(GS MATERIAL SCIENCE)

Structure of atom and interatomic Bonding:

electron
Stable proton
particle neutron
positron
Composed of Tiny particles unstable
matter neutrino and antineutrino
(Physical substance) (atom) particle
mesons
unstable
particle -particle
Deutron
(i) Stable particle:

Charge Mass amu or u

(a) electron 1.6 10 19 C 9.11 10 31 kg or 0.00054u 1
1
times mass
1836
of proton
19 27
(b) Proton 1.6 10 C 1.67 10 kg 1.007274u 1
(c) Neutron uncharged ~ proton mass 1.00867u 1

Note:
1. Isotopes: Same atomic number, different mass number.

2. Isobars: Same mass number, different atomic number

3. Isotones: Same number of neutrons but different number of protons (or) mas number.

4. isoelectric: Atoms/molecules/ions having same number of .

(ii) Unstable particles:

ii) Unstable particles iii) Composite particles
a) Positron: +1e a) -particles: doubly
b) Neutrono charged He
Antineutrino : uncharged

eithel + ve/-vely b) Deutron: + vely charged

c) Mesons - meson ; heavy
charged heavy hydrogen
-meson; Light

Note:
2
z
1. Energy of nth orbit : En = 13.6 ev
n

n2
2. Radius of nth orbit : rn 0.529 A
z

3. Orbital velocity is inversely proportional to n.

4. Orbital frequency is inversely proportional to n3.

Periodic Table:

Group number
atomic number
Element symbol
Element name
Period
atomic weight (average)

Electronegativity

Electron Gain Enthalpy

ses
ionization Energy

Ionization Enthalpy
Electron gain Enthalpy
Electronegativity atomic radius ses

Atomic Radius

ter
harac
c
llic
eta
ses

n- m
No
ses

Note: Ist transition series starts from the atomic number 21 [Sc]
Chemical Bonds:
Bonds

Primary bonds Interatomic bonds Secondary Bonds Intermolecular bonds

stable unstable
Strong weak
Bond energy : 100 1000 kJ/mol Bond energy
: 10 KJ/mol
Ionic Bond
Covalent Bond
Metallic Bond
Note:

Of all the primary bonds, ionic is strongest and metallic weakest

Of all the secondary bonds, Hydrogen bond is strongest
Ionic solids are water soluble but covalent bonds are soluble in non-polar solvent.
Bonds and their properties:
 Properties Ionic bond Covalent bond Metallic bond Secondary bond
Mechanical Hardness Very hard and Tough and ductile, Soft; can be
increases with brittle; break by non-directional; plastically
ionic charge; cleavage can change shape deformed
break by cleavage fracture, it is a permanently without
fracture; it is non- directional breakking weaker
directional bond. bond than ionic or covalent
bonds
Electrical Insulators Semi conductors Electronic conductors Insulators

Thermal Fairly high Very high melting Modernately high Low melting
melting point, point, good melting po int, po int
thermal insulators thermal insulators good heat conductors

Optical Transparent Transparent or Opaque and reflecting Transparent

coloured by opaque,high
absorption of refractive index
ions

Examples Magnesia, calcite, Diamond, carborundum Sodium, iron copper Argon, paraffins
NaCl, CaCl 2 ice

Crystal Structure:
Solid

1 Crystalline solids 2. Non-crystalline camorphous) solid

periodically arranged atoms Non-periodically arranged atoms
Definite geometric shape No definite geometric shape
have sharp melting point Melt over wide range of temp.
anisotropic in nature Isotropic in nature
Ex: NaCl Ex.: Glass
7. Crystal system and 14 bravais lattices
Crystal Bravcis
system Lattice
1. Cubic P, I, F abc 90
2. Rhom sohedral P abc 90
(Trigonal)
3. Tetragonal P, I abc 90
4. Hexagonal P abc 90, 120
5. Othor hom sic P, I, F, E abc 90
6. Monoelinic P, E abc 90
7. Triclinic P abc 90
P Pr imitive
I Bodycentre
F Face centre
E End Centre

Structure atomic radius N CN APF Example

()
1. Simple cubic a/2 1 6 0.52 P0
2. BCC [ABAB] a 3 /4 2 8 0.68 Cr, -fe, K, MO, W
3. FCC [ABCABC] a 2/4 4 12 0.74 Al, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pt, Pb
4. HCP [ABAB] a/2 6 12 0.74 Graphite, Zn, Mg
5. DC a 3 /8 8 4 0.34 Si, Ge, Sn
 Crystal imperfection:

1. O-dim ensional (point) defects :

associated with
Vaccancies
interstitial atom
impurities
substitutional atoms
frenkel defect
Schottky defect

2. 1- dim ensional (line) defects :

associated with dislocations
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation
Mixed dislocation

Note:

1. For edge dislocation, Burger, vector is perpendicular to the dislocation.

2. For screw dislocation, Burger vector is parallel to the dislocation.

3. Burger vector described the magnitude and direction of slip.

4. Slip is defined as the movement of block of atoms along certain crystallographic plane and
direction.
3. 2-dimensioal (area) defects:

associated with faults

stacking faults

external faults
Grain boundaries
Tilt boundary
Twin boundary

Note:

1. A grain boundary is the imperfections that separate crystal or grains of different orientation in
polycrystalline aggregate during crystallization

2. Average number of grains per inch at magnification of 100X is N = 2n1;

n = grain size number
[Higher n indicates fine grain]

3. When the mismatch in orientation between adjacent boundaries is small (<10), then it is
called as tilt boundaries.

4. If the atoms on one side of the boundary is mirror image of atoms on the other side of the
boundary then it is called as Twin boundary.
 5. 3-dimensional (volume) defects:
associated with

Cracks

Pores

Foreign inclusions
6. Phase diagram:

Gibbs phase rule:

F = degree of freedom (it is the number of independent variables {P, T, composition}

which can be varied independently without changing the number of phase in equilibrium.

C = Number of components forming the system.

P = Number of phases that coexist in a chosen system at equilibrium.

2 = Number of external factor (P, T).

Note:

1. If phase diagram is plotted between T and percentage composition keeping P = const. then,
F = C P + 1.

2. F 0 P c 1.

3. at triple point F 0

Types of phase diagram:

(i) Unary phase diagram

(ii) Binary phase diagram
Type-I: Soluble in liquid as well as solid state.

Note:

1. Solid solution structure of solvent does not change

Substitutional solid solution: difference in atomic radii should be <15%

Interstitial solid solution: difference in atomic radii should be < 59%

2. Lever rule: It is used to find

Amount of each phase in the two region.

Type-II Binary phase diagram

Soluble in liquid but partially soluble in solid state.

Various types of phase diagram reaction:

1. Monotetic Reaction:


L 2 solid
L1

2. Eutectic Reaction:


solid1 solid2
L

3. Eutectoid reaction:


solid2 solid3
solid1

4. Perictectic reaction:


L solid1 solid2

5. Peritectoid reaction:


solid1 solid2 New solid

Type-III Binary phase diagram

soluble in liquid but completely insoluble in solid state.

Fe-Fe3 C phase diagram

1. Fe Fe3 C has four invariant reaction

Monotectic
Eutectic

Eutectoid
Peritectic
2. Fe Fe3 C has 5 individual phases.

(a) ferrite:

BCC structure

soft and ductile

Chromium is used as stabilized
Carbon content is 0.025% @ 723C.

(b) ferrite:

BCC

soft and ductile

carbon content is 0.09% @ 1493C

 (c) Austenite ():

FCC

Soft, ductile, malleable, non magnetic

Nickel is used as stabilizer

Carbon content is 2% @1147C and 0.8% @ 727C

(d) Comentite (Fe3C):

Complex orthorhombic crystal structure having 12 iron atoms and 4 carbon atoms per
unit

Hard and brittle

Carbon content 6.67%

(e) Lade burite [ Fe 3 C] :

Eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite

Observed in cast iron containing 4.3%C.

(f) Pearlite [ Fe3 C] :

It is a mechanical mixture of 87% ferrite and 13% cementite.

Pearlite containing 0.8% C is known as eutectoid steel which makes steel more ductile.
A0 : This temperature line lies in the bottom section of iron carbide diagram that is the 210C
temperature line. Here cementite changes from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic in nature.

A1: It is the lower critical temperature. Here at 727C temperature austentine to pearlite Eutectoid
transformation takes place.
A2 : This indicates curie temp. that is 768C below which a ferrite is ferromagnetic in nature.

A3 : This indicates upper critical temp. below which ferrites start to form from austenite.

Acm: This indicates upper critical temperature below which cementite starts to form from austentine.

Heat Treatment

Objectives of heat treatment:

1. To remove internal stresses due to unequal contraction of castings.

2. To improve machinability

3. To improve electrical and magnetic properties

4. To improve mechanical properties like tensile strength, ductility, hardness, shock resistance etc.

5. To improve corrosion resistance.

Heat treatment process:

(I) Annealing:

Purpose:

1000
900

A3 Acm

0.8

1. Reduce residual stress, hardness

2. Increase ductility and toughness

3. To refine grain size i.e. uniform grain structure results.
(II) Normalizing:

Purpose:

(i) Increase the strength of medium carbon steel.

(ii) Improve machinability of low carbon steel.

(iii) It is less ductile than annealed steel.

(iv) Improve mechanical and electrical properties
(III) Hardening:

Purpose:

(i) Produces extreme hardness

(ii) Maximum tensile strength

(iii) Minimum ductility

(iv) Materials are too brittle
Note:

(1)
g
o lin Martensite
t co mp
Fas w te
@lo Martensite
Moderate
Bainite
Austenite Cooling [C in ferrite] Heat
Slo Treatment
w co @ high
ol in Pearlite
g
[87% ferrite temp Spheroidite
13% cementite]

(2) Martensite = Structure is body centred tetragonal

= Very strong and brittle.

 (3) During heat treatment of steel, the hardness of various structures in increasing orders is
spherodite < pearlite < martensite

(4) Spheroidizing:

Used for high carbon steel (C > 0.6%)

This type of heat treatment produces comentite in the form of globulus particles (Spheroids)
from pearlite.

Purpose:

1. Good machnability

2. High ductility
3. Maximum softness

Quenching media for hardening:

Quenching media Application

1. Mineral Oils
2. Water (or) aqueous
solution of NaOH or
NaCl (Brine)
3. Air
used in hardening alloy steels
Very fine pearlite structure is produced
used for quenching carbon and low allow
steel
Martensite structure is produced
Used for rails, pipes etc.
fine pearlite structure is produced

Note:

(1) Brine solution provides fastest cooling amongst all.

(2) Martempering: [stepped quenching]

Austenite is converted to martensite

(3) Austempering: Austenite is converted to Bainite.

IV. Tempering:

Purpose:

1. Residual stresses are relieved

2. Ductility is improved
3. Toughness is increases

4. Decreased hardness.

5. Improve strength

6. Reduce brittleness
7. Increase wear resistence
 900
A
A3

B
723
C

0.8 % wt of c

A = Normalising
B = Annealing (or) Hardening

C = Spheroidising (or) process annealing

D = Tempering
Case hardening

(1) Hard surface = case provides hard wear resistance

Soft core provides toughness

(2) Mild steels cannot be hardened by quenching, so their strength is increased by case hardening.

(I) Chemical heat treatment of steel

(a) Carburising:
(a) Pack carburising:

Carburising mixture: 50% charcoal + 20% BaCO

1444442 4444433 + 5% CaCO3 + 5 12% Na2CO3.
Energizer

Heating time 6 8 hours @ 950C

(b) Gas carburising:

heated in the medium of gases containing CO + hydrocarbon such as CH4, propane,

butane @950C for 312 hrs.

(c) Liquid carburising:

950C
Work piece dipped in molten state bath containing 20% NaCN.

(d) Nitriding:
(500 600)C
(1) Work piece
NH atmosphere
hardest case on steel.
3

(2) Cooled in the spring of ammonia.

(e) Cyaniding:

Work piece immersed in molten cyanide bath containing

20 30% NaCN, 25 50% NaCl,

25 50% Na2CO3 for 30 90 minutes
 Note: Hardness of steel greatly improves with cyaniding.
(f) Carbonitriding:

Work piece is heated in the mixture of ammonia and hydrocarbon to a temp. 850C for
210 hrs.
(II) Induction Hardening:

The heating effect is due to eddy currents flowing in the surface of work piece up to
austentic range.
Quenched immediately to form martensite.

(III) Flame hardening:

Oxyacetylene torch is used to produce a temperature of 24003500C

Austenite is converted to martensite.
Testing of materials.

(I) Ductility testing:

(a) Close bend test
(b) Angle bend test
(c) 180 bend test

(II) Impact testing (Toughness test)

(a) Izod test cantilever type
(b) Charpy test beam type

(III) Hardness test:

(a) Brinell hardness test:
Specification:
Load (P)

D = 10 mm 0.0045 mm

3000 kg hard material

P = 1500 kg int ermediate hardness
500 kg soft material

15 sec for ferrous metals

T =
30 sec for softer metals.
 P
BHN =
D
D D2 d2
2

(b) Vickers hardness test:

It uses a diamond square based pyramid indenter with 136 angle between opposite faces.
Load varies from 5kg 120kg in increment of 5kg.

P
VHN = 1.854
d2

(c) Rockwell hardness test:

Dial A to H and K with 9 scales.
B & C scales are mostly used
B scale for soft metal
steel ball indenter
C scale for hard metal
diamond cone as indenter

Note: It is a non-destructive testing.

Non-destructructive testing [NDT]:
(i) Visual inspection
(ii) Magnetic particle inspection
(iii) Ultrasonic testing
(iv) Liquid - penetration test
(v) X-ray / -ray testing.
Magnetic properties of materials:

(i) Pm = Pm(orbit) Pm(spin) Pm(nuclear )

Pm(spin)

M
(ii) = = r 1
H
Magnetic material:

(a) For diamagnetic material:

H M Ex : Si, Ge, Au etc

m 1

r 0
(b) Paramagnetic material:

(i) at H = 0; M = 0

at H 0; M 0

(ii) m = +ve

r 1

C
(iii) It follows curie law: m =
T
(iv) Above curie temperature its M = 0.
(c) Ferromagnetic material:

(i) Mainly d-block elements exhibit ferro-magnetism.

(ii) Pm = Pm(spin)

(iii) at H = 0; Bresidual = 0M

(iv) It follows curie-weiss law;

C
m =
T
(v) Above curie temp.; it becomes paramagnetic

(vi) Ex: Fe, Co, Ni

(vii) Exhibit hysteris.

(d) Anti ferromagnetic:

(i) m = 0

(ii) 0 = 1

C
(iii) Follows neels law, m =
T N

(iv) T > N Paramagnetic.

(e) Ferrimagnetic material:
Antiparallel and equal dipole moments

Above curie temp., converts to paramagnetic.

Ex: Ferrites
Suitable for high frequency application.
 Electric and magnetic characteristics of ferrites:

(i) High resistivity (ii) Low dielectric loss

(iii) High permeability (iv) High curie temp.

(v) Mechanically hard and brittle. (v) Low eddy current losses.

Types of ferrites:

(I) Hard ferrites:

Used to make permanent magnet

These are having
(i) Higher curie temp.
(ii) High coercive force
(iii) High residual magnetism i.e., wide B-H curve.
(iv) High permeability.
Sr ferrites
14243
exhibit semiconductor
Ex: Ba and behaviour

Application: Small motors, TV tube focusing magnet.

(II) Soft Ferrites:

These are having

High permeability
Low coercive force
Narrow B-H loop.

Ex: Mn Zn ferrites
Ni Zn ferrites
Application: Core of inductors and transformers.

(III) Rectangular loop ferrites:

Ex: Mg Mn ferrites

Cu Mn ferrites

Application: For magnetic memory storage in HDD, floppy etc.

(IV) -wave ferrites/Garnets:

Ex: Mn ferrites
Ni ferrites
Appl: For Gyrator, circulater, isolater etc.
Magnetostriction:

Change in the dimension of a magnetial material when it is magnetized.

Longitudinal magnetastriction

Change in the dimension is in the direction of

Transverse magnetostriction

Change in the dimension is in the perpendicular direction of

Volume magnetostriction

Note: Humming sound in transformer is due to magnetostriction.

Soft / Hard magnetic materials:

(a) Soft magnetic material:

Characteristics:

(1) Low retentivity, coercivity and hystrisis loss.

(2) High permeability and magnetic saturation

(3) Hysterisis curve is tall and thin.

Ex: Silicon steel, soft iron, Fe-Si alloy.

Note: Si ses DC resistivity, ses area of hysterisis.

Appl.: (1) Used in mfd. power transformer @ 50 60 Hz.

(2) Fe Ni alloy

36% Ni used for high frequency application.

50% Ni used for magnetic memory.

77% Ni used for current transformer

45% Ni Permalloy

79% Ni Superalloy
Loss
79% Ni Mu metal

(b) Hard magnetic material: [Permanent magnet]

Charactristics:

(1) High , coercive force, curie temp, hysterisis loss

(2) Ramanent flux density

Application: Permanent magnet, focusing magnets in TV tubes.

