Sie sind auf Seite 1von 41

Unit 5 Magnetic Forces and Media

This unit is concerned with the following topics:


More general formula of mechanical forces produced by
magnetic fields on charges and current-carrying
conductors.
The behaviour of magnetic field in material media.
Boundary conditions for magnetic media.
Magnetic circuits.
Some common phenomena in ferromagnetic materials,
such as saturation and hysteresis.

1
5.1 The Lorentz equation

Following is a comparison between the forces exerted on a


particle with electric charge q by electric and magnetic fields
(based on experiments):

Force in electric Force in magnetic field B


field E
Stationary qE 0
charge q
Moving qE qv B
charge q l
(in conductor: q B Il B )

t

Where v is the velocity of the moving charge q.


2
If the charge q is placed in a region in which both E and B
fields are present, the force is

F q E v B (5.1)
Eqn. (5.1) is known as the Lorentz equation.

The force on a moving charge in a magnetic


field is always normal to the velocity vector.

If the charge moves in magnetic field, no work


is done by the magnetic field on the charge.

The kinetic energy of the moving charge therefore remains


unchanged.
3
5.2 Differential current element
The following expressions hold for the force experienced in
a static magnetic field of flux density B :
(a) Force on moving positive charge dq

d F dq v B (5.2)
(b) Force on current filament I dl in conductors
dl dq
Because: dq v dq dl I dl , we have
dt dt
d F I dl B (5.3)
In electric machine studies, eqn. (5.3) is more commonly
known as the motor rule, or BIL rule.
4
5.3 Forces on a closed current loop

From eqn. (5.3), for any current element


d F I dl B
For the whole circuit,
F I B dl (the negative sign is because dl B B dl )
l

If the flux density B is uniform,


F I B dl
l

But l dl 0 for the complete circuit, which means that F 0.

The resultant force on a closed current-carrying loop is


thus equal to zero.
5
For example, for the given rectangular loop in Fig. 5.1, in a
uniform magnetic field
F1 F3 ; F2 F4

i.e. F1 F2 F3 F4 0 (5.4)

d F I dl B
Fig. 5.1 Forces on a rectangular current loop

6
5.4 Torque on a current-carrying coil

The definition of torque

R F

We apply a force F at point P and establish an origin at


o with a rigid lever arm R extending from o to P, the
torque is:
T R F
Torques direction is the axiss direction of its rotation.
7
Now let us assume that two forces, F2 F1

R1
R2 F1

R 21


F2 F1

T R1 F1 R2 F2 R1 F1 R2 F1 R1 R2 F1 R21 F1

If F2 F1 , the torque is independent of the choice of


origin.
Torque on a rectangular coil
Fig. 5.2 shows an elemental rectangular coil dxdy which
carries current I and is placed in a uniform magnetic field:
8
B B x a x B y a y Bz a z

(in general)

Fig. 5.2 Torque on current-carrying coil


The forces acting on the coil are:
F1 Ix a x B Ix a x ( Bx a x B y a y Bz a z )
Ix( Bx a x a x B y a x a y Bz a x a z )
Ix(0 B y a z Bz a y )
Ix( Bz a y By a z ) F3

9
F2 Iy a y B Iy a y ( Bx a x B y a y Bz a z ) Iy ( Bz a x Bx a z ) F4

The origin for the torque is at the center of the loop and
along with z axis. The torque arms are:
1 1
R1 y a y ; R 2 x a x
; R3 R1 ; R4 R2 ;
2 2
Resultant torque on the loop is

10
T R1 F1 R2 F2 R3 F3 R4 F4

R1 F1 R2 F2 R1 F1 R2 F2
2 R1 F1 2 R2 F2
1
1

2 y a y Ix( Bz a y B y a z ) 2 x a x Iy ( Bz a x Bx a z )

2 2
Ixy B y a x Bx a y
But

a z B a z Bx a x B y a y B z a z Bx a z a x B y a z a y Bz a z a z
Bx a y B y a x 0 B y a x Bx a y
If we let S (xy )az , then
T I S B (5.5)

11
Torque on a planner loop
For a coil of any size/shape placed in a field B , the coil may
be broken up into elemental meshes all carrying current I.
(see Fig. 5.3). The torque of each element is
d T Id S B (5.6)
The direction of d S is determined by I.

Fig. 5.3 Torque on coil of any shape


12
If the magnetic field is uniform, the torque on a planner loop
of any size or shape is given by
T I S B ISB sin aT (5.7)

where is the angle between S and B.

