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Abstract: Vehicle drivelines with manual transmissions are exposed to different dynamic engine torques
under driving conditions. Engine torque can dramatically vary with throttle demand from coast to drive
condition and, conversely, with throttle release from drive to coast. Abrupt application or release of throttle in
slow moving traf c or rapid engagement of the clutch can be followed by an audible response, referred to in
industry as the clonk noise. This paper presents a complete dynamic model of a vehicle driveline for the
optimization of high-frequenc y torsional vibration by the distributedlumped (hybrid) modelling technique
(DLMT). The model used is rst validated against experimental tests. Parameter sensitivity studies have been
carried out using the model to identify the important components affecting clonk. Three key parameters have
been chosen from the parameter study. To optimize these key factors, genetic algorithms (GAs) have been
used in this multi-parameter optimization problem. The GAs show signi cant reduction in the driveline
noise, vibration and harshness (NVH).
NOTATION t time
T0 input torque
Bf ; Bg ; Bd ; Bw equivalent coef cients of viscous T1 ; . . . ; T6 transmitted torques
damping w transform variable
Cc ; Cp ; Ca coef cients of viscous damping for the z nite time delay
clutch
Cj shaft compliance per unit xj characteristic impedances ( j ith
length 1=GJ ( j ith element 1) element 1)
Ej frequency transform variable ( j ith r material density
element 1) o frequency
G1 ; G2 shear modulus of rigidity oj angular velocities ( j ith
Jf ; Jg ; Jd ; J1 ; element 1)
J2 ; J3 ; Jw second polar moments of inertia
kc ; k1 ; k2 ; kp torsional stiffnesses
1 INTRODUCTION
lj shaft lengths ( j ith element 1)
Lj shaft inertia per unit length J r
( j ith element 1) The vehicular driveline system comprises engine, clutch,
nd differential gear ratio transmission system, driveshaft tubes, differential, rear axle
ng gearbox gear ratio half-shafts and rear road wheels. This is a complex assem-
s Laplace variable bly of active and reactive dynamic elements. The driveline
is highly non-linear and lightly damped, and thus readily
The MS was received on 7 June 2001 and was accepted after revision for excited by engine and road inputs. The driveline is a source
publication on 28 March 2002.
of noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) concern with a
*Corresponding author: Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering, University of Loughborough , Loughborough , Leicatershire large spectrum of response frequencies. A typical driveline
LEII 3TU, UK NVH spectrum contains a signi cant number of frequencies,
K01501 # IMechE 2002 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics
250 A FARSHIDIANFAR, M EBRAHIMI, H RAHNEJAT, M T MENDAY AND M MOAVENIAN
ranging from a few Hz to several kHz [1]. This paper (d) actively controlling the applied load to the system (by
is concerned with high-frequenc y structural-acoustic dynamically controlling the engine torque).
response, commonly referred to as driveline clonk, a
short-duration, audible, high-frequency transient response. The perfect approach depends, of course, on the particular
This occurs as a result of load reversals in the presence of driveline. Furthermore, manufacturing and other practical
lashes in the system. The load reversal is usually caused by constraints have to be considered when selecting the opti-
torsional impact of contacting elements by take-up of mum driveline con gurations [9].
backlash, for example in geared transmissions, spline Among the numerical optimization algorithms, gradient-
joints or at the differential. Load reversal can also manifest based methods have been the most widely used. The
itself through low-frequency torsional vehicle driveline optimum obtained from these methods will be a global
shuf e. The initiating cause of load reversals is often optimum if the objective and constraints are differentiable
rapid application or release of the throttle from coast or and convex [10]. In practice, however, it is very dif cult to
from drive condition while in low gear and at low road prove differentiability and convexity. To determine the
speeds. It can also occur after gear selection and when the global optimum, a number of initial points must be checked
clutch is rapidly engaged. Clonk conditions are most out to produce a robust solution. In this sense, the gradient-
noticeable in low gear and while driving at low road based methods are not robust.