Hard magnetic materials are:

(1) Carbon steel 98% Fe, 10% Mn, 0.37C ; Compass needle

(2) Tungsten steel Fe, W, C, Cr. ; DC Motor.

(3) AlNiCO Al, Ni, CO Permanent magnet

(4) Platinum cobalt 77% Pt

23% Co

(5) Aloemax 55% Fe

11% Ni

22% Co

8% Al

4% Cu

(6) Hycomax 50% Fe

21% Ni

20% Co

9% Al

Magnetic Anisotropy:
If material is having direction dependent magnetic properties then material is said to be magnetically
anisotropy and this property of material is called anisotropy.
There are 3 methods to include magnetic anisotropy in a materials:
(I) Cold working: In this method, material is cooled down using cold rollers. This method induces
magnetic anisotropic in direction of rolling.
(II) Magnetic annealing: It is the process of heating and slow cooling in the presence of magnetic
field.
(III) Magnetic quenching: It is the process of heating and test cooling in the presence of magnetic
field. In this method, material is cooled down to curie temp. in order to induce anisotropy.
Conducting materials:
(1) J = E ; ohms law

ne2
= ; conductivity
m
 ne e ; e mobility of [cm / vs]

1
(2) ; as T ; . [Metals shows PTC]
T

(3) Mattheiseins Rule:

=
ralloy
ar
Lin e

Constant

rr

T
QD
Debye temperature

(4) Thermoelectric effect:

Fe
Zn
Cu
Au
Ag
Pb @ Cold junction
Seeback effect Al
Peltier effect Hg
Pt
Thomson effect Constantan
(i) (ii)
Super conductivity:
R O at T TC

Diamagnetic Ex : Hg @ 4.2 K
H HC
Commercial superconductors:
Tc
V3Ga 16.8 K
Nb3Sn 18.5 K
Nb3Ge 23.2 K
Meissners effect:
The repulsion of magnetic flux from the interior of a piece of super conducting material, as the
material under goes to the transition to the super conducting phase is known as meissners effect.
Critical magnetic field:
HC

H0

Super Normal
-conductor
T
TC
 T 2
HC H0 1
TC

Silsbees rule:
The maximum current allowed is IC to retain super conductivity.

Types of super conductor:

Type - I Type - II

(a) Ideal super conductor. and exhibits Non-ideal/ hard super conductor
diamagnetic nature at super
conductivity

(b) Critical field and transition temp. are Critical field and transition temp. are
low high

(c) Exhibit complete meissner's effect Exhibit incomplete meissner's effect

and follows silsbee rule. and shows some deviaton from
silsbee's rule.

(d) Transition state is sharp. Transition state is gradual.

M M
Vortex region
Super
conducting Normal
Normal state
state
H H
HC HC1 HC2
Super conducting
state
r r

Vortex
Super
Super conducting Normal
conducting Normal state
state
H H
HC

Ex: Pb, n, Zn Ex: Nb3Al, NbTi, Nb3Sn

Semiconductors:
Eq.:
(1) For semiconductor.
T = 0K T = 30K

Si 1.21 eV 1.1 eV
Semiconductor exhibits
NTC.
Ge 0.78 eV 0.72 eV
Note:
(i) Width of energy band depends on Temp.
(ii) Si is more sensitive to temp. variation as compared to Ge.
(2) For metals:
Both CB and VB overlaps.
(3) For insulater
EG 5eV @ T = 0K
Insulator

Note: (1) Semiconductor

Conductor
@ T = 300K
Extrinsic semiconductor:
)
(N D n > ni 2
to m @ equilibrium: n p = n i
ra P < ni
na Bi
Do Sb
,
s, tom
P,
A ta
le n
va
n ta
n = p = ni Pe

Intrinsic n < ni 2
P > ni @ equilibrium: np = n i
simiconductor
(B, Al, Ga, In, Tl)

Trivalent atom

Note: (1) N-type (or) P-type are always neutral.

(2)
ni2 A0T3 eEGO /KT

ni Ge ni si

N-type semiconductor P-type semiconductor.

C.B. C.B.

EC EC
ED
EA
EV EV

V.B. V.B.

@ T = 0K @ T = 0K
(Insulator) (Insulator)
N-type semiconductor P-type semiconductor.

