickness of the heaviest line. It is recommended that those spaces should never be
less than 0.7 mm.
Order of Priority of Coinciding Lines : When two or more lines of different type coincide, the following
order of priority should be observed (see Fig. 6.3)
a) Visible outlines and edges (continuous thick lines, type A);
b) Hidden outlines and edges (dashed line, type E or F);
c) Cutting planes (chain thin line, thick at ends and changes of cutting planes, type H);
d) Centre lines and lines of symmetry (chain thin line, type G);
e) Centroidal lines (chain thin double-dashed line type K);
f) Projection lines (continuous thin line, type B).
Adjacent outlines of assembled parts shall coincide, black thin sections excepted (see Fig. 9.9).

11
Termination of Leader Lines: A leader line is a line referring to a feature (dimension, object, outline,
etc.)

SCALE: Ratio of the linear dominions of the an element of an object as represented in the original
drawing to the real linear dimension of the same element of the object itself.

Scaleonone edge: 1: 1 1: 25 1: 10 1: 50 1: 200 1: 200 1: 400 1: 1000

Scaleonother edge: 1: 2 1: 5 1: 20 1: 100 1: 500 1: 600 1: 800 1: 2000

Designation of a Scale:

SCALE 1:1; for full size

SCALE X : 1; for enlargement scales (i.e. ratio is larger than 1:1)

SCALE 1 : X; for reduction scales (i.e. ratio is small than 1:1)

i.e. : 10 unit length on the object if represented by 1 unit length on the drawing.
10:1 1 unit length of the object is represented by 10 units on the drawing.

Area of drawing
Representative Fraction =
Actual area

Drawing size of an object Volume of drawing

RF = (in same units) = 3
Its actual size Actual Volume

Ex :

Actual length of an object = 3 mts

Represented by = 15 mm

For full scale = RF = 1

For enlarged scale : RF > 1

For reduced scale : RF < 1

15mm 1
RF = 1: 200
3 1000mm 200

Metric Measurements:

10mm 1 cm 2.54 1 inch

10cm 1 m 12 inch 1 foot
10 dn 1m 3 feet 1 yard
10m 1dam 220 yard 1 furlong
10 dam 1 hm 2 furlong 1mile
10 hm 1 Km 8 furlong 1mile
1 mile 1.602 Km
1 Nautical mile 1.85 Km

12
Q. The distance between two towns is 250 km and is represented by a line of length 50 mm on a map.
What will be length of scale to read 600 KM.

50mm 50 1
Sol. RF =
250KM 250 1000 1000 5 10 6

1
Length of the scale = 6
600Km 120mm
5 10

1. For full scale, RF = 1

2. For reduce sale, RF < 1

3. For enlarged scale, RF > 1

Diagonal Scales :

Plain sales are used to read lengths in two units such as meters, decimeters, cms, mm etc. with
accuracy correct to first decimal.

Diagonal scales are used to represent either three units of measurements such as meters, dcm, cm,
with the accuracy correct to two decimals.
Vernier Scales:

The vernier scale is a short auxiliary scale constructed along the plain or main scale, which can read
upto two decimal place.

The smallest division on the main scale and vernier scale are 1 msd and ?? reep.

Generally (n+1) or (n 1) division on the main scale is divided into n equal parts on the vernier scale.

nVsd n 1 msd or n 1 msd

n 1 1 1 1
1 Vsd msd msd or 1 msd
n n n

When 1 Vsd < 1 forward or direct vernier

LC = 1 msd Vsd
When 1 Vsd > 1 backward or regrated vernier.
LC = 1 Vsd 1 msd

13
 Scales for use of technical drawings.

Category Recommended scales

Enlargement scales 50:1 20:1 10:1

5:1 2:1
Full size 1:1
Reduction 1:2 1:5 1:10

Scales 1:2 1:50 1:100

1:200 1:500 1:1000

1:2000 1:5000 1:10000
Note :

In all cases, the selected scale shall be large enough to pass easy and clear interpretation of the
information depicted.

Introduction
Definition : If the rays of vision meets the projection plane in a perpendicular fashion, then the obtained
projection is known as orthographic projection.
For analysis of projections at orthographic plane, following assumptions has to be made.
i) observer is at a -distance.
ii) projection planes are transparent
iii) projection planes are rotatable.
Plane of projection :
PP

VP

PP
Y

RL 1st quad HP
2nd quad
GL

4th quad
3rd quad X
(observer)

i) HP = Horizontal plane
ii) VP = Vertical plane
iii) PP = Profile plane
iv) RL = Reference line
or) GL = Ground Line

14
Methods of Orthographic Projection :
i) 1st angle projection
object = 1st quadrant
setup = observer - object - projection plane.
VP

HP

ii) 2nd angle projection

object = 2nd quadrant
setup = observer - projection plane - object
VP

iii) 3rd angle projection

object = 3rd quadrant
setup = observer - projection plane - object
VP

HP

iv) 4th angle projection :

object = 4th quadrant
setup = observer - object - projection plane
VP

HP

Note :
i) In India, 1st angle projection is used
ii) Rest of the world uses either 1st angle (or) 3rd angle projection method whereas 2nd angle (and) 4th
angle are never used.