speeds. Closely associated with the initial jerk and the Evolutionary algorithms, genetic algorithms (GAs) in
clonk response is the subsequent rst low-frequency rock- particular, are known to be robust [11] and have been
ing motion of the drivetrain system, known as shuf e, widely used in the eld of numerical optimization in
which is accompanied with the fore and aft motions of the recent years. GAs are search algorithms based on the
vehicle, referred to as shunt [2]. This phenomenon has mechanics of natural selection and natural genetics. One
been investigated numerically by a number of authors for of the key features of GAs is that they search from a
various automotive driveline systems [38]. population of points and not from a single point. In addition,
Therefore, low-frequency torsional vibration of the drive- they use objective function information ( tness function)
train system, known as shuf e, and the coupled axial instead of derivatives or other auxiliary knowledge. These
movements of the vehicle, referred to as shunt, initiate the features make GAs robust and practical for engineering
impact of meshing teeth, which initiates the clonk phenom- applications [11].
enon. Each cycle of shuf e is accompanied with clonk Although there have been a large number of investiga-
conditions, appearing at the rst swing in rapid torque tions into the use of evolutionary algorithms in design
reversal. Under extreme conditions, repetitive clonk can optimization, few of these have looked at their performance
take place at each cycle of shuf e. The propensity to for real vehicular driveline problems. So far, only limited
clonk depends on the extent of backlash in the meshing studies have been reported in references [12] to [14], most
pairs, which varies from piece to piece depending on the of these concentrate on the use of more conventional
manufacturing processes. Since the impacting energies at optimization methods. However, GAs have been applied
any inertia location will be partly radiated as airborne noise, by the present authors in a dynamic model of a driveline
owing to the rapid velocity changes of the moving bodies, system in order to reduce low-frequency torsional vibration
and partly dissipated into the nearby resonant structure, it [15]. In the present paper, GAs will be used to reduce the
was necessary to consider the frequency domain response at high-frequency noise and vibration caused by the clonk
a structural pick-up point. phenomenon.
In order to study the clonk phenomenon, it is clear that a A team of experts initially brainstormed the driveline
simple model for torsional vibration of the drive system noise and vibration and identi ed more than 70 potential
must be employed in order to create driveline shuf e and causal factors, mainly quantitative [16]. The initial list was
initiate impact conditions that give rise to a high-frequency reduced to three factors: ywheel inertia, driveline backlash
clonk response. If low-frequency torsional vibration of the and spring stiffness of the clutch. GAs are shown to be
drivetrain system can be minimized, and in particular the effective and powerful for nding these factors in compar-
peak value of the torque as described above, then the ison with other optimization techniques.
propensity to clonk can be reduced.
Several potential approaches are possible for reducing
vibration. In general, these approaches can be classi ed as:
2 MODEL DESCRIPTION
(a) eliminating the root cause of the vibration (by reducing
the gear lash in the driveline); The purpose in modelling any physical system is to predict
(b) tuning the system (by optimizing system parameters and then to optimize the system performance once suf -
such as the spring stiffness of the clutch and ywheel cient con dence with the model has been established. The
inertia); model should reasonably represent the characteristics of the
(c) adding damping to the system (by installing a viscous system under investigation. Figure 1 shows a schematic
unit in the driveline); layout of a complete drivetrain for a conventional rear
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics K01501 # IMechE 2002
HIGH-FREQUENCY TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF VEHICLE DRIVELINE SYSTEMS 251
K01501 # IMechE 2002 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics
252 A FARSHIDIANFAR, M EBRAHIMI, H RAHNEJAT, M T MENDAY AND M MOAVENIAN
for the second shaft of the driveshaft (the admittance 2.4 Lumped gearbox model
module) as
The governing equations for the lumped gearbox are
" p
#
T5 io x3 E3 x3 E32 1
p
T2 s
T6 io 2
T1 s Jg s Bg o1 9
x3 E3 1 x3 E3 ng
o5 io
3 o1
o6 io ng 10
o2
for the third distributed axle half-shaft, where Equation (9) can be expressed in the frequency domain as
eioTjs 1 T2 io
Ej T1 io o1 ioi Jg o Bg 11
eioTjs 1 ng
s
q
rj
Tjs 2lj Lj Cj 2lj
Gj 2.5 Lumped differential model
s
Lj q
The governing equation for the lumped differential in the
xj Jj rj Gj Laplace domain is
Cj
4
T5 s
T4 s Jd s Bd o4 12
nd
Q2 with i 1; 2; 3. These are the frequency transform vari-
o4
ables, the propagation time delays and the characteristic nd 13
impedances respectively. o5
T6 s Jw s Bw o6 s 15
T0 io T1 io o0 ioi Jf o Bf 6
Transforming equation (15) from the s to the o domain
yields
2.3 Lumped clutch model
The governing equation for the lumped clutch in the Laplace T6 io o6 ioi Jw o Bw 16
domain is
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics K01501 # IMechE 2002
HIGH-FREQUENCY TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF VEHICLE DRIVELINE SYSTEMS 253
kc
a11 Bf Cc i Jf o
o
and
kc
1 a12 Cc i
C3 1:62 104 1/N m2 o
G3 J3 kc
a21 ng Cc i
and the shaft inertia per metre is given by o
" #
E k
a22 ng Cc Bg x1 21 i Jg o c
L1 J1 r 1:19 103 ng o
L2 J2 r 14:97 103 q
a23 x1 E12 1
and p
2
x E 1
a32 1 1
ng x2 E2
4
L3 J3 r 6:21 10
x1 E1
a33 1
Then, from equation (4), it follows that x2 E2
p
E22 1
s
a34
L1 E2
x1 3:84604 17 p
2
2
C1 x1 E1 1E2 1
a42
s
ng E2
L2 p
x2 48:16546 18 x1 E1 E22 1
C2 a43
E2
E x
and a44 Bd x3 23 2 i Jd o
nd E2
s
p
L3 2
x3 0:95389 19 x3 E3 1
C3 a45
nd
K01501 # IMechE 2002 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics
254 A FARSHIDIANFAR, M EBRAHIMI, H RAHNEJAT, M T MENDAY AND M MOAVENIAN
p
2
Substituting the values for a11 to a55 into equations (24) to
x3 E3 1
a54 (28), and using equations (17) to (22), the desired frequency
nd
response function can be computed.
a55 Bw x3 E3 i Jw o
In this research the DLMT has been used to nd the
frequency response. It can also be used in the time domain.
Solving equation (23) for o0 , o1 , o3 , o4 and o6 yields From the driveline system model, shown in Fig. 2, together
with the equations of motion in the time domain, a complete
o0 numerator simulation model of the driveline system can be developed,
io 24
T0 denominator as shown in Fig. 3. This simulation model has been
constructed in MATLAB using the SIMULINK toolbox.
o1 a21 a33 a45 a54 a33 a44 a55 a34 a43 a55
io
T0 denominator
25 4 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF
DRIVELINE NVH
o3 a a a a a32 a45 a54 a32 a44 a55
io 21 34 55 42 26
T0 denominator The rig, shown in Fig. 4, simulates the rear wheel drive
drivetrain system of a light truck, consisting of ywheel,
o4 a55 a21 a42 a33 a32 a43 clutch, transmission, a two-piece driveshaft assembly, differ-
io 27
T0 denominator ential and a rear axle assembly comprising rear axle half-
shafts, brake assembly and road wheels. The rear wheels
o6 a a a a a32 a43 were xed to the ground. A preload torque was applied to
io 54 21 42 33 28
T0 denominator the ywheel via a low-inertia disc brake system as stored
energy, acting through the torsional clutch springs in the
where system. This preload was instantaneously released (the
action amounting to the application of a Dirac-type func-
Numerator a23 a34 a55 a42 a33 a22 a44 a55 tion) and was reacted at the xed rear wheel assemblies.
a33 a54 a45 a22 a43 a34 a22 a55 Accelerometer pick-ups were located along the driveline, as
shown in Fig. 4, to monitor the response of the system
a23 a44 a32 a55 a54 a45 a23 a32
components by subsequent spectral analysis. Time histories
Denominator a11 a23 a34 a55 a42 a11 a33 a22 a55 a44 at nine accelerometer pick-ups along the driveline (as shown
a11 a33 a54 a45 a22 a11 a43 a34 a22 a55 in Fig. 4) were recorded for 16 different con gurations at the
a11 a23 a44 a32 a55 a11 a54 a45 a23 a32 test rig. Details relating to the experimental rig and the
design of experiments are provided by Menday et al. [4, 16].
a33 a21 a12 a44 a55 a33 a54 a45 a21 a12
Although the driver requires a responsive vehicle, the
a43 a34 a21 a12 a55 impulse may excite an unwanted low-frequency longitudinal
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics K01501 # IMechE 2002
HIGH-FREQUENCY TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF VEHICLE DRIVELINE SYSTEMS 255
Fig. 4 Schematic representation of the driveline experimental rig: 1, ring gear; 2, axle differential ange;
3, second driveshaft, differential end location; 4, second driveshaft, centre location; 5, second
driveshaft, central bearing location; 6, rst driveshaft, central bearing location; 7, rst driveshaft,
centre location; 8, rst driveshaft, transmission end; 9, transmission ange; M1, microphone at
transmission bell housing; M2, microphone at axle differential
mode of vibration known as shuf e. Each cycle of the randomly. At each generation (iteration) of the GA process,
shuf e response may generate clonk noise [2]. the tness value (objective function value) of every indivi-
dual is evaluated and used to specify its probability of
reproduction. A new population is generated from selected
5 GENETIC ALGORITHMS parents by performing speci ed operators on their genes.
These operators are brie y explained here.
A simple GA is composed of three operators:
A genetic algorithm is a machine learning technique that is
based on emulating the principles of natural selection (a) selection,
proposed in the Darwinian theory of the natural selection (b) crossover,
for evolving species. The theory is adapted to arti cial (c) mutation.
scopes, where information is manipulated as a basis for
the process of natural selection. Genetic algorithms (GAs) Selection consists in choosing the solutions that are going to
were developed by Holland [19] in 1967 in the University of form a new generation. The main idea is that selection
Michigan, after he had adapted the selection processes should depend on the value of the tness function: the
of nature to arti cial systems, to exploit the advantages of higher tness has the higher probability for the individual to
evolution. These algorithms maintain and manipulate a be chosen (this is similar to the concept of survival of the
family, or population, of solutions and implement a survival ttest in Darwinian theory). However, it remains a prob-
of the ttest strategy in their search for better solutions. ability, which means that it is not a deterministic choice:
Genetic algorithms require a set of population members, even solutions with a comparatively low tness may be
usually numbering between 20 and 100. Each population chosen, and they may prove to be very good in the course of
member represents a trial solution to a given problem. events (e.g. if the optimization is trapped in a local mini-
The trial solutionwhere numbers are used for input mum). The two major selection techniques are roulette
variablesis tested by an evaluation function, which calcu- wheel and tournament.
lates the quality of the trial solution. The output is The selection process produces a mating pool. Then,
commonly called the tness, since it describes how t the crossover proceeds in two steps: members in a mating
trial solution is. pool are mated at random, and then, a position (or several)
In GAs, the natural parameter set in the optimization along each pair of strings is selected according to a uniform
problem is coded as a nite-length string. Traditionally, GAs random law. Finally, based on the crossover probability, Pc ,
use binary numbers to represent such strings: a string has a the paired strings exchange all characters following the
nite length and each bit of a string can be either 0 or 1. For cross-site. This results in a pair of strings of a new genera-
real function optimization, it is more natural to use real tion. Clearly, the crossover randomly exchanges structured
numbers. The length of the real-number string corresponds information between parents A and B to produce two
to the number of design variables. offspring A0 and B0, which are expected to combine the
Genetic algorithms commonly work by starting with best characters of their parents as shown in Fig. 5.
