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5.1 The Lorentz equation
i.e. F1 F2 F3 F4 0 (5.4)
d F I dl B
Fig. 5.1 Forces on a rectangular current loop
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5.4 Torque on a current-carrying coil
R F
R1
R2 F1
R 21
F2 F1
T R1 F1 R2 F2 R1 F1 R2 F1 R1 R2 F1 R21 F1
(in general)
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F2 Iy a y B Iy a y ( Bx a x B y a y Bz a z ) Iy ( Bz a x Bx a z ) F4
The origin for the torque is at the center of the loop and
along with z axis. The torque arms are:
1 1
R1 y a y ; R 2 x a x
; R3 R1 ; R4 R2 ;
2 2
Resultant torque on the loop is
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T R1 F1 R2 F2 R3 F3 R4 F4
R1 F1 R2 F2 R1 F1 R2 F2
2 R1 F1 2 R2 F2
1
1
2 y a y Ix( Bz a y B y a z ) 2 x a x Iy ( Bz a x Bx a z )
2 2
Ixy B y a x Bx a y
But
a z B a z Bx a x B y a y B z a z Bx a z a x B y a z a y Bz a z a z
Bx a y B y a x 0 B y a x Bx a y
If we let S (xy )az , then
T I S B (5.5)
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Torque on a planner loop
For a coil of any size/shape placed in a field B , the coil may
be broken up into elemental meshes all carrying current I.
(see Fig. 5.3). The torque of each element is
d T Id S B (5.6)
The direction of d S is determined by I.
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T ISB
therefore, T m B
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5.5 Magnetic field in ferromagnetic () materials
Ferromagnetic materials are characterized in that they have a
crystal structure divided into magnetic domains usually of
microscopic size.
(1) In each magnetic domain, the magnetic moments of the
atoms are aligned.
(2) The alignment direction differs however from one
domain to another.
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The behaviour of ferromagnetic materials is due to
alignment of microscopic magnets (magnetic domains),
inside the material.
In unmagnetized iron, these domains are randomly
arranged in all directions and the magnetization is zero.
When a magnetic field H is applied, the domains will
turn and align with the applied field, resulting in a large
magnetization. (Because T m B )
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Now we introduce the intensity of magnetization M in a
medium.
M is proportional to H , hence we may write:
M m 0 H (5.12)
where m: magnetic susceptibility.
And in the material media:
B 0 H M (5.13)
B 0 H m 0 H 0 (1 m ) H 0 r H H
B 0 r H H (5.14)
where r 1 m (5.15)
is the relative permeability of the material.
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Ferromagnetic materials have high values of relative
permeability (which can vary from 100 to several tens of
thousand!)
For example,
In vacuum: r = 1.0
In air: r = 1.0000004
In iron: r = 4000
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5.6 Boundary conditions for magnetic media
Fig. 5.6 shows the interface between two isotropic and
homogeneous magnetic media whose permeabilities are 1
and 2. (isotropic anisotropic)
Assume also that the surface current density A/m to be
JS
(here 2 > 1)
Fig. 5.6 Boundary conditions for magnetic media
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Apply Amperes circuital law l H dl I to loop abcda.
With h0
H t1w H t 2 w J S w
(tangential condition)
H t1 H t 2 J S (5.16)
The reference directions of H t1 and J S can be determined
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5.7 Magnetic circuits
Examples of the applications of magnetic circuits are
transformers, inductors, relays, and rotating electric
machines. They may be analyzed using Amperes circuital
law and following the same approach for solving electric
circuits. Concept of magnetic circuits is useful for design of
electromagnetic devices.
For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.7, the magnetic flux lines are
assumed to be concentrated in the iron of each
cross-sectional area.
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A l1 , S1 , B
H1
I l4 , S4 , l2 , S2 ,
N turns H2
l3 , S3 ,
H4
H3
D C
mean flux path
A B C D
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H dl NI U MMF (5.19)
l
1
N turns
B1
in each cross-sectional area S1 ,
l3 , S3 ,
H4
H3
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5.8 Magnetic saturation and hysteresis
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Bx xx xy xz H x
B y yx yy yz H y
In anisotropic material: B zy zz H z
z zx
For nonlinear materials (such as iron), (H )
B 0 H M
The relationship between magnetic flux density B and
magnetic field strength H is often described graphically in
the form of a magnetization curve (or B-H curve).
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If further increase in H produces very little change in B, the
material is said to be saturated. This happens when most of
the magnetic domains in the material have been aligned with
the applied magnetic field. The corresponding value of B is
called the saturation flux density.
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Fig. 5.8 Hysteresis and hysteresis loops
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When B is reduced, the variation of B follows the new curve
cd which is higher than the original curve abc.
This phenomenon is known as hysteresis, and the path
abcdefa is known as a hysteresis loop. The relationship
between B and H depends not only on their values but also
on the history of magnetization.
In general B lags behind H in cyclic magnetization.
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Explanation of magnetization behavior using the theory of
magnetic domains
B
P3
P4
P5 P2
H
0 P1
In P1: B0
H
In P2: H B 0 H M
H
In P3: B 0 H M max
H
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B
P3
P4
P5 P2
H
0 P1
In P4: BM
H
In P5: H
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Minor hysteresis loops
If the material is taken through a cycle of magnetization
which does not reach saturation, a set of minor hysteresis
loops are traced (curves 2 and 3).
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The corresponding values obtained (after the loops show full
saturation) are called:
retentivity (denoted Br) and
coercivity (denoted Hc), respectively.
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Br : retentivity Hc : coercivity
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Hysteresis loss
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Hard material and soft material
2 vol 2 vol
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Energy density at each point in space may conveniently be
written as:
dWH B2 1
BH
d (vol ) 2 2 (J/m3) (5.23)
vol 0
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