EC EC
ED
EA
EV EV

@ T = 300K @ T = 300K
(conductor) (conductor)
 Note:
(1) Temperature coefficient of resistance of doped semiconductor may be +ve/ve depending
upon level of doping.
(2) When alloying is done for group IIIV elements, the crystalline structure is formed of the
type ZnS (Zinc blende).
Hall effect:
Used to find:
n-type / P-type
Carrier concentration
Conductivity
Mobility
2

2 2
+
VH

d
VH
+
1
w N-type/metal
1
1 Voltage mv v Ptype

B
Note: (1) VH = RH
W

ve ; P type
(2) RH =
ve ; N type, int rinsic semiconductor

Fermi-dirac probability function f(E):

1
f(E) = E EF /KT
1 e

The fermi level represents the energy state at which 50% probability of finding an electron
exist:
Note: (1) EF n2/3 ; n = number of free es/volume.
(2)

EC
EF = N-type
ED
EF = intrinsic
EA
EF = P-type
EV

Formulated (compound and alloyed) semi conducting materials.

(I) Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).
Uses: (a) Switching and parametric diodes
(b) Semiconducto lasers
(c) Tunnel diodes
(d) Hot electron diodes

(II) Indium Antimonide [InSb]

Uses: (a) Infrared detectors
(b) Laser diodes
(c) Infrared filter material
(d) Hall effect devices
(e) Tunnel diodes
(f) Transistors.

(III) Cadmium sulphide [Cds]

Uses: (a) As constituent of cathode ray.
(b) To record modulating light intensity on sound track.
(c) As on-off light relay in digital and control circuits.

(IV) Silicon carbide [SiC]

Uses: (a) High temp. rectifiers
(b) High temp. transistors.

Applications of few semiconductor device.

(1) Junction diodes: Rectifier, clipper, clamper

(2) Zener diodes: Voltage regulator

(3) Transient condition diode:

These are: (i) Schottky diode

(ii) Varactor diode

(4) Bipole Junction transitor (BJT) : Amplifier

(5) Field Effect Transistor (FET) : Amplifier

(6) Metal oxide semiconductor (FET) : Digital circuits.

(6) Opto electronic devices:

These are: Photodiodes
Photocells
 LED
Optical fibres
Solar cells

(7) Negative conductance microwave devices:

These are: Tunnel diode
Gunn diode
Impatt diode

(8) Power devices:

These are: Pnpn diode
Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
Polymers:
Polymers are gigantic molecules (or) macromolecules which is formed by repeated linking of the
small molecules called monomers that are covalenthy bonded together. The average molecular
weight of polymer varies from 10,000 to more than 10,00,000 gm/mole.
Polymerisation: The process by which a monomer is converted into polymer under specific
condition. The reaction may be initiated by initiater i.e., a catalyst.
Note: (1) Homopolymer : When the repeating units along a chain are of some type,
A A A A A
Ex:
(2) Copolymer : Two or more different monomer subunits linked to create a polymer chain.

Ex: (1) Block copolymer : A A A B B B A A A B

A B A A B B A B A A
(2) Random copolymer :
A B A B A B A B A
(3) Alternate copolymer :
(4) Graft copolymer : A A A A A A A A

B B B
B
B B

Classification of polymer:

(I) Based on source:

(a) Natural polymers
(b) Semi-synthetic polymers
(c) Synthetic polymers
(II) Based on structure:
(a) Linear polymer
(b) Branched polymer
 (c) Cross-linked polymer
(d) Network polymer
(III) Based on polymerisation:
(a) Additional polymers
(b) Condensation polymers

Characteristics of polymers:
(1) Low density
(2) Good corrosion resistance
(3) Good mould ability
(4) Economical
(5) Low mechanical properties
(6) Can be produced transparent or in different colours.
(7) Low coefficient of friction
(8) Poor tensile strength.
Classification of plastics:

Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics

(1) They have long chains of polymers They have long chains of polymers
which are not cross linked. which are cross linked.

(2) They become soft on heating. Once set or mould it does not
Hence they can be moulded on become soft on further heating
heating and under pressure. i.e., the cannot be remoulded
on heating

(3) They are used for making: They are used for hot temperature
(i) Buckets application such as:
(ii) Pipes (i) Utensil handle
(iii) Carry bags (ii) Body of socket and plug
(iv) Toilet goods (iii) Furniture
(v) toys (iv) Telephone body
(v) Automobile parts.

(4) Ex: Polyethlene, Polyestyrene, Ex: Bakelite, malamine

Nylon etc.
(5) Formed by addition polymerisation. Formed by condensation
polymerisation