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Human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas, have caused a substantial increase
in the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) in the atmosphere. This increase in atmospheric CO2 from about 280 to
more than 380 parts per million (ppm) over the last 250 yearsis causing measurable global warming. Potential adverse
impacts include sea-level rise; increased frequency and intensity of wildfires, floods, droughts, and tropical storms; changes
in the amount, timing, and distribution of rain, snow, and runoff; and disturbance of coastal marine and other ecosystems.
Rising atmospheric CO2 is also increasing the absorption of CO2 by seawater, causing the ocean to become more acidic, with
potentially disruptive effects on marine plankton and coral reefs. Technically and economically feasible strategies are needed
to mitigate the consequences of increased atmospheric CO2. The United States needs scientific information to develop ways
to reduce human-caused CO2 emissions and to remove CO2 from the atmosphere.
What is carbon sequestration? 2.0
Fossil-fuel Net
forest
CO2
uptake
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Geologic carbon sequestration solve in ground water, and some may of carbon) and more widely distributed,
be trapped in the form of carbonate but less is known about the effectiveness
Geologic sequestration begins with minerals formed by chemical reactions of trapping mechanisms at these sites.
capturing CO2 from the exhaust of fossil- with the surrounding rock. All of these Unmineable coal beds have also been
fuel power plants and other major sources. processes are susceptible to change over proposed for potential CO2 storage,
The captured CO2 is piped 1 to 4 kilome- time following CO2 injection. Scientists but more information is needed about
ters below the land surface and injected are studying the permanence of these the storage characteristics and impacts
into porous rock formations (fig. 3). trapping mechanisms and developing of CO2 injection in these formations.
Compared to the rates of terrestrial carbon methods to determine the potential for Scientists are developing methods to
uptake shown in figures 1 and 2, geo- geologically sequestered CO2 to leak refine estimates of the national capacity
logic sequestration is currently used to back to the atmosphere. for geologic carbon sequestration.
store only small amounts of carbon per The capacity for geologic carbon To fully assess the potential for
year. Much larger rates of sequestration sequestration is constrained by the
geologic carbon sequestration, economic
are envisioned to take advantage of the volume and distribution of potential
costs and environmental risks must be
potential permanence and capacity of storage sites. According to the U.S.
geologic storage. Department of Energy, the total storage taken into account. Infrastructure costs
The permanence of geologic seques- capacity of physical traps associated will depend on the locations of suitable
tration depends on the effectiveness of with depleted oil and gas reservoirs in storage sites. Environmental risks may
several CO2 trapping mechanisms. After the United States is limited to about 38 include seismic disturbances, deforma-
CO2 is injected underground, it will rise gigatons of carbon, and is geographically tion of the land surface, contamination
buoyantly until it is trapped beneath an distributed in locations that are distant of potable water supplies, and adverse
impermeable barrier, or seal. In principle, from most U.S. fossil-fuel power plants. effects on ecosystems and human health.
this physical trapping mechanism, which The potential U.S. storage capacity of Scientists are pioneering the use of new
is identical to the natural geologic trap- deep porous rock formations that contain geophysical and geochemical methods
ping of oil and gas, can retain CO2 for saline ground water is much larger that can be used to anticipate the poten-
thousands to millions of years. Some of (estimated by the U.S. Department of tial costs and environmental effects of
the injected CO2 will eventually dis- Energy to be about 900 to 3,400 gigatons geologic carbon sequestration.
Deep coal
seam
Formation
containing
saline water
Depleted hydrocarbon reservoir Reservoir trap/seal Natural-gas reservoir Formation
containing
EXPLANATION saline water
Oil and gas reservoirs Formations containing saline water Unmineable coal beds
Advantages: Well-characterized volume Largest capacity Adjacent to many large power plants
Known seal (~250 to 900 gigatons carbon) (CO2 source)
Potential fuel recovery to offset cost Wide distribution Potential fuel (methane) recovery to offset cost
Disadvantages: Smallest capacity (~25 gigatons carbon) Poorly characterized Poorly characterized
Limited in number Greatest geologic uncertainty Difficult to define "unmineable" coal
Requires infrastructure to transport CO2 Unknown seal effectiveness Potential coal resources may be rendered unusable
Environmental issues: Potential for mobilization of ground-water contaminants; leakage of CO2 and CO2-saturated saline water; induced seismicity
Regulatory issues: Determination of rules affecting injection wells; multiple regulatory jurisdictions (State, Federal, local); post-injection ownership and liability
Figure 3. Types of geologic CO2 sequestration, their advantages and disadvantages, and potential environmental and regulatory issues.
Offshore natural-gas production and CO2 sequestration are currently occurring off the coast of Norway, where the gas produced contains a
high concentration of CO2 that is removed and injected into a nearby formation containing saline water.
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A Modeled U.S. mitigation by 2100 B Estimated U.S. sequestration capacity The CCSP models illustrate the
200
widely held view that sequestration
CARBON, IN GIGATONS 3,400 (maximum) is necessary but insufficient to
150
control atmospheric CO2. Stabilizing
Mitigation Formations
by all other containing
atmospheric CO2 is likely to require
methods saline water substantial changes in energy sources
100 Depleted oil and use as well as carbon management.
and gas
Soils reservoirs Many of these changes will likely have
significant, long-lasting impacts on land,
50 Vegetation water, and ecosystem resources.
Mitigation by
geologic
sequestration How the USGS is helping
0
EMISSIONS REDUCTION TERRESTRIAL GEOLOGIC The USGS is committed to acquir
AND SEQUESTRATION (MAXIMUM) (POTENTIAL) ing and communicating the scientific
information needed to control atmo
Figure 4. Estimated U.S. atmospheric CO2 (as carbon) mitigation needs and potential sequestration spheric CO2 and minimize its harmful
capacities: (A) Cumulative U.S. CO2 emissions reduction and sequestration needed by 2100 to help stabilize effects on natural resources. For many
atmospheric CO2 at 550 parts per million (model results from U.S. Climate Change Science Program); (B) years, USGS scientists have contrib
Estimated U.S. CO2 sequestration capacity. (The estimate of ~3,400 gigatons carbon for potential geologic
uted to the growing body of knowledge
storage is equivalent to ~12,600 gigatons CO2, as estimated by the U.S. Department of Energy. Terrestrial
sequestration is not expected to approach the estimate shown. Uncertainties in estimated terrestrial and
concerning climate change, the carbon
geologic sequestration are substantial.) cycle, and carbon sequestration. Build
ing on its tradition of providing reli
able, impartial scientific information
Why action is needed now The CCSP models have been used
to support the management of natural
to evaluate scenarios for aggressive
Cumulative historical CO2 emissions resources, the USGS provides informa
implementation of geologic carbon tion to support carbon management by:
from fossil fuels in the United States
sequestration. As shown in figure
are equivalent to more than the total applying the expertise of many
4A, the estimated amount of geologic
amount of carbon stored in U.S. forests. If technical disciplines to understand
sequestration in the U.S. over the next
current trends continue, cumulative U.S. how to limit CO2 emissions and
century is projected in one model to be
emissions are projected to double by 2050 maximize carbon storage;
substantially smaller than the cumulative
and increase by a factor of three to four by
emission reductions anticipated from integrating information about the
2100. According to the Intergovernmental
changes by all other methods. In this multiple resources that will be
Panel on Climate Change Fourth
model, the needed amount of geologic affected by carbon management
Assessment Report of 2007, sequestration
sequestration would exceed U.S. capacity decisions; and
and reduction of emissions over the next
in depleted oil and gas reservoirs,
two to three decades will potentially communicating scientific information
implying the need to implement carbon
have a substantial impact on long- across the many jurisdictions and
storage in the Nations relatively
term opportunities to stabilize levels of organizations responsible for and
atmospheric CO2 and mitigate impacts of unknown deep formations that contain
affected by carbon management.
climate change. saline water. In other models, predicted
geologic sequestration needs are smaller
The USGS is providing informa
Can sequestration control as a result of different assumptions
tion needed to assess the need for CO2
about global and national economic and
atmospheric CO2? technological trends.
mitigation, evaluate the potential for car
bon sequestration to meet that need, and
Computer models of future CO2 The CCSP model results have a anticipate the potential environmental
emissions and controls on atmospheric large amount of uncertainty. The results consequences of implementing the full
CO2 have been developed and summarized shown in figure 4 do not take into account portfolio of strategies for controlling
by the U.S. Climate Change Science Pro many of the uncertainties in costs and atmospheric CO2.
gram (CCSP). These models indicate that environmental risks of geologic carbon
projected annual global emissions during sequestration. Additional uncertainties By Eric Sundquist, Robert Burruss,
the next century would need to be reduced prevent comparison of future oceanic and Stephen Faulkner, Robert Gleason,
by more than 75 percent in order to stabi deliberate terrestrial sequestration. Future Jennifer Harden, Yousif Kharaka,
Larry Tieszen, and Mark Waldrop
lize atmospheric CO2 at about 550 ppm. disturbances of vegetation and soils may
This concentration would be about twice add to future CO2 emissions and increase Edited by Dale L. Simmons
the level of CO2 in the pre-industrial the amount of mitigation required to sta Graphic design by Christine T. Mendelsohn
atmosphere and about 45 percent higher bilize atmospheric CO2. For example, if Figure 4 by Eric A. Morrissey and Sean Brennan
than the atmospheric CO2 concentration in a substantial portion of the carbon stored
2007. According to the CCSP, stabilizing in Alaskan organic soils were converted For additional information about this report,
please contact Eric Sundquist
atmospheric CO2 would require a trans to atmospheric CO2 as a result of climate (esundqui@usgs.gov).
formation of the global energy system, change, the resulting emissions could off
including reductions in the demand for set or even exceed the likely magnitude For additional information about the
U.S. Geological Survey, please visit our web site
energyand changes in the mix of energy of any deliberate U.S. terrestrial seques at http: //www.usgs.gov/.
technology and fuels. tration measures.
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