The direction of S is determined by I.


aT is the unit direction of the torque.

T acts in such a direction as to reduce the angle so that


S aligns with B .
Note that the torque always tends to turn the loop so as to
align the magnetic field produced by the loop with the
applied magnetic field.

13
T ISB

Magnetic moment m of the loop is defined as (Stop here)


m IS

therefore, T m B

14
5.5 Magnetic field in ferromagnetic () materials
Ferromagnetic materials are characterized in that they have a
crystal structure divided into magnetic domains usually of
microscopic size.
(1) In each magnetic domain, the magnetic moments of the
atoms are aligned.
(2) The alignment direction differs however from one
domain to another.

15
The behaviour of ferromagnetic materials is due to
alignment of microscopic magnets (magnetic domains),
inside the material.
In unmagnetized iron, these domains are randomly
arranged in all directions and the magnetization is zero.
When a magnetic field H is applied, the domains will
turn and align with the applied field, resulting in a large
magnetization. (Because T m B )

16
Now we introduce the intensity of magnetization M in a
medium.
M is proportional to H , hence we may write:
M m 0 H (5.12)
where m: magnetic susceptibility.
And in the material media:
B 0 H M (5.13)
B 0 H m 0 H 0 (1 m ) H 0 r H H
B 0 r H H (5.14)
where r 1 m (5.15)
is the relative permeability of the material.

17
Ferromagnetic materials have high values of relative
permeability (which can vary from 100 to several tens of
thousand!)

For example,
In vacuum: r = 1.0
In air: r = 1.0000004
In iron: r = 4000

18
5.6 Boundary conditions for magnetic media
Fig. 5.6 shows the interface between two isotropic and
homogeneous magnetic media whose permeabilities are 1
and 2. (isotropic anisotropic)
Assume also that the surface current density A/m to be
JS

perpendicular to the surface tangent. The flux density B2


exists in medium 2 and is incident to the interface. The flux
density B1 emerges from the interface into medium 1.

(here 2 > 1)
Fig. 5.6 Boundary conditions for magnetic media
19
Apply Amperes circuital law l H dl I to loop abcda.
With h0
H t1w H t 2 w J S w
(tangential condition)
H t1 H t 2 J S (5.16)
The reference directions of H t1 and J S can be determined

by right hand rule.

Next consider the surface S. From Maxwells fourth


equation S B dS 0 ,
20
Bn1S Bn 2 S 0
Bn1 Bn 2 (normal condition) (5.17)

21
5.7 Magnetic circuits
Examples of the applications of magnetic circuits are
transformers, inductors, relays, and rotating electric
machines. They may be analyzed using Amperes circuital
law and following the same approach for solving electric
circuits. Concept of magnetic circuits is useful for design of
electromagnetic devices.

For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.7, the magnetic flux lines are
assumed to be concentrated in the iron of each
cross-sectional area.

22
A l1 , S1 , B
H1

I l4 , S4 , l2 , S2 ,

N turns H2

l3 , S3 ,
H4
H3
D C
mean flux path

Fig. 5.7 A typical magnetic circuit

The magnetic scalar potential difference between A and B is


defined as
U AB U A U B H dl (5.18)
B

For the whole circuit,


U AB U BC U CD U DA H dl H dl H dl H dl
B C D A

A B C D

23
H dl NI U MMF (5.19)
l

U MMF NI is known as the magnetomotive force (m.m.f.).


This is the force required to establish the flux in the
magnetic circuit. It is the excitation of the magnetic
field/circuit. A l1 , S1 ,
H1
B

Assuming the flux density is uniform


I l4 , S4 , l2 , S2 ,
H2

1
N turns

B1
in each cross-sectional area S1 ,
l3 , S3 ,


H4
H3

refer to Fig. 5.7,


D C
mean flux path

B1l1 B2l2 B3l3 B4l4


U MMF NI H1l1 H 2l2 H 3l3 H 4l4
1 2 3 4
1l1 2l2 3l3 4l4

1S1 2 S 2 3 S3 4 S 4
24
Assuming there is no flux leakage, 1= 2 = 3 = 4 = ,
hence
l1 l4
Rm1 Rm 2 Rm 3 Rm 4
l2 l3
U MMF
1S1 2 S 2 3 S 3 4 S 4 (5.20)
U MMF Rm1 Rm 2 Rm 3 Rm 4
l
Rm
S is known as magnetic resistance or reluctance.
(unit in siemens, or A/wb)

Due to the possibility of magnetic saturation, the above


Kirchhoffs Law may be difficult to apply and a graphical
solution is sometimes required.