Note :
I. i) any projectional view obtained on UP = FV
ii) any projection view obtained on HP = TV

15
 iii) any projectional view obtained on PP = side view
iv) profile plane always comes along with VP.
st
1 Angle Projection
(a) LSV is obtained on RPP
(b) RSV is obtained on LPP
(c) HP lies below XY line and VP lies above XY line
(d) Projection symbol.

FV LSV

3rd Angle Projection

(a) LSV is obtained on LPP
(b) RSV is obtained on RPP
(c) HP lies above XY line and VP lies below XY line
(d) Projection symbol

LSV FV

Orthographic Projection of Points

II I
behind In front
VP VP

above above above

below HP HP
HP
inf ront
behind below below
HP HP

behind In front
VP VP
III IV

Note :
(1) Front view will be denoted by small letter with dash.

(2) Top view will be denoted by small letter without dash

(3) Side view will be denoted by small letter with suffix.

16
 Orthographic projection of s. Lines.
Straight line : Shortest distance between two points

Note:
1. The true length of the line is obtained in a view only if the line is parallel to the projection plane.

2. Trace = Intersection of straight line with the reference plane.

3. Horizontal Trace = Intersection of straight line with the horizontal plane.

4. Vertical Trace : Intersection of straight line with the vertical plane.

5. There are two methods to draw projection of lines inclined at HP and VP.
(i) Rotating line method
(ii) Trapezoidal method.

Orthographic Projection of Planes

(1) If plane is parallel to one of the reference plane then the true shape is obtained on that plane.

(2) If plane is perpendicular to reference plane then a straight line is obtained as a view on that
reference plane (irrespective of its shape).

Orthographic Projection of Solids

Solids

Polyhedra Solids of revolution

Regular polyhedra

Prisms

Pysamids
Polyhedra : It is a solid bounded by plane surfaces.
a) Regular Polyhedra : A polyhedron is said to be regular if its surfaces are regular polygons.

(i) (a) Tetrahedron [4 ] (ii) (b) Hexahedron (cube) [6 ]

17
 (iii) (c) Octahedron [8] (iv) (d) Dodecahedron [12 ]

(e) Icosahedron [20]

(v)

b) Prisms:
A prism is polyhedron having two equal ends called the bases parallel to each other. The two bases
are joined by faces, which are rectangular in shape. The imaginary line passing through the center of
the base is called the axis of the prism.
A prism is named after the shape of its base.

Right rectangular Right pentagonal Right Hexagonal

Cube Right prism
prism prism prism

Note :
If axis is not perpendicular to its base i.e. it is at any angle then such type of solid is called as oblique
solid.
Right Cone
Vertex
Oblique Cone
Vertex
Slant Height
Slant Height
Altitude Altitude

Base r Base r
Axis Axis

18
c) Pyramids :

A pyramids is a polyhedron having one base, with a number of isosceles triangular faces, meeting at
a point called the apex. The imaginary line passing through the centre of the base and apex is called
the axis of the pyramid.

The pyramid is named after the shape of its base.

Triangular Square Pentagonal Hexagonal

II. Solid of revolution :

If a plane surfaces is revolved about one of the edges, the solid generated is called a solid by
revolution.
Axis
End face
Generator
A 0 Apex or Vertex
Axis of Rotation
A
Generator

Axis
B P
A P

Base B
Edge of base
End face or base Edge of base

(a) Cylinder (b) Cone (c) Sphere

Frustums and truncated solids :

Section plane Section plane

parallel to base parallel to base Section plane
inclined to base

Section plane
inclined to base

19
Note :

1. When the axis of a solid is perpendicular to HP, the top view must be drawn first and then the front
view is projected from it.

2. When the axis of the solid is perpendicular to VP, the front view must be drawn first and then the TV
is projected from it.

3. When the axis of solid is parallel to both the planes, neither the FV nor the TV reveal the true shape
of the base. In such case, the side view must be drawn first which shows the true shape of the base.
The front view and TV are then projected from the side view.
4. When the axis of a solid is inclined to any plane, the projections are obtained in two stages.

(a) The axis of the solid is assumed to be perpendicular to the plane to which it is actually inclined and
the projections are drawn.

(b) The position of one of the projections is altered to satisfy the given condition and the other view is
projected from it.

This method of obtaining the projections is known as the change of position method.

Auxiliary Projections :

The conventional orthographic projection i.e. FV, TV, SV may not sufficient always to provide
complete information regarding the size and true shape of the object esp. when it contains surfaces
inclined to the principal planes of projections.

The true shape of an inclined surface can only be obtained by projecting it on to an imaginary plane
which is parallel to it. This imaginary plane is called an auxiliary plane and the view obtained on it is
auxiliary view.

AP
PP
VP
VP

HP HP

AP

Types of Auxiliary Views s:

(i) Auxiliary front view :

Auxiliary FV is obtained on auxiliary vertical plane (AVP) which is inclined to VP and perpendicular to
HP.

AFV is projected from the top view and its height is same as the height of the front view.

20
(ii) Auxiliary top view
Auxiliary TV is obtained on auxiliary inclined plane (AIP) which is inclined to HP but perpendicular to
VP.

AIP is projected from the FV and its height is same as the height of the TV.

Design Process:
1. The design process involves a series of logic steps and decisions that lead to the development of
redesign of a new product, system or service.

2. A design process is open ended in nature, which means they have more than one correct solution.
3. Design activity is cyclic or interactive in nature and often includes creativity, choice and testing as key
ingredients apart from thorough analysis.
4. Design process is :
(i) A process of questioning
(ii) Descriptive and prescriptive in nature.
(iii) A formal method of design
Objective trees = hierarchical list of clients objective
Piecewise comparison charts (PCC)
Morphological charts
Steps in Design Process :

1. Define the problem

a) Identify the problem to solve, including its scope, nature and background.

b) Write a short statement giving the general outline of the problem i.e. develop a problem
statement.

c) Establish criteria for success.

Requirements
Selection interla.

Constraints
criteri
a

The criteria that apply to a particular design problem are based on background knowledge and
the research that has been conducted.
Constraints:

Yes-NO constraints

Equality constraints

One-sided inequality constraints

Two-sided inequality constraints

21
2. Gather pertinent information
3. Generate multiple solution :

Team development

Creativity
Models of creative process :
1. Wallas Model : Preparation, incubation, intimation, illumination, verification

2. Fabun Model : Preparation, incubation, intimation, illumination, desire, manipulation, verification

3. Creative Education Foundation mode (CEF)

Fact finding
Problem finding
Idea finding
Soln. finding
Acceptance
Each Step Involves:
Idea generation (divergent) phase
Idea purging (convergent) phase
Barriers to creative thinking
1. Perceptual barriers
2. Cultural barriers
3. Environmental barriers
4. Emotional barriers
5. Intellectual barriers
Techniques for generating alternatives :
a) Lateral thinking using reasoning
b) Perseverance
c) Mental push-ups
d) Solving puzzles

For generating multiple solutions creative thinking is must and can be achieved through teamwork.
Team formation usually follows easily recognizable stages known as stage of team development.

forming

storming
Stages of team development
norming
performing

way through which creative ideas can be generated

22
a) Brain storming
Establish a diverse team : best size is somewhere between 6 to 12.

It is based on two principles

(a) Defer judgment (b) Reach for quantity

go for quantity
withhold criticism

welcome wild ideas

combined and improve ideas

Note :

1. 6-3-5 Method :

6 team members

Each team member writes down 3 design ideas

The ideas are circulated among other team members in a sequence i.e. 5-rotations.
2. C-sketch method :

Each member sketches one design ideas on a paper and proceeds as 6-3-5 method.
3. The Gallery Method :

Team sketches ideas and all the sketched ideas are pasted on board and then discussed

In brainstorming conflict may arise :

Conflict

Destructive Constructive

Five basic strategies for resolving conflicts

a) Accommodating

b) Avoiding
c) Collaborating
d) Compromising

e) Competing

4. Analyze and select a soln.

a) Functional analysis

b) Industrial design / Ergonomics

c) Mechanical / strength analysis

d) Electrical / electromagnetic

23
 e) Manufacturability / Testability
f) Product safety and liability

g) Economic and market analysis

g) Regulating and compliance

5. Test and implement the solution

a) Prototyping
b) Concurrent engineering
Communicating the Design :

(a) Oral communication

(b) Written communication

(c) Instruction manual

(d) Graphical communications

Modeling in Engineering :

Heuristic modeling Enabling a person to discover or learn something for themselves

Mathematical modeling
Cost Categories :
Investment cost

Operations and maintenance costs

Fixed and variable cross

Incremental or marginal cost

Direct and indirect costs

Recurring and non recurring costs

Sunk (past) cost

Cost Estimating
The engineering estimate

Estimating by use of analog

Statistical estimating method

Project Management :
3S-Model of a project

S = Scope i.e. limit of a project

S = Scheduling i.e. time frame

S = Spending i.e. available resources

24
Technique to manage a project:

1. Team charters

2. Work breakdown structures (WBS)

3. Team Calendar
4. Checklist

5. Timeline
6. Gantt Chart

7. Milestone chart

25