relatively poor trial solutions, that is, population members The last operator, called mutation, is a random alteration
with poor tness. These initial strings are generated of a bit at a string position and is based on the mutation
K01501 # IMechE 2002 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics
256 A FARSHIDIANFAR, M EBRAHIMI, H RAHNEJAT, M T MENDAY AND M MOAVENIAN
damping. In selecting the bounds of parameter studies it is clonk (high-frequency ) phenomenon in order to reduce the
important to consider what size of parameter changes are noise and vibration. The DLMT was used. This simulation
realistic. This can sometimes involve special measurements model was constructed in MATLAB using the SIMULINK
or calculations. For example, a change in driveline backlash toolbox. Input values to the driveline model were mainly
can be achieved by modifying many different components derived from experimentally measured data or were calcu-
and joints between components (such as splines), each of lated. The values in Table 1 were substituted into the
which will have a different contribution to the total back- simulation model in Fig. 3. An impulse torque of 150 N m
lash, depending on the gear ratio. Also, it is necessary to with a duration time of 40 ms as input was applied to the
consider the trade-off with other vehicle attributes such as ywheel. The experimental results were found to agree with
NVH. For example, gear rattle considerations place a lower this mathematical model [17].
bound on ywheel inertia. To undertake the optimization process, two different
From the introduction to the paper it is clear that the representation techniques in genetic algorithms, the
initial torque rise rate and backlash are the primary reasons binary genetic algorithm (BGA) and oat genetic algorithm
for the severity of the clonk condition. Both these para- (FGA), were applied. Functionally, both the binary coded
meters affect the extent of impulsive action, since they and the oating-point coded GA used for experiments were
determine the impact time (i.e. the impact velocity achieved comparable in implementations (both being implemented
by motion through backlash). This is analogous to a ball using MATLAB). The FGA, in comparison with the BGA,
dropping onto a plate, where the impact velocity increases has increased power in terms of solution quality and speed
with the height of the ball. Increased inertia of the ywheel of convergence to the optimal solution [15]. The computa-
reduces torsional vibrations. An increased torsional stiffness tional overhead due to the coding/decoding of variables to/
of the clutch system, such as when a predamper is used, from binary representation from/to oating-point represen-
can have the same desired effect. It is prudent to simplify tation is quite high, as is the overhead due to the handling
the analysis by choosing the clutch torsional stiffness the of long binary strings. Both are unnecessary operations
ywheel inertia and the extent of backlash as the para- when oating-point coded GA is used. Since each
meters to optimize the system dynamics. Therefore, the run of the clonk model takes more than 10 min, owing
parameters selected for variation were the ywheel inertia, to the time restriction, the FGA has been chosen to solve
the driveline backlash and the spring stiffness of the clutch. the clonk optimization task. For computation, use was
The original values of the ywheel inertia, the driveline made of a single PC with a 500 MHz Pentium processor
backlash and the spring stiffness of clutch were in which the computation time of typically around 800
0:3076 kg m2 , 0:04 rad and 527:12 N m/rad respectively. SIMULINK runs was 143:5 h or about 6 days. With binary
The use of the simpli ed drivetrain model described in coding the computation time was about twice as long,
Section 2 is then justi ed. 247 h or about 12 days.
To be able to perform an optimization, it is necessary to Using the FGA, with a population size N 80 and
nd an objective function. The calculation target is to g 100 generations, the obtained results for the clonk
minimize this objective by variation of certain physical optimization task are Jf 0:4 kg m2 , Kc 400 N m/rad
parameters (design parameters) within an acceptable range and Bg 0:04 rad. These results are the same as the shuf e
(design space) given by technological restrictions as space optimization results [15], indicating a strong relation
or feasibility limitations. between the audible clonk and the shuf e phenomenon.
Computationally, any kind of physical quantity (displace- Clonk may be heard in the rst cycle of shuf e response,
ment, velocity, acceleration, force, etc.) of the mechanical and the rst swing on the transient torque, which is
systems that can be calculated during the simulation produced by the shuf e phenomenon, is the basis for the
process, as well as any physically meaningful combination clonk response [2]. Therefore, the results obtained were
of them, can serve as a development objective. As a rst somewhat anticipated, and optimizing the driveline shuf e
approach it could be speci ed as desirable to scan for peak reduces the driveline clonk as well.
value over a certain time period or to determine transient In order to verify the results achieved by applying the
times or to integrate over an arbitrary function of the FGA, the driveline model was used. Two locations in the
physical quantities. driveline system were identi ed as suitable locations to
The de nition of the objective is the decisive part of the record data. The rst location was at the output shaft of
whole optimization procedure. In this problem, minimization the gearbox. The second location was at the output of the
of the peak value of the vibration velocity of the gearbox differential. Torsional vibrations of the gearbox input were
output is considered to be the objective function [17]. assumed to be a measure of the noise level of the
gearbox. The torsional vibrations of the differential are
related to the vibrations of the vehicle body since these
7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION vibrations are transmitted to the vehicle body via the rear
axles and road wheels. Comparison between the angular
The main objective of this analysis was to study the tor- velocity of the gearbox and the differential output for the
sional vibration of the driveline system and to investigate the original design and the GA optimized design is shown in
K01501 # IMechE 2002 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics
258 A FARSHIDIANFAR, M EBRAHIMI, H RAHNEJAT, M T MENDAY AND M MOAVENIAN
Fig. 7 Comparison between the velocity of the gearbox before and after optimization
Figs 7 and 8 respectively. The FGA reduced the rst peak of the gearbox and the differential output were reduced by
of the angular velocity of the gearbox and the differential 16.60 and 19.40 per cent, as shown in Figs 9 and 10
output by 13.60 per cent after 800 objective function respectively. Figures 11 to 14 show the comparison
evaluations. Also, after GA optimization, the acceleration between the acceleration of the gearbox input, driveshaft,
Fig. 8 Comparison between the velocity of the differential before and after optimization
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics K01501 # IMechE 2002
HIGH-FREQUENCY TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF VEHICLE DRIVELINE SYSTEMS 259
Fig. 9 Comparison between the acceleration of the gearbox before and after optimization
differential input and axle output before and after GA present GA approach for design optimization problems
optimization in the frequency domain. In all of the gures in the eld of multi-body dynamics. Owing to the large
the GA shows a signi cant reduction in the peak value of modal density of the drivetrain system, the spectrum of
vibrations. These results indicate the versatility of the vibration (shown in Figs 11 to 14) contains a multitude of
Fig. 10 Comparison between the acceleration of the differential before and after optimization
K01501 # IMechE 2002 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics
260 A FARSHIDIANFAR, M EBRAHIMI, H RAHNEJAT, M T MENDAY AND M MOAVENIAN
Fig. 11 Comparison between the spectrum of vibration at the gearbox before and after optimization
frequencies. The rst 1:51 kHz of the response is shown relied upon. However, it is noteworthy that the contribu-
in the gures, simply to demonstrate the effectiveness of tion at 230 Hz has been observed as the fundamental
the optimization approach. In view of the simplicity of the frequency of hollow driveshaft pieces of the type
model, the speci c nature of pronounced peaks cannot be modelled here [22]. The experimental work in reference
Fig. 12 Comparison between the spectrum of vibration at the driveshaft before and after optimization
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics K01501 # IMechE 2002
HIGH-FREQUENCY TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF VEHICLE DRIVELINE SYSTEMS 261
Fig. 13 Comparison between the spectrum of vibration at the differential before and after optimization
[22] identi es the rst combined torsionde ection mode pressure waves inside the front driveshaft tube, using a
of the system at around 1200 Hz, whereas the work modi ed boundary element analysis. Therefore, the contri-
reported in reference [6] isolates a contribution at bution at 1000 Hz obtained in this analysis is quite
1100 Hz as the structureacoustic coupling for standing representative of the real problem.
Fig. 14 Comparison between the spectrum of vibration at the rear axle before and after optimization
K01501 # IMechE 2002 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics
262 A FARSHIDIANFAR, M EBRAHIMI, H RAHNEJAT, M T MENDAY AND M MOAVENIAN
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part K: J Multi-body Dynamics K01501 # IMechE 2002