25
5.8 Magnetic saturation and hysteresis

5.8.1 Magnetic saturation

In isotropic material, the relationship between magnetic


flux density B and magnetic field strength H:
B H , : permeability
If is constant:

26
Bx xx xy xz H x

B y yx yy yz H y
In anisotropic material: B zy zz H z
z zx
For nonlinear materials (such as iron), (H )

B 0 H M
The relationship between magnetic flux density B and
magnetic field strength H is often described graphically in
the form of a magnetization curve (or B-H curve).

27
If further increase in H produces very little change in B, the
material is said to be saturated. This happens when most of
the magnetic domains in the material have been aligned with
the applied magnetic field. The corresponding value of B is
called the saturation flux density.

5.8.2 Magnetic hysteresis

Fig. 5.8 shows a typical curve relating B and H in a


ferromagnetic material when taken through a cycle of
magnetization (curve 1).

28
Fig. 5.8 Hysteresis and hysteresis loops

Let point a be the initial operating point.


When H is increased from zero, B increases and follows the
curve abc. At c, the material is saturated.

29
When B is reduced, the variation of B follows the new curve
cd which is higher than the original curve abc.
This phenomenon is known as hysteresis, and the path
abcdefa is known as a hysteresis loop. The relationship
between B and H depends not only on their values but also
on the history of magnetization.
In general B lags behind H in cyclic magnetization.

30
Explanation of magnetization behavior using the theory of
magnetic domains
B
P3

P4
P5 P2

H
0 P1

In P1: B0
H

In P2: H B 0 H M
H

In P3: B 0 H M max
H

31
B
P3

P4
P5 P2

H
0 P1

In P4: BM
H

In P5: H

The hysteresis loop shows that the magnetization process in


ferromagnetic materials depends not only on the external
magnetic field H, but on the magnetic history of the material
as well.

32
Minor hysteresis loops
If the material is taken through a cycle of magnetization
which does not reach saturation, a set of minor hysteresis
loops are traced (curves 2 and 3).

The tips of these loops lie on the magnetization curve Oc


from which the permeability of the material r is defined.
Note that r is not constant and depends on the value of H.
33
Fig. 5.9 shows the permeability curve for stalloy ().

Fig. 5.9 Permeability curve for stalloy

For any hysteresis loop (say curve 1 in Fig. 5.8), the


intercept on the B-axis is called the remanence, which is a
measure of how much flux density remains when H is
reduced to zero.
34
The intercept on the H-axis is the coercive force, and is a
measure of the magnetizing field strength required to
demagnetize () the material.

remanence coercive force

coercive force remanence

35
The corresponding values obtained (after the loops show full
saturation) are called:
retentivity (denoted Br) and
coercivity (denoted Hc), respectively.

36
Br : retentivity Hc : coercivity

37
Hysteresis loss

When the magnetic field is time-varying, however, hysteresis


is usually harmful as it produces heat losses in the material.
For ac magnetization, it can be shown that the energy loss
per cycle is proportional to the area bounded by the
hysteresis loop.

38
Hard material and soft material

Hysteresis can be useful, as in certain permanent-magnet


materials. These materials have very wide hysteresis loops
and large values of remanence and coercive force.

Materials characterized by wide hysteresis loops are called


hard magnetic materials. These materials cannot be easy
demagnetized. Soft magnetic materials have narrow
hysteresis loops. Its hysteresis loss is small.
39
5.9 Stored energy in magnetic field
In Unit 2 on electrostatics we have learnt that the stored
energy in an electric field is
D E d ( vol )
1
WE
2 vol

where a linear relationship between D and E is assumed.

As an analogy we may write the stored energy in a magnetic


field as follows:
BH
1
WH
2 vol
d ( vol )
(5.21)
Because B = H,
W H H d ( vol )
1 1 B2
d ( vol )
(5.22)
2

2 vol 2 vol
40
Energy density at each point in space may conveniently be
written as:
dWH B2 1
BH
d (vol ) 2 2 (J/m3) (5.23)

For isotropic nonlinear materials, the stored energy in a


magnetic field is*:
WH HdB d ( vol )

(5.24)
B

vol 0

41

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen