Asset Integrity

ASSET INTEGRITY THEME
LANDSCAPING STUDY
FINAL REPORT
OIL & GAS UK
TECHNOLOGY LEADERSHIP BOARD
May 2016
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FOREWORD
Welcome to the Asset Integrity Theme Landscaping Study, which Oil & Gas UK has
commissioned from Lockheed Martin on behalf of the Maximising Economic Recovery from
the UK Continental Shelf (MER UK) Technology Leadership Board. The studys aim is to provide
the most current and comprehensive update both on technologies with the potential to
deliver efficiency improvements for inspecting pressurised systems including process vessels,
and those effective in managing corrosion under insulation (CUI) of structures used in onshore
and offshore environments.
The development of technology and its implementation play a key role in efforts to maximise
economic recovery from the UK Continental Shelf where billions of barrels of oil and gas
remain to be recovered. Techniques that help the industry to improve asset integrity and
safely extend the operating lives of oil and gas fields can significantly contribute to the sectors
drive to increase the production efficiency of existing fields.
In a technology landscape that could be perceived as complex and multi-faceted, it makes

sense from a cost and efficiency point of view for Oil & Gas UK, on behalf of the industry, to co-
ordinate the wealth of research and development the sector has undertaken to address the key
priority of asset integrity, one of four key areas identified by the Technology Leadership Board
(TLB). Included in the study are advanced technologies which have helped drive efficiency in
other high performing sectors including the medical, space exploration and nuclear industries.
This study looks at technological advances for carrying out internal process vessel inspections
which could significantly reduce production downtime during a shutdown and minimise
the time required for personnel to enter the inspection area. Alternative methods for
improving the detection and management of corrosion under insulation in order to reduce
costs are also explored.
The TLB is focused on ensuring that technology development is collaborative, focused on

priority areas and suitable for multi-field application. This study is a clear demonstration
of collaborative working in action; operators, prime contractors, government and research
councils, innovation centres, joint industry bodies and academia have all provided input.
I would like to thank everyone for their much valued contribution to this study, which I
believe will play an important role in helping to secure a safe and enduring future for the UK
Continental Shelf.
Paul White, industry co-chair of the MER UK Technology Leadership Board
2 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

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CONTENTS
SECTION 1 5
Acknowledgements
SECTION 2 6
Executive Summary
2.1 INTRODUCTION 7
2.2 BACKGROUND 7
2.3 BUSINESS DRIVERS AND CONSTRAINTS 7
2.4 STAKEHOLDERS 7
2.5 CURRENT SITUATION 9
2.6 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES 10
2.7 METHODOLOGY 11
2.8 SUMMARY OF RESULTS 12
2.9 MANAGEMENT AND CULTURAL IMPEDIMENTS 17
2.10 TECHNOLOGY GAPS 17
2.11 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 17
2.12 NEXT STEPS 20
SECTION 3 21
Data Collection and Analysis
3.1 APPROACH 22
3.2 LIMITATION 22
3.3 ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY 22
3.4 RESULTS 26
SECTION 4 30
Vessel Inspection
4.1 LOW FREQUENCY ELECTROMAGNETIC TECHNIQUE 31
4.2 PHASED ARRAY ULTRASONIC 33
4.3 DIGITAL IMAGE CORRELATION 36
4.4 GUIDED WAVE ULTRASONIC 40
4.5 ACOUSTIC RESONANCE 43
4.6 AUTONOMOUS INSPECTION 45
4.7 FULL MATRIX CAPTURE 48
4.8 REMOTE MOBILE INSPECTION 51
4.9 3D LASER SCANNING 54
4.10 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE 57
4.11 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH MONITORING SYSTEM 60
4.12 WIDEBAND SONAR BEAM-STEERING 63
4.13 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTANCE DEGRADATION 65
4.14 TERAHERTZ SPECTRAL IMAGING 67
SECTION 5 69
CUI Detection
5.1 GUIDED WAVE ULTRASONIC TESTING 70
5.2 RADIOGRAPHIC - DIGITAL DETECTOR ARRAY 73
5.3 RADIOGRAPHIC OPEN VISION 76
5.4 SNIFFER DOGS 78

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CONTENTS CONTINUED
5.5 PULSED EDDY CURRENT 82
5.6 MICROWAVE SENSING 85
5.7 MICROWAVE DETECTION OF WATER WITHIN INSULATION 89
5.8 VAPOUR PHASE CORROSION INHIBITOR 92
5.9 LATERAL WAVE LFET 95
5.10 CORROSION RADAR 97
5.11 ACOUSTIC RESONANCE 100
5.12 SACRIFICIAL WIRE 102
5.13 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTANCE 105
5.14 ELECTROCHEMICAL IMPEDANCE SPECTROSCOPY 107
5.15 ULTRASONIC SURVEYS 109
5.16 TERAHERTZ SPECTRAL IMAGING 111
5.17 ACOUSTIC EMISSION 113
5.18 ULTRASOUND TOMOGRAPHY 116
SECTION 6 120
Management and Cultural Impediments
SECTION 7 122
Technology Gaps
7.1 TECHNOLOGY GAPS 123
SECTION 8 124
Conclusions and Recommendations
8.1 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 125
8.2 TLB ASSET INTEGRITY THEME WORKSHOPS 125
8.3 VESSEL INSPECTION 125
8.4 CUI DETECTION 125
8.5 FURTHER RESEARCH 125
8.6 INDUSTRY COLLABORATION 127
APPENDIX A 128
Organisations Contacted
APPENDIX B 132
Survey Questionnaire
B.1 INITIAL QUESTIONS (ALL RESPONDENTS) 133
B.2 OIL & GAS OPERATOR QUESTIONS 133
B.3 SOLUTION PROVIDER QUESTIONS 133
B.4 CONTRACTOR QUESTIONS 133
B.5 RESEARCHER/ACADEMIC QUESTIONS 134
B.6 CUI AND VESSEL INSPECTION QUESTIONS
(ALL RESPONDENTS) 134
APPENDIX C 135
Glossary
APPENDIX D 139
References

SECTION 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has come about through the efforts and contribution of many to whom Lockheed Martin is most grateful.
Thanks, in no particular order, are extended to the following for their:
Financial contribution for sponsoring the study

Oil & Gas UK
Input to the theme in its entirety

Jeremy Cutler, Total
Andy Ewens, AMEC Foster Wheeler
Taiwo Olaoya, Oil & Gas UK
Ernie Lamza, OGIC
Ian McCabe, ITF
5
SECTION 2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
6
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2.1 Introduction
This report has been produced at the request of the Oil and Gas Technology Leadership Board (TLB)
which is working in partnership with Oil & Gas UK (OGUK), Oil & Gas Authority (OGA), Oil & Gas
Innovation Centre (OGIC) and Industry Technology Facilitator (ITF).
In response to Sir Ian Woods final report on Maximising Economic Recovery (MER) for the UK
Continental Shelf (UKCS) the Wood Report hereafter the TLB identified three main themes for
further investigation, namely Small Pool Development, Asset Integrity and Well Construction.
In November 2015 Lockheed Martin was contracted by OGUK on behalf of the TLB to conduct a
technology landscaping study addressing the first element of the Asset Integrity Theme which is led by
Total E&P UK and Amec Foster Wheeler with support from OGIC and ITF.
The study targets advances in process vessel inspection and managing corrosion under insulation
(CUI) for the onshore, offshore and subsea areas. If successful the TLB believe this could contribute to
unlocking 1billion of revenue through improved production efficiency and cost reduction for the oil
and gas industry in the UKCS.
2.2 Background
Over the last 10 years the average UKCS production efficiency has fallen from 80% to 60%. Process
vessel inspection is a significant contributor to production downtime during a shutdown and often
involves personnel entry into confined spaces, thus posing a major safety risk. This study explores new
and existing techniques and technologies with the potential for significantly reducing process vessel
inspection times and eliminating (or at least minimising) the need for personnel entry into vessels.
CUI is difficult to detect because of the insulation cover that masks the corrosion problem, sometimes
until it is too late. It is expensive to remove the insulation, particularly if asbestos is involved. Historically,
industry data suggests that 60% of pipe leaks are caused by CUI and add a significant safety issue in
hydrocarbon service. Furthermore it is estimated that CUI incurs 40 60% of pipe maintenance costs.
This study therefore also explores methods for improving detection and management of CUI without
first having to remove the insulation, and considers portable/mobile or permanently installed devices
to allow inspection of process pipework with minimal requirement for scaffolding.
2.3 Business Drivers and Constraints

The primary business drivers in upstream oil and gas production are maximising production efficiency
(defined as actual annual production as a percentage of maximum potential yield or other potential),
and minimising cost (CAPEX and OPEX). Avoiding harm to people and the environment (including
reputational damage e.g., resulting from a serious safety or environmental incident) is also an
important consideration.
Some of the constraints are: safety, the environment, availability of skilled personnel, regulations,
offshore logistics (e.g., helicopter and bed places) and, in an era of low oil prices, availability of and
willingness to commit capital.
2.4 Stakeholders
The major stakeholders on the technology user side are the oil and gas producer companies,
their operational and maintenance contractors and, through taxation, the UK government. On the
technology supplier side are specialist contractors and vendors, technology and product developers
and research bodies within universities and elsewhere.
Based on our research the relationship between organisations in the landscape is complex and multi-
faceted as shown in the diagram below. With no single leading organisation actively coordinating the
oil and gas industrys research and development for vessel inspections or CUI detection there is a
danger that organisations duplicate research, or alternatively fail to target research not specifically in
their area of expertise.

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There are several different funding routes for research and development, ultimately however the
funding comes from three locations: the operators and principal contractors, government (UK, Scottish,
European Union) and from technology vendors.
Much of the research that develops into products is carried out directly by the technology vendors,
with varying degrees of exposure to the wider industry.
The research does not indicate that there are any preferences given to meeting set standards for
quality or inter-operability of developed solutions, thus advances in ultrasonic detection may not be
easily adapted to work with new solutions in remote mobile inspection for example, or to make best
use of existing data historian technology and other commonly used IT infrastructure.
Technology Vendors / Operators & Prime

Developers Contractors
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FUNDING STEER, FUNDING

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Government Statutory Authorities,

Initiatives, Research Councils Joint Industry Bodies
STEER,
FUNDING

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Operators & Prime Contractors

This includes the main operators in the oil and gas industry and the prime engineering contractors. The
organisations that have contributed to this study include:
Operators Joint Industry Bodies
BP; Oil & Gas UK, and the TLB;
Nexen Petroleum UK Ltd; TWI;
Shell; HOIS;
Statoil Technology Invest (STI); Institute of Corrosion;
Total. National Board of Boiler & Pressure Vessel
Inspectors.
Prime Contractors
Amec Foster Wheeler; Academia, Research & Development Bodies
Bilfinger Salamis; Heriot-Watt University;
Det Norske Veritas; Imperial College London;
Doosan Babcock; Robert Gordon University;
Forsys Subsea Ltd; University of Aberdeen;
University of Cambridge;
Sonomatic;
University of Manchester;
Stork;
University of Strathclyde;
Technip. High Value Manufacturing Catapult;
National Physical Laboratory (NPL);
Government Statutory Authorities, Initiatives SINTEF (Norway);
and Research Councils TNO, Science and Industry, Business Unit:
UK Government; Oil and Gas (Netherlands).
Scottish Government;
European Union;
Oil and Gas Authority;
HSE;
NERC.
Facilitation and Innovation Centres

ITF;
OGIC;
High Value Manufacturing Catapult.
2.5 Current Situation

General
Non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques widely used in the inspection of oil and gas plant and
equipment include:
ultrasonic testing;
magnetic particle inspection;
dye penetrant inspection;
visual inspection;
radiography.
Each can be highly effective but the rate of coverage is often slow. Inspection may also require extensive
preparation, including the removal of insulation to allow external inspection. Deployment is often
complicated by the nature of the physical environment.
Alternative, less sensitive NDT techniques can be used in a large-scale screening process, providing
a means of inspecting areas that would otherwise be impossible to access. The idea is to pinpoint
problem areas, and then follow this up with detailed inspections at targeted locations using more
sensitive techniques.
A detailed evaluation of 20 screening methods is provided in the Health & Safety Executives (HSE)

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research report RR659, Evaluation of the effectiveness of non-destructive testing screening methods
for in-service inspection, 2009. These include:
profile radiography;
small controlled area radiography;
thermographic imaging;
X-ray digital fluoroscopy;
neutron backscatter;
electromagnetic inductance.
Vessel inspection
The usual technique for inspecting the internals of process vessels involves full and secure isolation,
gas-freeing and other safety precautions before a technician can enter to carry out a visual inspection,
take photographs and possibly use instruments to make other measurements.
Although it is possible to obtain a thorough and detailed assessment of the vessels internal condition
in this way, the necessary precautions are time-consuming and even with the most rigorous safety
measures, entry to confined spaces is inherently hazardous.
Consequently, oil and gas operators tend to minimise the frequency of internal inspections, which
obviously increases the risk of corrosion or internal mechanical damage going undetected. Any
technique that allows vessel internal condition to be inspected or otherwise assessed without requiring
anyone to enter has clear advantages with respect to reduced downtime, more frequent assessment
and improved safety.
CUI Detection
The most common and straightforward way to inspect for CUI is to cut and remove plugs in the
insulation, visually inspect the surface for immediate signs of corrosion, then ultrasonically test the
rest of the vessel or pipe.
The main problem with this technique is that CUI tends to be localised, and unless the inspection plug
is accurately positioned, sites of corrosion can be missed. If there is sufficient doubt regarding the
condition of the metal away from the plugs, large areas of insulation may need to be removed.
Furthermore, cutting plugs introduces a fresh source of potential moisture penetration and hence
further corrosion. Removing plugs is not particularly hazardous (unless the insulation contains
asbestos) but it may be time consuming and costly, particularly if scaffolding is required.
Removal (and reinstatement) of large areas of insulation is messy and may disrupt normal operations
as well as being expensive and time-consuming. Inspection techniques that preserve the lagging
therefore have significant advantages.
2.6 Scope and Objectives

The objective of the TLB Asset Integrity Theme is to facilitate the introduction of products and
services, potentially from outside the oil and gas industry, that allow vessel inspection and CUI
detection to be carried out at lower cost, with reduced impact on production efficiency, without
introducing additional safety risks and potentially providing risk mitigations.
The objective of the Lockheed Martin study is to:
identify existing and emerging technologies for vessel inspection and CUI detection, both
within and outside the oil and gas industry;
assess these with respect to maturity, applicability, cost, risk and benefit;
highlight the main bodies involved in providing relevant technologies, products and services.

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2.7 Methodology
Data collection
Relevant information was collected using a combination of the following:
face-to-face and telephone discussion with stakeholders;

survey questionnaire (emailed to stakeholders);
online research (vendor publications and other public domain sources).
In practice, the survey questionnaires proved of limited value and most information was derived from
discussion and online research.
Analysis
As much of the information is subjective and even anecdotal in places, the key question became
how to devise a method for analysis and comparison that provides sufficient rigour while retaining
transparency with respect to the underlying judgements.
The method adopted was to identify criteria for assessing the relevant technologies and techniques
and then, where appropriate, to sub-divide these into components which could be rated numerically
according to simple guidelines.
The criteria selected were:
Criteria Description
Maturity An existing method Technology Readiness Level (TRL), devised by NASA, was adopted
Applicability Sub-divided into six components: plant running; retrofit; offshore; dependency on
specialist skills; types of plant item; sample or full area
Risk Sub-divided into four components: precautions required to maintain safety;

requirement for cultural change; complexity; industry backing
Cost Sub-divided into three components: initial installation, initial staff training and other
preparation; annual operation and maintenance
Benefit Sub-divided into two components: maintenance cost reduction; plant safety
improvement
Apart from the NASA TRL score, which directly produces a numeric result, each component of the
above criteria was assigned a score range and associated guidelines. All of the criteria are set out in
detail in Section 3. The net result was to derive for each technology, a set of five scores in the range
0 10, one for each assessment criterion.

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2.8 Summary of results

Based upon the analysis approach described above there are a number of techniques that offer
encouraging potential. All of the techniques evaluated are displayed in tabular and graphical format
below.
Vessel inspection
The analysis results are presented numerically in the following table. The Strength has been calculated
by combining applicability and benefits, with the Weakness being calculated by combining cost and
risk. The Other Maturity (TRL) is Lockheed Martins assessment of the maturity of the technique
within other industries. A higher figure indicates a better result.
O&G Other
Technology/ Applicability
Maturity Maturity Risk Cost Benefit Strength Weakness
Technique Limitations
(TRL) (TRL)
Low frequency 9 9 7 8 7 7 14 15
electromagnetic
technique
Phased array ultrasonic 9 9 7 6 5 6 13 11
Digital image 9 9 7 7 6 5 12 13
correlation
Guided wave ultrasonic 9 9 6 7 6 4 10 13
Acoustic resonance 7 7 8 7 7 4 12 14
Autonomous inspection 6 6 8 6 6 8 16 12
Full matrix capture 6 6 8 6 7 7 15 13
Remote mobile 6 6 6 7 5 7 13 12
inspection
3D laser scanning 6 6 6 6 4 4 10 10
Unmanned aerial 4 4 6 5 8 5 11 13
vehicles
Environment and 3 3 7 4 3 6 13 7
health monitoring
system
Wideband sonar beam 3 3 6 7 6 3 9 13

steering
Electromagnetic 2 2 7 6 7 4 11 13
inductance
Terahertz spectral 2 2 8 6 5 7 15 11
imaging
The vessel inspection options are compared in the diagram below by combining the two Strength
attributes (applicability/limitations, benefits) on the Y-axis with the technical maturity level shown on
the X-axis. The two Weakness attributes (cost, risk) are combined and form the size of the bubbles.
The diameter of the bubbles reflects the perceived weakness / challenge of the technology. A large
bubble has fewer identified weaknesses and is likely to be more easily adopted given the appropriate

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R&D spend. The yellow coloured bubbles are sensor technologies and the green represent enabling
platforms.
A simpler comparison, using only the maturity indication (NASA TRL) is presented in the diagram
below. The yellow coloured bars are the maturity indication when the technology is assessed for use
in the industry it was primarily developed for and the blue coloured bars are the maturity indication
when the technology is assessed for use in oil and gas.
Vessels -TRL Score
Phased array ultrasonic

Low frequency electromagnetic technique
Remote mobile inspection
Unmanned aerial vehicles
Guided wave ultrasonic
Autonomous inspection
3D laser scanning
Electromagnetic inductance
Environment and health monitoring system
Wideband sonar beam steering
Digital image correlation
Acoustic resonance
Full matrix capture
Terahertz spectral imaging
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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CUI Detection
The analysis results are presented numerically in the following table. The Strength has been calculated
by combining applicability and benefits, with the Weakness being calculated by combining cost and
risk. The Other Maturity (TRL) is Lockheed Martins assessment of the maturity of the technique
within other industries. A higher figure indicates a better result.
O&G Other
(TRL) (TRL)
Radiographic - digital 9 8 8 6 7 5 13 13
detector array
Radiographic - open 9 8 7 6 7 5 12 13
vision
Sniffer dogs 8 9 7 7 7 6 13 14
Pulsed eddy current 8 8 8 8 7 7 15 15
Microwave sensing 8 8 7 6 6 7 14 12
Microwave detection of 8 8 7 6 6 7 14 12
water within insulation
Vapour phase corrosion 8 0 8 6 7 6 14 13

inhibitor
Lateral wave LFET 7 7 7 8 7 7 14 15
Corrosion radar 4 0 7 8 7 5 12 15
Sacrificial wire 3 3 7 8 7 5 12 15
inductance
Electrochemical 3 3 2 7 7 2 4 14
impedance
spectroscopy
Ultrasonic survey 3 0 7 6 7 3 10 13
imaging
Acoustic emission 2 2 5 5 6 4 9 11
Ultrasound tomography 2 0 7 6 7 4 11 13
The CUI detection options are compared in the diagram below by combining the two Strength
attributes (applicability, benefits) on the Y-axis with the technical maturity level shown on the X-axis.
The two Weakness attributes (cost, risk) are combined and form the size of the bubbles, the larger
the bubble the lower the weakness. A large bubble has fewer identified weaknesses and is likely to be
more easily adopted given the appropriate R&D spend.
There are no enabling platforms shown in the diagram below. However the platforms listed for vessel
inspection could potentially be developed for use with CUI detection.

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A simpler comparison, using only the maturity indication (NASA TRL) is presented in the diagram
below. As before the yellow coloured bars are the maturity indication when the technology is assessed
for use in the industry it was primarily developed for and the blue coloured bars are the maturity
indication when the technology is assessed for use in oil and gas.
Heat Map
The matrix below provides a visualisation of how the individual technologies detailed in this report
perform against each of the challenges typically encountered by CUI and vessel inspection technologies,
giving a quick and easy means to identify which innovations best apply to specific challenges.
The technologies are listed along the top of the matrix and the challenges are listed down the left,
with traffic light symbols used at the intersections to denote each technologys ability to meet each
challenge for CUI, vessel inspection (VI), or both.

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2.9 Management and Cultural Impediments

Understandably, upstream oil and gas has a conservative culture and some resistance to change is
inevitable. It is therefore essential that management and cultural factors are taken into consideration
when selecting among technical options that have potential to hold promise for reducing costs,
increasing production efficiency and/or improving safety. Broadly speaking, techniques that are in
some way familiar, or appear to be related to accepted practice in some way, stand a better chance of
acceptance than those that appear alien or outlandish.
2.10 Technology Gaps

The current techniques used in the oil and gas industry for vessel inspection do not currently permit
internal inspection without manual entry, and for CUI management and detection the currently used
techniques either have limited coverage or resolution, and/or require the removal of insulation.
There are some promising techniques described in the study which can potentially close these
technology gaps and Lockheed Martin recommends that a shortlist is drawn by the relevant
stakeholders for further pursuit. We recommend that stakeholders:
review the scoring guidelines and Lockheed Martin suggested scores contained within this
document;
for short-term possibilities (i.e., those more-or-less ready to go), identify opportunity for realistic
plant trial and provide the necessary funding, technical support and logistics to allow this to
progress;
for longer term prospects, provide technical and funding support so that these can be moved
towards the trial-ready state.
A definite gap that can be closed quite quickly is that of combining some of the sensing technologies
reviewed with remote mobile and autonomous inspection platforms. It is likely that this will require
some encouragement and support to get the different vendors and developers to work together.
2.11 Conclusions and RecommendationsVessel inspection

General
The study team believes that the assessment methodology adopted is sound, although the maturity,
applicability, cost, risk and benefit scores and associated guidelines would benefit from wider review
and validation by the relevant stakeholders.
The study was undertaken within an agreed time period which allowed sufficient interaction with
relevant stakeholders, but did not allow for exhaustive identification and interaction with all techniques
and their providers.
TLB Asset Integrity Theme Workshops

The TLB organised theme workshops on vessel inspection and detection of corrosion under insulation
at Maryculter House Hotel Aberdeen on 24th and 25th February 2016.
The Lockheed Martin Asset Integrity Landscape Draft Report was used as a pre-read for the
workshops. The aim of the workshops was to inform further work to develop products and services
which can reduce costs, increase production efficiency and/or improve safety when carrying out
process vessel inspections and detection of corrosion under insulation. This further work will be
coordinated by the recently announced Oil & Gas Technology Centre.
For further details please refer to the TLB Integrity Theme Workshop Output Report, which was
issued by OGIC to all workshop attendees on 17th March 2016.
Vessel inspection
The low frequency electromagnetic technique appears to offer good prospects at moderate cost and
risk and has a high maturity score.

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Full matrix capture (FMC) has a similar profile, but is less mature so could be seen as a good longer-
term prospect.
Although robots and remotely operated vehicles on their own have a relatively low benefit score, such
devices are becoming increasingly common (e.g., in the nuclear industry) and might be profitably
combined with other sensor technologies to allow a significant reduction in the need for manual entry
into process vessels and other confined spaces.
CUI Detection
The pulsed eddy current technique appears to offer good prospects at moderate cost and risk. It has a
high maturity score and there is a sense of significant industry commitment to product development,
marketing and deployment.
Vapour phase corrosion inhibitor stands out as being a prevention (as opposed to detection) technique.
The main concern here is the nature of the chemicals required for the process, especially offshore.
Nevertheless, this technique seems worthy of further investigation as it offers the prospect of reducing
the extent and nature of the underlying problem of CUI.
As with vessel inspection, some of the sensing techniques identified in this study might profitably
be combined with remotely operated vehicles such as pipe and vessel crawlers. Of particular benefit
would be any combined technique that reduced the requirement for scaffolding.
Further Research
Lockheed Martin recommends that further research is undertaken into closing perceived technology
gaps that could prevent the uptake of some of the methods and technologies described in the study.
We recommend developing an IT architecture that facilitates the development and use of new vessel
inspection and CUI detection and monitoring techniques as they become available. In particular the
architecture should include the following.
Open Standards
Developing open standards is key to maximising the rapid take up of any new techniques, it also
facilitates the development of open markets and minimises vendor lock-in.
We recommend that to maximise the impact, new standards should be developed in conjunction with
the appropriate national and international standards bodies.
Secure Sharing of Data

We recommend that techniques are developed across the oil and gas industry to share the raw data
from multiple installations in a secure manner. This data can be provided to all stakeholders and
provide a platform for future innovation.
Automate data collection, transformation and storage

Make use of existing technologies such as COTS data historians, IP protocols, and transmission
technologies such as WiFi and Low Power Bluetooth, coupled with new developments in low cost/low
power sensors being developed for the Internet Of Things.
Develop standard analysis techniques

To maximise re-use and portability, standard analysis techniques should ideally come in the form of
open-source library / software development kits of standard techniques optimised for use with vessel
inspection and CUI detection and monitoring.
Develop standard visualisation techniques

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Standard visualisation techniques should be developed with two main audiences in mind control
room staff and maintenance/support engineers.
Control room staff want to know about sudden changes in plant conditions, typically through screens
and alarms on distributed control systems (DCS) and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
systems. Therefore appropriate standards should be developed for visualisation in collaboration with
the leading control systems providers.
Maintenance /Support engineers want to know in more depth about gradual changes in plant
conditions, either continuously monitored or through analysis resulting from spot checks. Therefore
appropriate standards for visualisation should be developed in collaboration with leading desktop
visualisation and analysis providers.
Aggregation
As our analysis indicates that no one method is prevalent for either vessel inspection or CUI detection
and management, it is likely that operators will employ several different, possibly overlapping methods.
Therefore analysis techniques should be developed in such a way as to permit aggregation of results,
and visualisation techniques should include the ability to overlay results from several different sources.
The diagram below shows the proposed standards based IT architecture.
Proposed Standards Based IT Architecture
Industry collaboration
The study found that the relationships between the various stakeholders are complex, and that there is
a lack of focus on vessel inspection and CUI detection technologies within the oil and gas industry. We
also note that some of the technology being developed initially originated in other industry sectors.
Lockheed Martin recommends that a single leading organisation is given overall responsibility for
focussing vessel inspection and CUI research and development efforts within the oil and gas industry.
This organisation should focus on several strands:
Development of the standards-based IT architecture as described above;
Development of promising vessel inspection and CUI research;
Cross-sector initiatives with relation to vessel inspection and CUI research.

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2.12 Next Steps

Review and Validate Scoring
As discussed in 2.7 above, the numerical scores assigned by the study team, and possibly the associated
guidelines, should be reviewed and validated by a wider range of stakeholders.
Achieve Consensus
A broad consensus is required among stakeholders regarding which technology options should be
actively pursued in the near term, which merit active longer-term support, and which are best subject
to a watching brief only.
Industry Partnerships
Otherwise promising technologies require active support to attain the necessary maturity to permit
realistic site or offshore trials, and this should be achieved by creating industry partnerships to take
forward collaborative R&D programmes.

SECTION 3
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
21
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3.1 Approach
The intention of the study was to include representatives of all the key groups involved in both
process vessel inspection and managing CUI. This included: oil and gas operators, Tier 1 contractors
(including duty holders), specialist consultants and service providers, equipment suppliers, technology
developers, research organisations and academia.
The study was commissioned by the Asset Integrity sub group of the TLB and paid for by OGUK. The
subgroup members provided a list of potential stakeholders who could be approached to provide
relevant and contemporary information on current techniques, and Lockheed Martin included
additional stakeholders from their own contacts and experience. A table of organisations that
contributed to the study is presented in Appendix A. Organisations identified as on the landscape but
who did not have significant contribution to this study are also presented in Appendix A. All those who
agreed were contacted and interviewed face-to-face or by telephone.
To obtain the maximum benefit and ensure consistency, a survey questionnaire was developed and
refined, and this was used during structured interviews of those stakeholders who were providing
information. The questionnaire is presented in Appendix B.
The interviews were valuable in providing pragmatic and insightful evidence of the methodologies and
techniques as well as the associated challenges faced when addressing the issue of vessel inspection
and managing CUI. The information gathered identified further research into the inspection and
detection techniques which, in turn, helped clarify the final technical summaries which are contained
in subsequent sections of this report.
The information obtained from the survey was supplemented by literature and online searches into
existing and new technologies so that the review could focus on the most relevant systems.
3.2 Limitation
3.3 Analysis Methodology

Assessment criteria
The central problem faced by the study team was how to derive metrics that would allow:
the various technologies and techniques reviewed to be assessed individually in a consistent

manner;
meaningful comparisons to be obtained across vessel inspection and CUI categories.
As much of the information obtained is subjective and even anecdotal in nature, the question resolves
to one of converting subjective assessments into numerical scores in a way that provides sufficient
rigour while retaining transparency with respect to the underlying judgements.
The method adopted was to identify a set of criteria for assessing the relevant technologies and
techniques and, where appropriate, to sub-divide these into components which could be rated
numerically according to simple guidelines.

REPORT // ENERGY
The criteria selected were:
Criteria Description
Maturity An existing method Technology Readiness Level (TRL), devised by NASA, was adopted
Applicability Sub-divided into six components: plant running; retrofit; offshore; dependency on
specialist skills; types of plant item; sample or full area
Risk Sub-divided into four components: precautions required to maintain safety;

requirement for cultural change; complexity; industry backing
Costs Sub-divided into three components: initial installation, initial staff training and other
preparation; annual operation and maintenance
Benefits Sub-divided into two components: maintenance cost reduction; plant safety
improvement
Apart from the NASA TRL score, which directly produces a numeric result, each component of the
above criteria was assigned a score range and associated guidelines. These are described below.
Scoring Guidelines
Maturity (NASA Technology Readiness Level)
Stage Level
Basic principles observed and reported 1
Technology concept and/or application formulated 2
Proof of concept 3
Experimental pilot in laboratory conditions 4
Demonstration pilot in simulated environment 5
Industrial pilot in idealised conditions 6
Initial production use (less than 3 years) 7
Production use >3 years or multiple deployments <3 years with limited track record 8
Widespread use with extensive track record 9

REPORT // ENERGY
Applicability / Limitations
Factor Range Explanation

0 = no
Practicable with plant running 0 1 1 = yes
0 = no
Retrofit practicable 0 1 1 = yes
Offshore practicable 0 = no
0 1 1 = yes
1 = highly dependent on limited skills
Dependent on specialist skills /
1 3 2 = some new skills / resources required
resources 3 = largely achievable with existing capability
1 = restricted (<50% of items)
Range of plant 1 3 2 = significant (50 75% of items)
3 = majority (>75% of items)
Full area coverage 0 = extrapolation from limited samples

0 1
1 = full area covered
Risk

1 = largely new and unfamiliar
Cultural / resistance to change 1 3 2 = broadly familiar; some new aspects
3 = minor extension to current practices
1 = additional precautions required
Safety (personnel /
1 3 2 = broadly similar
environment)
3 = clear reduction to risk/exposure
Complexity (technical / 1 = high

procedural) 1 3 2 = medium
3 = low
Significant industry backing 0 = no
0 1
(e.g., major vendor) 1 = yes
Costs

1 = high (~10m)
Install and commission 1 3 2 = medium (~1m)
(one-off) 3 = low (~100K)
1 = high (~1M)
Staff training (one-off) 1 3 2 = medium (~100K)
3 = low (~10K)
Routine operation and 1 = high (~10M)

maintenance (annual) 1 3 2 = medium (~1M)
3 = low (~100K)
0 = significant
Production impact of use 0 1
1 = negligible

REPORT // ENERGY
Benefit

1 = insignificant (~100K)
2 = minor but worthwhile (~500K)
Annual cost saving (plant
1 5 3 = moderate (~2.5M)
operation and maintenance)
4 = significant (~10M)
5 = radical (~25M)
1 = insignificant
Safety improvement 2 = minor
1 5 3 = moderate
(plant integrity)
4 = significant
5 = radical
The net result was to derive for each technology, a set of five scores in the range 0 10, one for each
assessment criterion. As it is difficult to compare across options using five criteria, the two Strength
attributes (applicability, benefit) and the two Weakness attributes (cost, risk) were summed for each
option to further depict the data.
Presentation
It was felt important to present the results in ways that would allow easier visual assessment and
comparison rather than a table of raw numbers. For individual assessment, the spider (or radar)
plot with five axes was selected. This provides a quick visual indication of the scores on five axes.
Furthermore, criteria whose scores are significantly out of balance with the others are readily seen.
Good prospects are likely to be more evenly balanced, with no distinct weaknesses.
In the examples shown below the first graph indicates a good prospect with evenly balanced
attributes, the second graph indicates a prospect where one of the attributes is less well represented
(in this case the TRL).
Evenly Balance Unevenly Balance

REPORT // ENERGY
3.4 Results
Individual assessments
Detailed assessment scores for each technology or technique reviewed are presented for vessel
inspection in Section 4, and for CUI detection in Section 5. A tabular summary of the results is presented
below. Here the Strength has been calculated by combining applicability and benefits, with the
Weakness being calculated by combining cost and risk. The Other Maturity (TRL) is Lockheed
Martins assessment of the maturity of the technique within other industries. A higher figure indicates
a better result.
Vessel inspection
The analysis results for vessel inspection are:
O&G Other
(TRL) (TRL)
Low frequency 9 9 7 8 7 7 14 15
electromagnetic
technique
Phased array ultrasonic 9 9 7 6 5 6 13 11
Digital image 9 9 7 7 6 5 12 13
correlation
Autonomous inspection 6 6 8 6 6 8 16 12
Full matrix capture 6 6 8 6 7 7 15 13
Remote mobile 6 6 6 7 5 7 13 12
inspection
3D laser scanning 6 6 6 6 4 4 10 10
Unmanned aerial 4 4 6 5 8 5 11 13
vehicles
Environment and 3 3 7 4 3 6 13 7
health monitoring
system
Wideband sonar beam 3 3 6 7 6 3 9 13

steering
inductance
imaging

REPORT // ENERGY
CUI Detection
The analysis results are presented numerically in the following table:
O&G Other
(TRL) (TRL)
Radiographic - digital 9 8 8 6 7 5 13 13
detector array
Radiographic - open 9 8 7 6 7 5 12 13
vision
Sniffer dogs 8 9 7 7 7 6 13 14
Pulsed eddy current 8 8 8 8 7 7 15 15
Microwave sensing 8 8 7 6 6 7 14 12
Microwave detection of 8 8 7 6 6 7 14 12
water within insulation
Vapour phase corrosion 8 0 8 6 7 6 14 13

inhibitor
Lateral wave LFET 7 7 7 8 7 7 14 15
Corrosion radar 4 0 7 8 7 5 12 15
Sacrificial wire 3 3 7 8 7 5 12 15
inductance
Electrochemical 3 3 2 7 7 2 4 14
impedance
spectroscopy
Ultrasonic survey 3 0 7 6 7 3 10 13
imaging
Acoustic emission 2 2 5 5 6 4 9 11
Ultrasound tomography 2 0 7 6 7 4 11 13
Comparison of options
Vessel inspection
The vessel inspection options are compared in the diagram below by combining the two Strength
attributes (applicability/limitations, benefits) on the Y-axis with the technical maturity level shown on
the X-axis. The two Weakness attributes (cost, risk) are combined and form the size of the bubbles.
The diameter of the bubbles reflects the perceived weakness / challenge of the technology. A large
bubble has fewer identified weaknesses and is likely to be more easily adopted given the appropriate
R&D spend. The yellow coloured bubbles are sensor technologies and the green represent enabling
platforms.

REPORT // ENERGY
CUI Detection
The CUI detection options are compared in the diagram below by combining the two Strength
attributes (applicability, benefits) on the Y-axis with the technical maturity level shown on the X-axis.
The two Weakness attributes (cost, risk) are combined and form the size of the bubbles, the larger
the bubble the lower the weakness. A large bubble has fewer identified weaknesses and is likely to be
more easily adopted given the appropriate R&D spend.

There are no enabling platforms shown in the diagram below. However the platforms listed for vessel
inspection could potentially be developed for use with CUI detection.

REPORT // ENERGY
Heat Map
The matrix below provides a visualisation of how the individual technologies detailed in this report
perform against each of the challenges typically encountered by CUI and vessel inspection technologies,
giving a quick and easy means to identify which innovations best apply to specific challenges.
The technologies are listed along the top of the matrix and the challenges are listed down the left,
with traffic light symbols used at the intersections to denote each technologys ability to meet each
challenge for CUI, vessel inspection (VI), or both.

SECTION 4
VESSEL INSPECTION
30
REPORT // ENERGY
4.1 Low Frequency Electromagnetic Technique

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
Low Frequency Electromagnetic Technique (LFET) works by injecting a low frequency magnetic field
into a metal plate or tube and using scanner-mounted pickup coils to detect the induced AC magnetic
field in the material measuring the distortions in the resulting magnetic field that occur over a flaw.
This pickup coil is placed such that the return path for the magnetic field is through the area to be
tested. Flaws are detected by measuring the magnetic field directly over the flaw area with sensor
coils.
A flaw or defect causes the magnetic flux lines

in that area to be distorted or different than
expected. This distortion can be measured as a
change in phase and/or amplitude. With suitable
calibration tables the flaw can be analysed and
a determination of flaw depth and shape can be
made. By using several sensors in the scanner
array it is possible to display a 3D image of the
collected data so that the shape and depth of the
flaw can be determined.
LFET products are used to inspect storage tanks,

other convex or concave ferrous surfaces, as well
as nonferrous metal tubing/piping surfaces.
LFET scanners can be used in settings where competing technologies fail or are inconvenient
LFET scanners detects flaws, including corrosion cells and hydrogen damage, caustic and phosphate
gouging, oxygen pitting, departure from nucleate boiler, ID pitting, corrosion, and erosion.
Cracking is also detectable and its detection can be optimised by modifying the pick-up coil configuration.
There are various scanner systems that employ LFET technology manufactured with specific application
or situations in mind. Flatbed scanners for above ground tank scanning have a large scanning area, pipe
crawlers which run above pipes of varying diameter, 360 pipe crawler scanners which automatically
adjust to pipe diameter and modular crawler scanners that can be used to scan either horizontal or
vertical magnetic surfaces.
Key Attributes
Technology is in use and readily accessible from vendors;
Inspection of pipe or flat surfaces;
Both magnetic and non-magnetic metals can be scanned (as can economizer tubing);
Minimal Pipe Preparation and in some cases no preparation required;
Real-Time display with some LFET scanners;
Inspects through I.D. or O.D. scale.
Limitations
If pipe or surface preparation is required timescale is impacted as are costs.
Sources
testex-ndt.com/products/lfet-products
Readiness Assessment
We estimate that this technologys score on the NASA TRL scale is:
NASA TRL 9 Widespread production use with extensive track record.

REPORT // ENERGY
4.2 Phased Array Ultrasonic
Source:
O&G Phased Array Ultrasonic Technique TRL: 9
Description
Uses multi-element ultrasonic probes, pulsed individually in a programmed pattern under computer
control allowing a large area to be swept from a fixed probe point.
PA systems can greatly simplify the inspection of components with complex geometries. The small
footprint of the transducer and the ability to sweep the beam without moving the probe also aids
inspection of such components in situations where there is limited access for mechanical scanning.
Systems are available in a variety of models with increasing complexity and capability. Instruments
range from basic models that perform simple sector and linear scans with 16-element probes to
advanced systems that offer multi-channel capability and advanced interpretive software with probes of
up to 256 elements.
Can be applied to Vessels externally or internally and used to determine vessel wall thickness.
TRL
10 With Plant Running 1
9 Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
6 Need for Specialist Skills 1
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits 3 App/Lim
Sample/Full Area 1
2
1
Risks
0
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Significant Industry Backing 0
Costs Risks Costs

Install/Commission 2
Key Attributes Staff Training 1
Linear or sector scans Operations/Maintenance 2
Display enables flaw visualisation Production Impact 0
Higher cost than traditional ultrasonic techniques
High degree of operator expertise required Benefits
Cost Benefits 2
Safety Benefits 4
Other Industries

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
In conventional (non-Phased Array) single-element ultrasonic probes, a beam is emitted in a fixed
direction. To test a large volume of material, a conventional probe must be physically scanned (moved
or turned) to sweep the beam through the area of interest. In contrast, the beam from a Phased Array
(PA) probe can be focused and swept electronically without moving the probe.
The beam is controllable because PA ultrasonic systems utilise multi-element ultrasonic probes, which
are individually pulsed in a programmed pattern under computer control. By exciting each element
in a controlled manner, beams can be steered and focussed with a single transducer assembly. The
beam is swept like a search-light through the object being tested and the data from multiple beams
are consolidated to produce an image showing a slice through the object. Two and three dimensional
views can be generated showing the sizes and locations of any flaws detected.
PA systems can greatly simplify the inspection

of components with complex geometries. The
small footprint of the transducer and the ability
to sweep the beam without moving the probe
also aids inspection of such components in
situations where there is limited access for
mechanical scanning.
PA systems are commonly used for weld

inspection. The ability to test welds with
multiple angles from a single probe greatly
increases the probability of detection of
anomalies. Electronic focusing permits
optimising the beam shape and size at the expected defect location, thus further optimising probability
of detection. The ability to focus at multiple depths also improves the ability for sizing critical defects
for volumetric inspections.
PA systems are available in a variety of models with increasing complexity and capability. Instruments
range from basic models that perform simple sector and linear scans with 16-element probes to
advanced systems that offer multi-channel capability and advanced interpretive software with probes
of up to 256 elements. PA transducers may be used with various types of wedges, in a contact mode,
or in immersion testing. Their shape may be square, rectangular, or round, and test frequencies are
most commonly in the range from 1 to 10 MHz.
PA systems can potentially be employed in almost any test where conventional ultrasonic flaw detectors
have traditionally been used. Weld inspection and crack detection are the most important applications,
and PAs can also be used to profile remaining wall thickness in corrosion survey applications.

REPORT // ENERGY
Key Attributes
Beam focusing and steering;
Linear or sector scans;
Display enables flaw visualisation.
Limitations
Higher cost than traditional ultrasonic techniques;
High degree of operator expertise required.
Sources
Olympus IMS NDT Tutorials;
The Welding Institute (TWI);
NDT Database & Journal of Non-Destructive Testing
NASA TRL 9 Widespread production use with extensive track record

REPORT // ENERGY
4.3 Digital Image Correlation

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
Digital image correlation (DIC) is a methodology for obtaining and comparing images to highlight
changes and defects, accurately and to high precision. DIC can compare not only optical images, but
images from thermographic cameras and laser scanners, to highlight new or changing hot spots, or
changing dimensions of vessels.
DIC involves digitally comparing images to highlight any areas that are different to images taken
previously. It does this very accurately and to a level that could not be done visually from the same
distance or without being very close to objects. For this reason, it is extremely versatile.
DIFCAM Study
The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) and partners developed a bespoke system for Network Rail
using DIC that could be used to enhance visual inspections of rail tunnels.
The aim of this Digital Imaging For Condition Asset Management (DIFCAM) project was to develop a
world-class capability in the use of optical techniques to rapidly monitor & assess asset condition. This
involved the development of a demonstrator for monitoring the interior of rail tunnels, reducing or
eliminating the need for track access & subjective human visual inspections as an example of a generic
technology platform, that could be deployed in other sectors. Rail tunnel examination was identified
as a good demonstrator for this type of technology as it is a current, high-cost problem, with a clear,
identified market need and an accessible partner / customer base.
The main feature of the DIFCAM system is that it relies on application of DIC techniques in the
comparison of one measurement run with another, potentially taken months or years apart. Work at
NPL established that this measurement technique could be applied to large civil engineering structures
and used for in-situ measurements, and therefore it was applied to tunnel imagery to compare
successive tunnel images taken over time.
Correlating the images taken using a high resolution camera array from different runs identifies any
changes or movement in the tunnel wall appearance. A similar process was used with the shape
measurement data captured from a laser scanner to identify changes in shape from run to run. This
was enabled by accurately measuring the position and orientation of the vehicle on which the cameras/
sensors were mounted during each run.
The main benefits of using this measurement approach were:

Speed of measurement improved over manual inspection;
High resolution imagery;
Combined shape and appearance measurements;
Archival storage of high quality data;
Automated data generation;
Automated screening capability;
Automated defect report generation.
For laboratory DIC measurements, particularly material testing, a grey speckle coating is often applied
to ensure local contrast. However with large engineering structures it was found that, with suitable
lighting, there was sufficient local contrast to allow reliable measurements to be made without any
surface preparation.
The system performance for the demonstration system, which runs primarily on desktop computers,
meant that a pair of 24 megapixel images could be processed in 30 seconds using a 12 processor
core. For the demonstrator there were 11 pictures per metre, therefore a twin desktop system could
process about 1 metre of tunnel per hour. The image storage requirements were approximately 10
GBytes per metre per run. Shape measurement data could be processed more quickly and had a laser

REPORT // ENERGY
scanner storage requirement of about 10 Mbytes per metre. Note that the analysis of both forms of
data is well suited to parallel processing and can easily be scaled to a system with many processors,
resulting in a performance that scales almost linearly with the number of processors.
During trials and in-between two successive inspection runs, inspection engineers walked through
the tunnels to create man-made defects to determine the effectiveness in the system. These man-
made defects included an area where soot was scraped off the wall, a screw had been left on some
abandoned and not-in-service rail, and a bucket of water was thrown on the wall. Upon the second
pass, the DIFCAM system identified all of these defects (within an 800m tunnel). In addition to this,
the DIFCAM system highlighted the changes in the random pattern of gravel caused by the inspection
engineers footprints.
The images below show the tunnel wall before and after the man-made defects are introduced and the
corresponding DIFCAM processed images.
An area of the tunnel wall at Wansford prior to an The same area captured in a subsequent
introduced defect. measurement run, there is a small change in the
coverage of a patch of soot near the middle of the
field of view
A map of vertical displacement for the tunnel wall A map of correlation coefficient for the tunnel wall
shown above. The scale is in mm of movement. shown above. Areas that are darker have poorer
The area near the middle is primarily composed of correlation.
displacements that are out of range
Similar systems have been developed, or are under development, for different applications, highlighted
below:
Monitoring crack growth of cement surrounding nuclear reactors;

REPORT // ENERGY
Utilising DIC for condition monitoring or visual inspection of cable subways for electrical networks
owners / operators;
Determine whether medication has been tampered with;
Using CCTV to detect blockages of large drainage facilities for the environmental agency.
Key Attributes
Rapid data capture compared to conventional inspection methods;
Direct run-to-run inspection comparison highlighting differences to 1mm;
Full record of the structure via archived time history of appearance and shape;
More efficient use of experienced inspectors;
Reduction in cost and improvement in workforce safety, particularly for hazardous or difficult-to-
access environments;
Richer, more detailed 3D spatial data;
Modular architecture to allow element reuse and adaptation for multiple applications in different
sectors.
Limitations
Additional DIC software would have to be developed for Vessel Inspection purposes, and based on
their respective measurement specifications. The measurement specification identifies the types of
defects to identify and therefore provide information as to the accuracies in instrumentation and the
required DIC system.
Sources
Alternative Methods for Railway Tunnel Examination A Review and Recommendations; NPL
Report MAT 42;
Digital imaging for condition asset management (DIFCAM) (November 2013); National Physical
Laboratory.

REPORT // ENERGY
4.4 Guided Wave Ultrasonic
Source:
O&G Guided Wave Ultrasonic TRL: 9
Description
Guided Wave Ultrasonic Testing (GWUT) utilises stress waves that propagate along an elongated
structure while guided by its boundaries. This allows the waves to travel a long distance with little loss in
energy. GWUT uses very low ultrasonic frequencies, between 10~100kHz, compared to those used in
conventional ultrasonic testing. At higher frequencies the range is significantly reduced. Also, the
underlying physics of guided waves is more complex than bulk waves. The physical reflection of guided
waves enables the detection of defects with a depth much smaller than a wavelength.
Commonly used for routine pipeline inspection, the same principles can be used for defect detection in
vessels. Industrial pilots are taking place focussed on monitoring vessel floors using permanently
attached sensors.
TRL
9
8 Retrofit 1
7 Offshore 1
6
4
Coverage 1
Benefits 3 App/Lim
2 Sample/Full Area 1
1
0 Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks
Costs
Potential for continuous monitoring Operations/Maintenance 2
Non-invasive once fitted Production Impact 0
Potentially high cost to retrofit
Applies to vessel floor only Benefits
Not yet proven effective Cost Benefits 2
Safety Benefits 2
Other Industries
Marine transport

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
Guided Wave Ultrasonic Testing (GWUT) for tank monitoring has been under development at TWI for
a number of years and is currently deployed in oil and gas storage facilities as part of an ongoing pilot
to prove the technology. GWUT for tank monitoring involves the use of low frequency ultrasound to
examine above ground storage tanks internal floor plates for corrosion. The technique uses a number
of permanently attached sensors which are bonded to the lip of the annular plate extending beyond
the tank wall. The long distance propagation characteristics of the ultrasonic waves used allow signals
from one side of the tank to be picked up by a sensor on the other side (up to 30m diameter).
By using combinations of transmit and receive amongst the set of sensors, it is possible to cover the
whole floor area. By taking readings from the sensors regularly and with the circular geometry of the
tanks structure it allows a tomographic method to be used to reconstruct an image of the tank floor
from the transmitted ultrasonic signals.
The image is formed by collecting information at many

angular positions around the circumference of the tank
so long term trends in the condition of the floor can
be determined. The technique also allows short term
variations, for example from temperature fluctuations
or changes in the fill levels in the tank, to be separated
from changes in the physical condition of the floor.
In this way, tanks needing priority attention may be
identified and the more rigorous internal examinations
may be concentrated on these.
The welding institute (TWI) has proven that the technology is capable of detecting corrosion and that
the principle of the detection of degradation of the condition of tank floors has been demonstrated.
The current pilot continues as it is vital that the ability of this non-invasive technique to detect and to
identify adequately real service-induced corrosion or cracking is determined, if it is ever going to be
used as a primary online monitoring method in live plants.
Imperial College London is also conducting studies using GWUT for vessel inspection in conjunction
with work they are doing using this technology for CUI in pipeline inspection. Although at an early
stage Imperial College London is continuing to build on vessel inspection using GWUT by using sensors
that sweep the section under test (almost like a lighthouse beacon) and is also looking at a robotic
method of deploying GWUT technology
Key Attributes
Allows continuous monitoring;
Non-invasive once fitted.
Limitations
Requires retro-fitting to vessels;
Potentially high cost;
Research has mainly been for vessel floor monitoring only;
Requires high levels of expertise to apply and interpret results;
Still to be proven as an effective technique.
Sources
www3.imperial.ac.uk/nde/researchthemes/inspection/guidedultrasonicwaves;
TWI research paper
Long Range Guided Wave Inspection Usage Current Commercial Capabilities and Research
Directions, 2006, M.J.S. Lowe and P. Cawley. Department of Mechanical Engineering Imperial
College London;

REPORT // ENERGY
BS 9690-2:2011 Non-destructive testing. Guided wave testing. Basic requirements for guided
wave testing of pipes, pipelines and structural tubulars. British Standards Institute. ISBN 978 0
580 73794 7.

REPORT // ENERGY
4.5 Acoustic Resonance
Source:
O&G Acoustic Resonance TRL: 7
Description
A sending transducer transmits a broad-band acoustic signal towards the pipeline. The signal then
spreads in the structure, exciting half-wave resonances, and the structure's response signal is then
detected by the receiving transducer.
Analysis of the frequency content of the response signal gives the resonance peak frequencies, from
which the base resonance frequency - and ultimately the structure's thickness - can be estimated.
During post-processing, multiple measurements can be combined to estimate the size and depth of
flaws, such as wall loss, in the metal structure.
TRL Applicability / Limitations

10
With Plant Running 1
9
8 Retrofit 1
7
Offshore 1
6
4
Benefits App/Lim Coverage 2
3
1
0 Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 2
Costs Risks
Costs
Potentially very accurate Operations/Maintenance 2
Does not directly detect corrosion, detects wall loss and may Production Impact 1
not be able to distinguish between external and internal wall
loss;
Benefits
Cost Benefits 2
Safety Benefits 2
Other Industries

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
Acoustic resonance technology (ART) uses a sending transducer to transmit a broad-band acoustic
signal towards the metal structure. The signal then spreads in the structure, exciting half-wave
resonances, and the structures response signal is then detected by the receiving transducer.
Analysis of the frequency content of the

response signal gives the resonance peak
frequencies, from which the base resonance
frequency and ultimately the structures
thickness can be estimated. During post-
processing, multiple measurements can be
combined to estimate the size and depth
of flaws, such as wall loss, in the metal
structure.
This technique can potentially be used for

detecting corrosion and wall loss in vessels without entering the vessels, however we are not aware of
any products or trials looking at this area.
Key Attributes
Measures internal and external wall thickness;
Potentially very accurate scans;
Scans through fire coatings.
Limitations
Accuracy is limited with irregular geometry;
Needs 360 degree access to pipeline;
The deployment of the technique is slow with the receiving sensor needing to be in close
proximity to transmitter;
Cant yet scan through metal cladding.
Sources
Halfwave website: http://www.halfwave.com/acoustic-resonance-technology-art/
NASA TRL 7 Initial production use (less than 3 years)

REPORT // ENERGY
4.6 Autonomous Inspection
Source:
O&G Autonomous Inspection TRL: 6
Description
Autonomous inspection technologies build on the capability of remote mobile inspection techniques by
completely removing operator dependence. Developments in processing, battery, sensor and decision-
making technologies allows for devices with the potential to autonomously navigate objects and perform
inspections without human involvement, taking advantage of the ongoing improvements in the
portability, automation and consistency of the scanners available for a range of NDT techniques.
Underwater Autonomous Vehicles (UAVs) and autonomous crawlers for topside use offer a potentially
transformational platform for future inspection operations.
TRL
9
Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
6
Need for Specialist Skills 2
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits 3 App/Lim
2
Sample/Full Area 1
1
0 Risks
Cultural Change 1
Safety 3
Complexity 1
Costs Risks
Costs
Able to operate without human involvement. Operations/Maintenance 2
Reduces likelihood of operator error during often lengthy, Production Impact 0
tedious human-controlled inspection.
Not subject to the same inspection range limitations of
remotely operated devices. Benefits
Can carry out work where humans are unable or unwilling. Cost Benefits 4
Can allow work to be carried out remotely onshore, offshore, Safety Benefits 4
topside and subsea.
Multiple application within the oil and gas domain. Other Industries
Medical Industry Agriculture
Space exploration Aerospace
Manufacturing Military
Nuclear

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
Autonomous inspection technologies build on the capability of remote mobile inspection techniques
(and all of their associated safety and economic advantages) by removing operator dependence from
inspection devices. Developments in processing, battery, sensor and decision-making technologies
has now allowed for devices with the potential to autonomously navigate a target environment and
perform inspections without human involvement.
The two primary areas where remote mobile inspection techniques primarily apply is subsea via ROVs
and plant inspection via remotely operated robotic devices such as crawlers. Both of these areas
have seen significant research, development and, in some cases, product development focussed on
autonomous variants, whether that be autonomous vehicles (AV) or autonomous crawlers.
AV currently under development are capable of

autonomously homing and docking, providing
the ability to deploy and recover a vehicle at
depth. Once deployed, AV can carry out facility
inspections, including as built surveys, baseline
surveys of existing structures, decommissioning
surveys, and the use of high res sonar for
structural integrity assessment and generation
of 3D structural models. They are also capable of
autonomously locating, tracking and surveying
pipelines/flowlines, operating at depths of up to
4,000 metres.
Autonomous crawlers have been used for some time in electricity networks, aerospace and shipping for
the automated inspection of high voltage power lines, military/commercial aircraft and hull inspection.
They take advantage of the ongoing improvements in portability, automation and consistency of
the scanners available for a range of NDT techniques. Crawlers can either be pre-programmed to
perform (and repeat) inspections at pre-defined locations, or have the on-board capability to sense
and manoeuvre around/over obstacles encountered, typically using rollers, magnetism, suction, or a
combination of these, to traverse an object.
Unlike remotely operated inspection, autonomous vehicles

also require autonomy of power and so their operation time
can be limited by the lifespan of their on-board power supply.
In response to this, devices can be programmed to return to a
base station for charging when the power supply is sufficiently
diminished.
Autonomous operation typically requires alternate methods

of data capture and recording to be used than those on remote
mobile solutions. Common alternatives include wireless data
transfer and/or on-board recording of data during operation
for subsequent transfer upon return to a base station.
Key Attributes
Able to operate without human involvement;
Reduces likelihood of operator error during often lengthy, tedious human-controlled inspection;
Not subject to the same inspection range limitations of remotely operated devices;
Can carry out work where humans are unable or unwilling;
Can allow work to be carried out remotely onshore, offshore, topside and subsea;
Multiple application within the oil and gas domain.

REPORT // ENERGY
Limitations
Autonomy of power supply can limit operational time between power supply replenishment;
May require additional infrastructure to support power and data transfer requirements;
Each different inspection requirement typically requires a different robot specifically designed
for that requirement.
Sources
Lockheed Martin MST Undersea Systems
NASA TRL 6 Industrial pilot in idealised conditions.

REPORT // ENERGY
4.7 Full Matrix Capture
Source:
O&G Full Matrix Capture TRL: 6
Description
Full matrix capture (FMC) is a data acquisition technique that allows for the capture of every possible
transmit-receive combination for a given ultrasonic phased array (PA) transducer.
Inspection using PA ultrasonic techniques is now relatively well established, with several advantages
over conventional ultrasonic techniques resulting from the ability to steer and focus ultrasonic waves
using a single transducer containing multiple probes. By utilising beam steering and focussing, a single
transducer can perform a task which usually requires multiple conventional ultrasonic transducers.
Post-processing of FMC data can provide much more information than standard PA processing;
focusing depths and beam angles can be optimised after the inspection

10
9
8 Retrofit 1
7
Offshore 1
6
4
3
1
0 Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks
Costs
Fully focused images Operations/Maintenance 2
High sensitivity to small flaws Production Impact 0
High resolution
Ease of inspection setup as no need to apply complex focal Benefits
laws
Cost Benefits 3
Ease of interpretation
Safety Benefits 4
In comparison to Phased Array, FMC offers:
Better perspective Other Industries
Improved vertical resolution Nuclear
Improved flaw definition, allowing for better sizing
Summary
Full matrix capture (FMC) is a data acquisition technique that allows for the capture of every possible
transmit-receive combination for a given ultrasonic phased array (PA) transducer.
Inspection using PA ultrasonic techniques is now relatively well established, with several advantages
over conventional ultrasonic techniques resulting from the ability to steer and focus ultrasonic waves

REPORT // ENERGY
using a single transducer containing multiple probes. By utilising beam steering and focussing, a single
transducer can perform a task which usually requires multiple conventional ultrasonic transducers.
Electronic beam steering also minimises the requirement for mechanical movement of the transducer,
which can save time, improves flaw sizing accuracy, and is advantageous when access to a component
is limited.
FMC is a data acquisition process which captures and stores A-scan (time-amplitude) data for every
transmitter-receiver combination of elements in a Phased Array. The technique uses a transmit on
one and receive on all data capture approach. Initially, a single element in the array is used as a
transmitter, while all elements then receive. This process repeats until all elements in the array have
been fired.
The image below illustrates the FMC principles.
During the standard PA acquisition process, the raw signals are processed at the hardware level
and are not available for subsequent off-line processing. However, with FMC all raw information is
available after capture to synthetically generate the data resulting from any given beam through off-
line processing using an algorithm such as the Total Focussing Method (TFM).
Post-processing of FMC data can provide much more information than standard PA processing;
focusing depths and beam angles can be optimised after the inspection to better characterise detected
indications. This is a significant benefit over the standard PA process and it might, in some cases,
prevent costly re-scans.
A comparison of images obtained using standard PA and FMC is shown below. Here the image on the
left was taken using standard PI and the higher resolution image on the right with FMC.

REPORT // ENERGY
Key Attributes
Fully focused images;
High sensitivity to small flaws;
High resolution;
Ease of inspection setup as no need to apply complex focal laws;
Ease of interpretation;
In comparison to Phased Array, FMC offers:
o Better perspective;
o Improved vertical resolution;
o Improved flaw definition, allowing for better sizing;
o Reduced misinterpretation of geometry echoes vs. defects.
Limitations
Equipment used must support very high data transfer rates and the ability to handle large data
files;
Equipment used must provide a very high signal quality with low levels of electronic noise.
Sources
The Welding Institute (TWI)
Real-time full matrix capture for ultrasonic non-destructive testing with acceleration of post-
processing through graphic hardware; NDT & E International; October 2012;
Development and Validation of a Full Matrix Capture Solution, Patrick Tremblay, Daniel Richard;
ZETEC, Canada;
Full-Matrix Capture with a Customizable Phased Array Instrument; Gavin Dao, Dominique
Braconnier and Matt Gruber.

REPORT // ENERGY
4.8 Remote Mobile Inspection
Source:
O&G Remote Mobile Inspection TRL: 6
Description
Remote mobile inspection can provide significant advantages over current manual methods of
inspection; this includes the ability to support human inspectors, and the ability to operate in hazardous,
harsh and dirty environments. There are different kinds of remotely operated inspection solutions in the
oil, gas and petrochemical industry, ranging from remotely operated subsea vehicles to mobile robotic
systems for topside use that can perform inspection and maintenance operations on assets.
This has placed remote mobile inspection in an ideal position to be an integral part of the inspection and
maintenance strategies.
TRL With Plant Running 0

10 Retrofit 1
9
8 Offshore 1
7
6
5 Coverage 2
4
Benefits 3 App/Lim Sample/Full Area 1
2
1 Risks
0
Cultural Change 2
Safety 3
Complexity 1
Costs Risks Costs

Assist human inspectors. Operations/Maintenance 2
Can carry out work where humans are unable or unwilling. Production Impact 0
Can allow work to be carried out remotely onshore, offshore,
topside and subsea.
Benefits
Some robotic technology allows maintenance and checks to
be carried out without shutdown of assets. Cost Benefits 3
Systems perform multiple tasks or can be fitted with sensor or Safety Benefits 4
control arms to suit the situation or requirements of that
specific task. Other Industries
Medical Industry Agriculture
Space exploration Aerospace
Manufacturing Military
Nuclear

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
There are different kinds of remotely operated inspection solutions in the oil, gas and petrochemical
industry, ranging from remotely operated subsea vehicles to mobile robotic systems for topside
use that can perform inspection and maintenance operations on assets. Systems range from tailor-
made solutions by inspection companies to commercially available inspection systems. The majority
of these remote systems have implemented a limited number of inspection technologies; these
include, amongst others, visual and camera systems (most of the remote systems are fitted with visual
inspection technology), ultrasonic sensors for thickness gauging, and magnetic or electromagnetic
systems.
One of the main advantages of remote mobile inspection solutions is that they can reach locations
inaccessible by humans because of size constraints, temperature, and immersion in liquids, hazardous
conditions, or height restrictions with safety concern.
The remote monitoring of hazardous on-shore plants and refineries is an emerging field for remotely
operated mobile robotic systems. Intelligent and reliable robotic and instrumentation systems have
been developed to enable onshore operators to monitor and control various parts of the plant from a
safe location. Remotely operated robotic systems are being used to allow human operators to perform
tasks such as gauge readings, valve and lever operations and monitoring of gas level, leakage, acoustic
anomalies and surface conditions remotely and safely.
Applications in the oil, gas and petrochemical industry for

asset inspections are limited, but the robotic solutions that
are being used are typically remote-controlled crawlers that
use magnetic wheels. These are able to climb the walls and
even the roof of (horizontal) assets. Some are able to cover
the whole inside area of an asset (without internals) and even
negotiate simple obstacles themselves. So far they have been
used for applications like the inspection of clean steam chests,
pressure vessels, and Above Ground Storage Tanks (AST) from
the outside. Although asset inspection typically requires
assets to be taken out of operation, robotic solutions with the
capability to inspect an AST floor while the tank remains in
service are available. Examples of remotely-controlled robotic
systems that can be used for asset inspection include the
OTIS, developed by A.Hak, MagneBike and FAST, developed
by Alstom Inspection Robotics, and a line of crawler systems
developed by TesTex.
Robotic solutions for the inspection and maintenance of assets in the oil, gas and petrochemical
industry have their foundations in the subsea domain. Due to the inaccessible environment (mainly
deep sea operations), Remotely Operated Vehicles, commonly referred to as ROVs, have been used
to assist in the development of offshore oil fields. Their tasks range from simple inspection of subsea
structures, pipelines and platforms, to connecting pipelines and placing underwater manifolds. They
are used extensively both in the initial construction of a subsea development and the subsequent
repair and maintenance of the assets. Most ROVs are equipped with video cameras and lighting
systems, with additional equipment added to expand the vehicles capabilities. These often include
still cameras, manipulators or cutting arms, water samplers, and instruments that measure water
clarity, light penetration, and temperature. There are also inspection and maintenance systems (such
as underwater welding) and magnetic or electromagnetic systems for internal and external inspections
of pipelines and the structural testing of offshore platforms.

REPORT // ENERGY
Key Attributes
Assist human inspectors 24/7;
Can carry out work where humans are unable or unwilling;
Can allow work to be carried out remotely onshore, offshore, topside and subsea;
Some robotic technology allows maintenance and check to be carried out without shutdown of
assets;
Multiple application within the oil and gas domain;
Many robotic systems perform multiple tasks or can be fitted with sensor or control arms to suit
the situation or requirements of that specific task.
Limitations
Although subsea ROV systems have been in operation for a considerable time and have a big industry
and track record behind them, the use of remote robotics in oil, gas and petrochemical maintenance
and inspection is less mature. However it is a growing industry, there is a need for this type of technology
and it expected to grow and expand as the technology and methods of deploying it develop.
Remote inspection typically takes longer than human inspection (although overall inspection
operational time may be reduced because fewer and/or less stringent safety measures are
required);
Range of remote inspection can be limited by the acceptable length and flexibility of power/data
cables;
Each different inspection requirement typically requires a different robot specifically designed
for that requirement.
Sources
testex-ndt.com/products/lfet-products/viper-crawler
a-hak-is.com/en/home/what_we_do/markets/tank_storage/integrated_tank_services/
inspection/online_robotic_tank_bottom_inspection
petrobotproject.eu
inspection-robotics.com/products
NASA TRL 6 Industrial pilot in idealised conditions

REPORT // ENERGY
4.9 3D Laser Scanning
Source:
O&G 3D Laser Scanning TRL: 6
Description
3D Laser Scanning enables non-invasive surveys and measurements for various industries and is
already in widespread use to provide accurate recording of asset infrastructure for onshore and offshore
assets within the oil and gas industry.
The resultant data point clouds can then be joined to form an accurate 3D digital model of the asset
which allows engineers to perform 3D walkthroughs to assist in the planning of changes and because
they are sufficiently accurate to take measurements from, can be used to identify placement for new
piping and vessels.

10
9
8 Retrofit 1
7
Offshore 1
6
4
Benefits 3 App/Lim Coverage 2
1
0 Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks
Costs
Extremely Accurate measurements (millimetres) Operations/Maintenance 2
Elimination of Rework Production Impact 0
Reduced man hours for on-site inspections
Non-invasive survey and inspection Benefits
Inspections can take place whilst the plant is still in operation Cost Benefits 2
Reduces the risk of safety to personnel Safety Benefits 2
Open Source Software compatibility
Other Industries

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
3D Laser Scanning enables non-invasive surveys and measurements for various industries and
is already in widespread use to provide accurate recording of asset infrastructure for onshore and
offshore assets within the oil and gas industry. The resultant data point clouds can then be joined to
form an accurate 3D digital model of the asset which allows engineers to perform 3D walkthroughs
to assist in the planning of changes and because they are sufficiently accurate to take measurements
from, can be used to identify placement for new piping, vessels and so on. The technology eliminates
issues with manual measurements and reference to original drawings, which can be time consuming
and possibly inaccurate.
Laser Scanning - How it works

A laser is fired and for every point that the laser hits, a point in space is recorded. A scanner records the
reflectivity of the surface, with cameras providing colour and Red Green Blue (RGB) values. The points
that are captured can be a million or more points of data per second and this creates what is known as
point cloud data a 3D end product for processing the captured data. Point clouds can be used directly
or transferred into other file systems for manipulation.
This scanned data can then be provided as photo realistic drawings and simulations which are
particularly useful in cases where no drawings exist or were originally only hard copies were available.
The data can also be converted into meshed or 3D surfaced models.
The images below show an example of a scan and the resultant 3D model and printed model.
Scan 3D Model 3D Printed Models
Studies have been carried and are on-going, in relation to utilising drones to carry the laser scanning
equipment.
There are commercially available solutions for general corrosion detection, and there are proposed
uses for external inspection of pressure vessels, however none currently for internal inspection. Laser
scanning could, if shown to work for vessel inspection, assist engineers in making quick decisions on
corrective maintenance work to aid and extend the lifetime of onshore and offshore assets. The risk
to employees can be reduced significantly by allowing scans remotely and thus minimising manual
scanning and measuring.
Benefits
Extremely Accurate measurements (millimetres);
Elimination of Rework;
Reduced man hours for on-site inspections;
Non-invasive survey and inspection;
Inspections can take place whilst the plant is still in operation;

REPORT // ENERGY
Limitations
The files produced can be very large;
Using the equipment requires trained and competent personnel;
Data interpretation requires skilled personnel;
Has not yet been shown to be of benefit in vessel inspection.
Sources
Interviews with Tech27 and ABB;
BS 5970:2001 Code of practice for thermal insulation of pipework and equipment;
HSE Document - RR659;
HSE Document - RR509;
API 571; 581.

REPORT // ENERGY
4.10 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
Source:
O&G Unmanned Aerial Vehicle TRL: 4
Description
The use of various types of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), popularly known as drones, has
increased rapidly in recent years - both for private leisure use, and for commercial aerial work.
A UAV can survey areas where there is a high risk of explosions due to the presence of flammable
gases and/or vapours. While operating in incendiary environments, a UAV avoids generating any
sparks or risks of inciting an explosive reaction.
The UAV can help accurately assess and help plan in advance upgrade work required by providing vital
information in real time
TRL
10
9 Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
5
4 Coverage 1
Benefits 3 App/Lim
Sample/Full Area 1
2
1
Risks
0
Cultural Change 2
Safety 1
Complexity 1
Costs Risks Costs

Can be used in a variety of situations Operations/Maintenance 2
Rapid deployment Production Impact 1
Real time data, still image and video capabilities
Cheaper and safer than conventional methods of inspection at Benefits
height
Cost Benefits 3
Certified for use in potentially explosive atmospheres
Safety Benefits 2
Height limitations
Payload limitations Other Industries
Flight restrictions may limit deployment Nuclear

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
The use of various types of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), popularly known as drones, has increased
rapidly in recent years - both for private leisure use, and for commercial aerial work. This summary
focuses on the use of this technology as an inspection and surveying tool.
Xamen Technologies manufacture UAV which can be used in a variety of situations and one in particular,
the LE 4-8X Dual ATEX, is of particular reference for vessel inspection because it is compliant with
European Explosive Atmosphere Environments Directive 94/9/EC and therefore suitable for use within
the oil and gas sector where there is a high risk of explosions due to the presence of flammable gases
and/or vapours.
Directive 94/9/EC (also known as ATEX 95 or the ATEX Equipment Directive) provides guidance
on the approximation of the laws of members states concerning equipment and protective systems
intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres. Although the UK follows the same standards
there are some differences in height and payload restrictions which this certification allows in the UK
where the UK restricts UAVs to a height of 393 ft. with a payload of 44lb. This is a drop in height and
payload when compared to restrictions in France which has a maximum height allowance of 492ft
and a payload allowance of 55lb but both are covered by Directive 94/9/EC. The Xamen LE 4-8X Dual
ATEX is certified for ATEX zone 2 operation generally and complies with the UK restrictions provided its
payload is restricted to 44lb.
The LE 4-8X Dual ATEX is dedicated to the oil and gas and chemical processing sectors and is designed
to reduce the risk and overhead costs associated with infrastructure maintenance and surveillance.
UAVs can help accurately assess and plan in advance upgrade work required by providing vital
information in real time. Many bodies of scheduled work require pre-planning to order equipment
and parts. Unscheduled maintenance or checks also requires pre-planning to some degree. Another
benefit of this technology is rapid deployment which allows a significant reduction in investigative
time, and this particular UAV can be ready to deploy in 5 minutes.
Total has trialled the LE 48X Dual ATEX and has certified it for use in its ATEX environments.

REPORT // ENERGY
UAV technology is suitable for rapid inspection external (above surface) inspection of oil tankers and
LNG carriers, and external inspection of assets such as platforms, floating production storage and
offloading (FPSO) vessels and onshore installations. It is also potentially suitable for internal inspection
of larger vessels.
For example, Total recently used a UAV drone to inspect a holding tank to determine the state of
its structure and contents. Total reported a significant time and cost reduction in comparison to
conventional methods of inspection, and the risk factor was also significantly reduced.
Use of drone technology to complete the assessment for Total cost $11,000, which included one day
preparation followed by 3 x 6 minutes flights carried out by a team of 2 people. In comparison if
this work had been carried out with conventional methods then the inspection would have taken a
days preparation followed by 2.5 days of work by a team of 8 people costing $66,000. Conventional
inspection methods also carry a higher level of risk for the people involved.
One benefit of this technology is being able inspect an asset in real time, capturing high resolution
stills, HD video and infrared images giving a detailed picture of the required piece of infrastructure.
The payload can be changed to suit the situation it is to be used in. Xamen is undertaking Research &
Development (R&D) which is testing different sensor types used in the oil and gas industry as payloads
rather than gyroscopic video cameras, gas detectors being one of these.
Key Attributes
Can be used in a variety of situations;
Rapid deployment;
Real time data, still image and video capabilities;
Cheaper and safer than conventional methods of inspection at height;
Certified for use in potentially explosive atmospheres;
Training facility allowing maintenance technicians to be certified in the use of (UAV) ;
If for any reason there is power failure or loss of control the UAV deploys a parachute and land
safely for subsequent retrieval.
Limitations
Operating height restrictions;
Payload limitations Max payload in the UK is 44lb which although a significant weight to carry
could reduce the types of sensor equipment that can be fitted;
Deployment may be restricted due to poor weather conditions;
May not provide full coverage where the equipment being observed is obscured from view, or
airspace surrounding the equipment is obstructed;
Flight restrictions may limit deployment current accepted practice is for drones to remain
within Line of Sight (LOS) of the operator.
Sources
hse.gov.uk/fireandexplosion/atex.htm;
ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/mechanical-engineering/atex;
linkedin.com/pulse/total-has-approved-use-le-4-8x-dual-atex-uav-designed-richard-vinuesa;
atexshop.com/atex-misc-c-170/atex-drone-le-48x-dual-p-904.html;
drone-atex.fr/index.php/fr;
news.directindustry.com/press/xamen-technologies/le-4-8x-dual-atex-innovation-inspection-
hazardous-atmosphere-161858-435313.html
NASA TRL 4 - Experimental Pilot in laboratory conditions.

REPORT // ENERGY
4.11 Environment and Health Monitoring System
Source:
O&G Environment and Health Monitoring System TRL: 3
Description
HUMS provide a way to monitor the condition of complex equipment, and derive prognostic analysis
such as Remaining Useful Life (RUL). As a multi-sensor system, EHMS collects data on the subsea
environment as well as MTS asset measurements. Although operating completely autonomously during
deployment, secure wireless functionality has been implemented in order to communicate with the
system for maintenance and data reclamation. The EHMS is intended to operate autonomously
throughout the deployment of an asset, gathering data on the environment the asset is exposed to, the
usage profile and key operating parameters which provide an indication of the health of the asset.
TRL
9 Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
5
4 Coverage 3
Benefits 3 App/Lim
Sample/Full Area 0
2
1
Risks
0
Cultural Change 1
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks Costs

Can monitor the condition of complex equipment Operations/Maintenance 1
Multi-sensor system Production Impact 0
Can operate autonomously
Requires no pressure hull penetration Benefits
Suitable for installation during both life extension programmes Cost Benefits 4
and new builds
Safety Benefits 2
Can be integrated into holistic platforms
Secure and encrypted data transmission Other Industries
System is still undergoing trials and is not ready for market
Summary
Condition monitoring of assets presents many potential benefits in terms of reduced maintenance
costs and, critically for submarine assets, higher reliability and availability. Historically, condition
monitoring has been used primarily in industrial applications where access to equipment to be
monitored is relatively straightforward. Data gathering has either been by periodic manual access to
equipment, or through sensors feeding data to a central location as part of a supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA) type system.

REPORT // ENERGY
Condition monitoring for outside pressure hull submarine equipment has historically been unachievable
due to the need for environmentally capable, power efficient sensing technology with the capability
to operate with little or no interaction with the internal submarine environment. Development of the
Health and Usage Monitoring Systems (HUMS) enables meaningful data on system performance and
operating environment to be gathered throughout a vessel deployment, in a package that requires no
pressure hull penetrations.
HUMS provides a way to monitor the condition of complex equipment, and derive prognostic
analysis such as Remaining Useful Life (RUL). This can bring many benefits, such as enabling auxiliary
equipment to take over operation of key functions before failure of primary equipment, the increased
understanding and insight into equipment being monitored highlighting development opportunities,
and anticipation of maintenance and logistical requirements which can reduce maintenance costs.
Furthermore, within the maritime industry there has historically been a view that methods relating
to Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) do not apply to bespoke design and manufacture of complex
one-off assets. However, advances in technology and analysis strategies enable HUMS capabilities to be
integrated into holistic platforms such as Integrated Platform Management Systems (IPMS) therefore
providing health monitoring and enhanced insight into the interdependences of components and sub-
systems within a complex asset.
As a multi-sensor system, EHMS collects data on the subsea environment as well as asset measurements,
to be stored securely using a well-respected encryption protocol for retrieval. Although operating
completely autonomously during deployment, secure wireless functionality has been implemented in
order to communicate with the system for maintenance and data reclamation.
The EHMS is intended to operate autonomously throughout the deployment of an asset, gathering
data on the environment the asset is exposed to, the usage profile and key operating parameters
which provide an indication of the health of the asset. This data is processed locally to the equipment
to provide a ready indication to service engineers of the asset condition and remaining useful life when
they access the equipment during maintenance periods. This approach makes the equipment suitable
for installation during both life extension programmes and new build, allowing condition based
maintenance decisions to be made, improving the availability of the asset while maintaining a cost
effective approach to maintenance. The equipment also has the capability to capture key operating
events, highlighted by the measures, which may assist in refining equipment specifications for future
generations and characterising route cause and rogue failures.
The first generation EHMS system has recently completed functional evaluation and is being packaged
for deployment trials. Initially the fully packaged unit shall be subject to environmental testing for
shock and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) to prove it worthy of sea trial.
The first generation EHMS system offers monitoring and indication capabilities of direct application
to planned maintenance strategies and offers insight into equipment use which may influence future
equipment specification. Development of the EHMS system could implement current state of the
art prognostic health monitoring techniques, allowing equipment health over time and expected
remaining useful life to be predicted.
Key Attributes
Can monitor the condition of complex equipment;
Multi-sensor system;
Can operate autonomously;
Requires no pressure hull penetration;
Suitable for installation during both life extension programmes and new builds;
Can be integrated into holistic platforms;
Secure and encrypted data transmission.

REPORT // ENERGY
Limitations
System is still undergoing trials and is not ready for market.
Sources
Dr. David Flynn, Health and usage monitoring systems: Enabling the future prediction of
remaining useful life for submarines, Proceedings of the 12th International Naval Engineering
Conference and Exhibition (INEC) 2014, pp850-860;
S. Cheng, K. Tom, L. Thomas, and M. Pecht, A wireless sensor system for prognostics and health
management, Sensors Journal, IEEE, vol. 10, pp. 856-862, 2010.
We estimate that on the NASA scale this technology scores:
NASA TRL 3 Proof of concept.

REPORT // ENERGY
4.12 Wideband Sonar Beam-steering
Source:
O&G Wideband Sonar Beam-Steering TRL: 3
Description
Multibeam Wideband Sonar (MBWS) is a technique for detection, classification and true recognition
beneath the seafloor. The technique offers enhanced imaging and wideband processing in replay and in
real-time
This technique has the potential to allow environmental, seabed and subsea structures to be inspected
with greatly increased resolution. The equipment can be deployed on range of nautical vehicles,
including autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) and ROVs

10
9
8 Retrofit 1
7
Offshore 1
6
4
3
1
0 Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 2
Costs Risks
Costs
Greater details over alternative sonar based solutions Operations/Maintenance 2
Cost efficient Production Impact 0
Modular design for easy upgrade path
Complements existing sensor suites Benefits
Can be used in multiple situations/applications Cost Benefits 2
Safety Benefits 1
Other Industries
Summary
New signal processing techniques in wideband sonar sensor technology inspired by Bottlenose
Dolphins can help extend the life of oil and gas pipelines by using remotely operated vehicles (ROVs)
to detect blockages, as a result of a new collaborative research project in Scotland.
The LF Multibeam Wideband Sonar (MBWS) delivers new sub-bottom imaging and capability for
detection, classification and true recognition beneath the seafloor. Full data rate over all channels
gives Spotlight LF complete control over imaging and wideband processing in replay and in real-time.

REPORT // ENERGY
The initiative, involving Heriot Watt Universitys Ocean Systems Laboratory, high-tech sonar and
underwater systems company, Hydrason Solutions, and CENSIS, the Scottish Innovation Centre for
sensor and imaging systems, is to develop an enhanced wideband sonar system based on the principles
of the marine mammals detection capabilities.
Using signal processing techniques from previous research conducted on Bottlenose Dolphins, the
project dramatically improves the range of data collected by wideband sonar devices.
The technology is unique in enabling users to accurately locate underwater objects, as well as
identifying their structure and composition, without making any direct contact. Existing sensor
products cannot penetrate objects, instead providing only an image outline. The system could have
a variety of applications, helping surveyors to find blockages in Pipelines and determine whether an
underwater support is still structurally sound.
This technique has the potential to allow environmental, seabed and subsea structures to be inspected
with greatly increased resolution. It could, for example, be used to detect hairline cracks in oil rigs
support legs or changes to the sediment on the seafloor.
The equipment can be deployed on range of nautical vehicles, including autonomous underwater
vehicles (AUVs) and ROVs. Multiple surveys can be conducted from one ship, making the device an
economic way of collecting data.
The oil and gas sector already makes extensive use of acoustic surveys particularly as installations
begin to be decommissioned. This technique has the potential to set a new standard in acoustic object
detection and identification in complex subsea environments. It could also reduce the costs of expensive
surveys, through a range of efficiencies and as part of a wider transition towards autonomous working.
Within the specific remit of this review, focussing on pressure vessel and CUI inspection, the advantages
of this technology are less obvious.
Key Attributes
Greater details over alternative sonar based solutions;
Cost efficient;
Modular design for easy upgrade path;
Complements existing sensor suites;
Can be used in multiple situations/applications.
Limitations
Limited usefulness for pressure vessel and/or CUI inspection;
Still under development but being used in the industry while R&D continues.
Sources
No direct links to documentation used to produce summary report.
We estimate that on the NASA scale this technology scores:

REPORT // ENERGY
4.13 Electromagnetic Inductance Degradation
Source:
O&G Electromagnetic Inductance Degradation TRL: 2
Description
Electromagnetic inductance degradation technique has the potential to monitor the microstructure of
steel during processing or in service. By measuring the magnetic properties using a portable probe it is
possible to determine the materials properties to quantify degradation during service, such as creep
damage or embrittlement, or to identify the signs of microstructural pre-cursors to fatigue crack
development.
Although this technology is at an early stage in its development it has the potential to add another NDT
technique with a range of applications including those in the oil and gas domain.

10
9
8 Retrofit 1
7
Offshore 1
6
4
3
1
0 Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks
Costs
Can scan large areas Operations/Maintenance 2
Provides accurate material measurements Production Impact 1
Can penetrate deep into structures
Provides condition based analysis on a the materials Benefits
microstructure
Cost Benefits 2
Can be used to perform quality test inspection during steel
production and fabrication. Safety Benefits 2
Other Industries
Summary
The National Physical Laboratory has undertaken research in using electromagnetic inductance for the
detection of degradation in steel structures within a number of industries.
Steel is the engineering material of choice in many demanding and safety critical applications, including
sub-sea pipelines and risers in the oil industry, tube and boiler components in electrical generation,
and pressure vessels in the nuclear industry.
In these applications it is very important to be able to monitor the condition of the microstructure,

REPORT // ENERGY
especially to quantify degradation during service, such as creep damage or embrittlement, or to

identify the signs of microstructural pre-cursors to fatigue crack development.
The microstructure of steel governs its electromagnetic (EM) properties and, therefore, EM sensing
offers potential measurement techniques to monitor the microstructure during processing or in
service. By measuring the magnetic properties using a portable probe it is possible to determine the
required material properties.
An example is the determination of the stress in 316 stainless steel using the relative magnetic
permeability. Building on NPLs experience in measuring the properties of magnetic materials with
stress applied, a technique has been established that uses NPL reference materials and calibration
curves to remotely measure the stress within safety critical assets.
NPL has a range of electrical conductivity reference materials used by the automotive and aerospace
sectors to determine the hardness of aluminium and aluminium alloys and combined with an extensive
range of magnetic material measurement facilities and magnetic field standards are applying this
knowledge to develop Non Destructive Testing (NDT) solutions for a range of applications, including
those in the Oil & Gas domain.
Key Attributes
Can scan large areas;
Provides accurate material measurements;
Can penetrate deep into structures;
Provides condition based analysis on a materials microstructure
Limitations
No solutions have yet been developed for use in the field.
Sources
National Physical Laboratory (NPL).
NASA TRL 2 Technology concept and/or application formulated.

REPORT // ENERGY
4.14 Terahertz Spectral Imaging
Source:
Nuclear Terahertz Spectral Imaging TRL: 2
Description
Terahertz (THz) waves occupy the wavelength range between microwave and infrared. In THz imaging,
the internal structure of an object is determined by analysing changes in a THz signal applied to the
object. THz waves can penetrate opaque materials and detect internal defects within non-metallic
materials which visible light cannot, such as foam, ceramics, glass, resin, paint, rubber, composites,
and concrete.
THz imaging has been extensively used in the Space and Aerospace sectors for testing of thermal
protection, foam insulation and carbon composites. Experimental results also show that THz imaging
may be used for detection of corrosion under paint and detection of corrosion within steel reinforced
concrete.
TRL
9
Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
6
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits 3 App/Lim
2
Sample/Full Area 1
1
0
Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks Costs

Can detect defects within non-metallic, opaque materials Operations/Maintenance 2
which visible light cannot
Production Impact 0
No human radiation hazard, unlike microwaves
Relatively new NDT technique, unproven for corrosion
Benefits
detection
Cost Benefits 4
Safety Benefits 3
Other Industries
Nuclear
Space
Aerospace

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
Long-term corrosion of steel in concrete structures is a particular concern for nuclear power plants as
there is compelling public interest in the safe operation of these plants for the many decades that they
are in operation and the additional decades it takes for them to be decommissioned.
Inspection techniques that are both non-destructive and which can detect long-term corrosion at its
earliest stages are needed to identify when remedial steps need to be taken to insure the integrity of
concrete structures at nuclear power plants.
Physics Materials and Applied Mathematics Research LLC is conducting research into how terahertz
imaging can be used to detect corrosion of steel in concrete structures. The overall objective of
this research program is to establish terahertz imaging and spectroscopy as the pre-eminent non-
destructive examination technique for locating and identifying corrosion in steel reinforced concrete
structures.
This is accomplished by pushing the limits of high-power terahertz systems to increase imaging depth
and by enhancing the detection sensitivity of terahertz spectroscopic methods to directly detect
corrosion by-products in concrete.
In Phase I effort is spent to identify which corrosion by-product

or promoting agent is most strongly detected with terahertz
imaging and spectroscopy. This is established via a combination
of theoretical and numerical modelling and experimental
benchmarking at terahertz frequencies.
Images are taken of steel in concrete to evaluate the imaging depth

and quality. The proposed technique enables rapid inspection of
nuclear plant structures and detection of corrosion in concrete.
Similar corrosion issues afflict aging infrastructure including highways, bridges, tunnels, buildings, and
dams. Earlier identification of corrosion in these structures significantly enhances public safety as well
as reducing the cost of corrosion, estimated to be in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually.
Key Attributes
Initial research program so some time before key attributes can be established.
Limitations
Initial research program so some time before any limitations become apparent.
Sources
Physics, Materials, and Applied Mathematics Research L.L.C

SECTION 5
CUI DETECTION
69
REPORT // ENERGY
5.1 Guided Wave Ultrasonic Testing
Source:
O&G Guided Wave Ultrasonic Testing TRL: 9
Description
Guided Wave Ultrasonic Testing (GWUT) utilises stress waves that propagate along an elongated
structure while guided by its boundaries. This allows the waves to travel a long distance with little loss in
energy. GWUT uses very low ultrasonic frequencies, between 10~100kHz, compared to those used in
conventional ultrasonic testing. At higher frequencies the range is significantly reduced. Also, the
underlying physics of guided waves is more complex than bulk waves. The physical reflection of guided
waves enables the detection of defects with a depth much smaller than a wavelength.
It allows rapid screening of long lengths of pipework for defects such as corrosion. As it requires only a
small section of pipework to be exposed to attach a single transducer array it has significant benefits in
relation to the detection of corrosion under insulation in pipework. GWUT is not suitable for complex
pipelines with a lot of T-Joints, bends, flanges and valves therefore not particularly useful for offshore
use.
10
9 Retrofit 1
8
Offshore 1
7
5
Coverage 1
4
2
1 Risks
0
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks Costs

Allows rapid screening of long lengths of pipeline up to 200m Operations/Maintenance 2
Limits the amount of lagging which needs to be removed to Production Impact 0
permit the testing
Data is automatically logged for subsequent analysis
Benefits
Only suitable for straight pipe runs
Cost Benefits 2
Relatively coarse, suitable for detection of large areas of
corrosion or erosion Safety Benefits 3
Highly skilled staff required

Other Industries
Summary
Initially designed as a screening method to allow more focussed non-destructive testing, NDT, of
pipelines using Guided Wave Ultrasonic Testing, GWUT has now developed into a routine pipeline
inspection technique.

REPORT // ENERGY
It allows rapid screening of long lengths of pipework for defects such as corrosion. As it requires only
a small section of pipework to be exposed to attach a single transducer array it has significant benefits
in relation to the detection of corrosion under insulation in pipework. It is possible to examine over
50m in length (25m in each direction from the transducer position). This is a very effective method for
long lengths but it cant be used for complex pipelines with a lot of T-Joints, bends, flanges and valves.
GWUT can be used on above ground pipelines in sections of up to 200m, commonly 20-30 metres.
This technique is referenced in several standards including BS 9690-2:2011 Non-destructive testing.
Guided wave testing. Basic requirements for guided wave testing of pipes, pipelines and structural
tubulars.
The method utilised generates stress waves that

propagate along an elongated structure while
guided by its boundaries. This allows the waves
to travel a long distance with little loss in energy.
GWUT uses very low ultrasonic frequencies,
between 10~100 kHz, compared to those used
in conventional ultrasonic testing. At higher
frequencies the range is significantly reduced.
Also, the underlying physics of guided waves
is more complex than bulk waves. The physical
reflection of guided waves enables the detection
of defects with a depth much smaller than a
wavelength.
An axially symmetric wave is generated in the pipeline from the array of low frequency transducers
attached around the circumference of the pipe to generate an axially symmetric wave that propagates
along the pipe in both the forward and backward directions. The Torsional wave mode is most
commonly used, although there is limited use of the longitudinal mode. The process uses a pulse-
echo configuration where the array of transducers is used for both the excitation and detection of the
signals.
A change in cross sectional area or stiffness generates an echo and the timing of the receipt of the echo
and its predicted speed at a designated frequency allows the location of the defect to be determined.
GWUT uses distance amplitude curves (DAC) to correct for attenuation and amplitude drops when
estimating the cross-section change (CSC) from a reflection at a certain distance. The DACs are usually
calibrated against a series of echoes with known signal amplitude such as weld echoes.
Once the DAC levels are set, the signal amplitude correlates well to the CSC of a defect. GWUT does not
measure the remaining wall thickness directly, but it is possible to group the defect severity in several
categories. One method of doing this is to exploit the mode conversion phenomenon of the excitation
signal where some energy of the axially symmetric wave mode is converted to the flexural modes at
a pipe feature. The amount of mode conversion provides an accurate estimate of the circumferential
extent of the defect, and together with the CSC, operators could establish the severity category.
Fixtures and features such as flanges cause large reflections and limits the range of the test. Also more
than one or two bends in the pipeline causes large reflections as does a T junction which is effectively
form a whole in the pipe form the end limit of the test range. Multiple feature which rise to complex
reflections limit the effective range.
Key Attributes
Allows rapid screening of long lengths of pipeline up to 200m;
Cost effective;
Limits the amount of lagging which needs to be removed to permit the testing;

REPORT // ENERGY
Data is automatically logged.
Limitations
Requires high levels of expertise to apply and interpret results;
Range is limited by flanges, bends and T Junctions;
Difficult to find areas of small pitting compared to overall loss of thickness.
Sources
www3.imperial.ac.uk/nde/researchthemes/inspection/guidedultrasonicwaves;
Long Range Guided Wave Inspection Usage Current Commercial Capabilities and Research
Directions, 2006, M.J.S. Lowe and P. Cawley. Department of Mechanical Engineering Imperial
College London;
BS 9690-2:2011 Non-destructive testing. Guided wave testing. Basic requirements for guided
wave testing of pipes, pipelines and structural tubulars. British Standards Institute. ISBN 978 0
580 73794 7.

REPORT // ENERGY
5.2 Radiographic - Digital Detector Array
Source:
Medical Digital Detector Array TRL: 9
Description
A Digital Detector Array (DDA) is a sensor device that converts ionising radiation into digital information
for display as a digital image, typically in real-time on a computer display.
An x-ray or gamma ray source is used to emit ionising radiation through an object and those rays then
interact with micro-electronic sensors contained within the flat panel DDA, creating a digital image
which corresponds to the energy pattern.
Originally developed for medical applications, DDAs are capable of detecting moderate to heavy
corrosion under insulation (CUI), moderate to heavy pitting, and pipes distorted from mechanical
damage. They can also find features such as welds or transverse joints under insulation.
10
9
Retrofit 1
8 Offshore 1
7
6
5 Coverage 3
4
2
1 Risks
0
Cultural Change 2
Safety 1
Complexity 2
Costs Risks
Costs
No surface preparation required. Operations/Maintenance 2
Easily interpreted. Production Impact 1
Portable (battery operated; wireless)
Can scan through insulation. Benefits
Provides a permanent digital record of the scan. Cost Benefits 3
Suitable for use with different radiation sources. Safety Benefits 2
Limited by the penetrating power of the source.
Vessel inspection limitations (requires hardware placement on Other Industries
both sides of the surface to be scanned). Medical
Radiation safety considerations. Potentially subject to more
stringent regulation via Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999
(IRR99).

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
A Digital Detector Array (DDA) is a sensor device that converts ionising radiation into digital information
for display as a digital image, typically in real-time on a computer display.
An x-ray or gamma ray source is used to emit

ionising radiation through an object and
those rays then interact with micro-electronic
sensors contained within the flat panel DDA,
creating a digital image which corresponds to
the energy pattern.
Brighter areas on the image result from higher

levels of radiation hitting the DDA, indicating
thinner or less dense sections of the object.
Inversely, darker areas on the image result
from lower levels of radiation hitting the DDA,
indicating sections where the object is thicker. Areas that are corroded or have other defects can be
identified by evaluating the colour contrast of the representation.
Originally developed for medical applications, DDAs are capable of detecting moderate to heavy
corrosion under insulation (CUI), moderate to heavy pitting, and pipes distorted from mechanical
damage. They can also find features such as welds or transverse joints under insulation.
With the development of new electronic, battery powered portable and even wireless digital detectors,
DDA radiography has grown in effectiveness over recent years for a wide range of plant and field
inspections and provides several advantages over traditional film-based and computed radiography
techniques. These include improved safety through reduced personnel exposure to radiation (due to
the high sensitivity of detectors and the associated reduction in energy required to create an image),
high image quality, high Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), high dynamic range, instantaneous feedback
(eliminating the need for later re-imaging), and lower environmental impact (due to the elimination of
chemical film processing), all contributing to an overall reduction in inspection time and the delivery
of considerable cost savings.
Additionally, depending on the software used, digital images captured using DDAs can be digitally
adjusted and enhanced, providing the ability to change properties such as brightness, contrast,
sharpness, rotation, colouring, magnification and to apply noise reduction. In this way, small or hidden
features can be better identified and characterised.
Key Attributes
No surface preparation required.
Easily interpreted.
Portable (battery operated; wireless)
Can scan through insulation.
Provides a permanent digital record of the scan.
Suitable for use with different radiation sources.
Limitations
Limited by the penetrating power of the source.
Potential impact on adjacent job sites.
Vessel inspection limitations (requires hardware placement on both sides of the surface to be
scanned).
Radiation safety considerations. Potentially subject to more stringent regulation via Ionising
Radiations Regulations 1999 (IRR99).

REPORT // ENERGY
Sources
Driving digital conversion for weld and corrosion inspection; GE Inspection Technologies.
Field Radiography with Advanced Digital Detector Arrays; GE Inspection Technologies.
NDT Wiki X-ray the Digital X-ray Encyclopedia; Vidisco Ltd.
Advancements in Industrial Digital Radiography Technology; Inspectioneering Journal.
Information For The Procurement And Conduct of NDT Part 3: Radiographic Inspection in Industry;
Health and Safety Executive

REPORT // ENERGY
5.3 Radiographic - Digital Detector Array
Source: Oil
& Gas Open Vision TRL: 9
Description
OpenVision is a light-weight, self-contained live video x-ray imaging system designed for portable,
hand-held radiographic inspection. It includes a battery-operated 70kV x-ray tube designed for portable
field operation and a highly sensitive radiographic imaging sensor, both located at either end of an
adjustable C-arm.
The system is commonly used for Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI) inspection and operates without the
requirement to remove insulation or undertake surface preparation. The real-time nature of its x-ray
imaging means that the unit can be continuously moved around and along pipework (including bends
and joints), enabling rapid detection of defects or the presence of water
TRL
10
9 Retrofit 1
8
Offshore 1
7
5
Coverage 2
4
2
1 Risks
0
Cultural Change 2
Safety 1
Complexity 2
Costs Risks Costs

Can scan through insulation, no surface preparation required Operations/Maintenance 2
Easily interpreted, portable (battery operated; wireless) Production Impact 1
Can detect CUI and water
Provides a permanent digital record of the scan Benefits
Suitable for use with different radiation sources Cost Benefits 3
Limited by the penetrating power of the source, pipe diameter, Safety Benefits 2
access constraints and has limited field of view
Vessel inspection limitations (requires hardware placement on Other Industries
both sides of the surface to be scanned)
Radiation safety considerations. Potentially subject to more
stringent regulation via Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999
(IRR99)

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
OpenVision is a light-weight, self-contained live video x-ray imaging system designed for portable, hand-
held radiographic inspection. It includes a battery-operated 70kV x-ray tube designed for portable
field operation and a highly sensitive radiographic imaging sensor, both located at either end of an
adjustable C-arm.
In order to carry out an inspection, the C-arm unit is placed

around the object to be imaged and a proprietary imaging
system then captures and displays a video representation
of the x-rays detected by the sensor. This video is displayed
in real-time (at 30 frames per second) on a hand-held LCD
viewer, head-mounted display, or portable recorder with
LCD display.
The system is commonly used for Corrosion Under

Insulation (CUI) inspection and operates without the
requirement to remove insulation or undertake surface
preparation. The real-time nature of its x-ray imaging
means that the unit can be continuously moved around and along pipework (including bends and
joints), enabling rapid detection of defects or the presence of water.
Pipework up to 25 inches in diameter can be inspected,

with a field of view of 4 inches by 6 inches. The system can
operate in temperatures ranging from -34C to 49, and a
single battery charge will permit 40 minutes of continuous
x-ray emission, which allows approximately 4 hours of
inspection under typical conditions.
The images produced by the system are relatively easy to

interpret, meaning that minimal field engineer training is
required. An engineer can typically be expected to inspect
300-500 feet of pipe per day using this system.
Key Attributes
Can scan through insulation, with no surface preparation or insulation/jacket removal required.
Portable (battery operated).
Captured video is easily interpreted, minimal training required.
Can detect water as well as defects.
Limitations
Potential impact on adjacent job sites.
Limited pipe diameter.
Limited field of view.
The presence of water can negatively impact image quality.
Radiation safety considerations. Potentially subject to more stringent regulation via Ionising
Radiations Regulations 1999 (IRR99).
Sources
QSA Global
Global X-Ray & Testing Corporation

REPORT // ENERGY
5.4 Sniffer Dogs
Source:
O&G Sniffer Dogs TRL: 6
Description
Sniffer Dogs are used as detectors in remote scent tracing (RST) technology, usually to detect the
presence of explosives or contraband in scent samples collected by sucking air from containers or air
freight. Here dogs are trained to detect CUI on pipes in scent samples collected at oil and gas plants.
In tests funded by the oil and gas industry, controlled laboratory conditions trained dogs are able to
differentiate between insulation samples taken from corroded pipes and samples taken from clean
pipes to an accuracy of circa 92%.
TRL
9
Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
6
5
4 Coverage 3
Benefits 3 App/Lim
Sample/Full Area 0
2
1
0
Risks
Cultural Change 1
Safety 2
Complexity 3
Costs Risks
Costs
Relatively low cost Operations/Maintenance 2
Relatively quick process Production Impact 1
Proven and well understood
Minimally invasive, requires insulation samples to be taken Benefits
Analysis conducted offsite Cost Benefits 3
Requires trained handlers Safety Benefits 3
Coverage dictated by sample size
Other Industries
Police
Summary
In a two year project funded by Gassco (with an investment of NOK 6.5 million) and supported by
Statoil, the Fjellanger Detection and Training Academy (FDAT) addressed the problem of detecting
Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI) using a Remote Scent Tracing (RST) technique: a system where
volatiles associated with corrosion are sampled and the sensitive nose of a trained dog is used to
detect these volatiles within the samples.

REPORT // ENERGY
Dogs used as detectors in remote scent tracing (RST) technology usually detect the presence of
explosives or contraband in scent samples collected by sucking air from containers or air freight. In
this study, five dogs were trained to detect CUI on pipes in scent samples collected at a gas processing
plant.
The technique consists of two main stages: the sampling stage at the plant itself (which could be done
by the plant owner or by FDTA), and the subsequent analysis stage using the trained dogs at FDTA.
Scent samples were made using specially designed sampling equipment, with air sucked through drain
plugs in the insulation material surrounding the pipes onto filter cartridges.
After their training (which was carried out using insulation material collected
earlier from other corroded locations at the plant), the dogs were presented
with the samples collected in the field. Note that the dogs were not deployed
in the actual plant, and instead sniffed at the samples once brought to
the laboratory. The dogs were able to discriminate between field samples
collected near corroded pipes and samples collected from non-corroded
locations equally well as they discriminated between training samples.
A number of locations were tested double-blind: a situation where no one at

the time of sampling or analysis by the dogs knew if the location was corroded
or not. Locations that the dogs responded to were opened subsequently for a
visual inspection, and corrosion was found under the insulation. No corrosion
was found at locations which the dogs had not responded to.
A refined approach was chosen where the response of a number of dogs was combined to further
improve reliability. In this manner, areas that were analysed could be divided into high, low or no
suspicion of corrosion, offering an important aid to setting visual inspection priorities.
Preliminary results showed that the sensitivity of the detection of field samples was 92%, and the
selectivity 93%.
The conclusion of the study was that the technique is now a proven technology and is ready to be
integrated into plant maintenance systems.
The application of such a technique in a preventive maintenance program at Oil and Gas facilities could
be useful to determine prioritisation and scheduling of maintenance, thus allowing a more efficient
allocation of the costly resources necessary for more traditional visual inspection.
The research has been presented at international conferences (HOIS conference, International Working
Dog Breeding Association 2013) and has been published in two scientific journals (Materials Evaluation
and Applied Animal Behaviour Science).
Alternative Approach Electronic Nose

Lockheed Martin, in conjunction with their strategic partners at the University of Pennsylvania, have
used a combination of molecular biology and materials science to developed a nano-biotechnology
electronic nose (E-Nose) equivalent, using DNA-wrapped carbon nanotubes (CNTs) to mimic
natures incredible sensitivity and selectivity. Work is now under way to transfer this technology from
the laboratory to the marketplace, combining it with Lockheeds carbon nanotube, fibre-based CNT

REPORT // ENERGY
chemical sensor technology to create hand-held and distributed sensors for a wide range of envisioned
applications, including:
Monitoring the internal environment of a space capsule;

Detecting chemical weapons and explosives;
Recognition of individuals based on fingerprint-like body odours;
Diagnosing cancer and other diseases from exhaled breath.
The E-Nose works by affixing DNA strands to single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), which are
excellent electrical conductors with signal transduction properties that change when the attached DNA
molecules interact with even minute amounts of volatile chemicals. When the chemical molecules
bind to the DNA, they change its structure. Those changes elicit an electrical signal that is transmitted
along the carbon nanotube. In effect, the nanotube feels the changes experienced by the DNA as it
interacts with other molecules. The changes depend on the DNA sequence, each of which will have a
different response to chemical analytes,
While a single-wall nanotube DNA combination cannot identify a particular chemical, the electrical
signal produced by an array of many different single-wall nanotube DNA combinations can indeed
identify a chemical, in the same way that the myriad receptors in the mammalian nose work in concert.
This pattern recognition is both specific and reproducible for a given chemical, and can distinguish
between two chemicals, differing even by a single atom or isomeric (left-handed or right-handed)
configuration.
The main obstacle to developing a practical sensor is the difficulty of predicting the response of a
given DNA sequence to a particular chemical, particularly given the extraordinarily fine distinctions
the technique can make. Rather than attempt to build prediction models based on empirical, trial
and error results, Lockheed Martin scientists have adopted a more systematic approach, utilising the
companys program in integrated computational materials engineering (ICME).
The high-level objective of ICME is to remove reliance on trial and error, and instead apply an array of
computational techniques to predict the properties and behaviour of new materials and new devices
before they are built. In the case of the carbon nanotube sensors, molecular dynamics simulations are
used to understand how the binding of a chemical odorant alters the configuration of a DNA strand
with a particular sequence. Those structural results are then fed into quantum models of the electronic
structure of the nanotube to predict how its conductivity will change.
The outputs of the models guide experimental investigations, the results of which are used to further
refine the modelling. At that stage, data analytics and pattern recognition techniques are used to

REPORT // ENERGY
optimise the set of DNA sequences for most effectively providing responses to a wide range of chemical
odorants.
Each odorant will produce a different pattern, which is then stored and associated with the smell.
In this way the sensor is trained to recognize odours, much like sniffer dogs do. As such, when the
sensor encounters that odour again, it can pinpoint it exactly by comparison to the previously stored
patterns.
Key Attributes
Accuracy of the approach is circa 92%;
Analysis is conducted off-site in controlled conditions.
Electronic Nose:
Using a technique combining DNA and carbon nanotubes, this technique mimics the nose of
sniffer dogs.
Carbon nanotubes feel changes experienced by surrounding DNA as it interacts with other
molecules.
Pattern recognition techniques are used to detect and identify chemicals with a high degree of
sensitivity, selectivity and repeatability.
Limitations
Potentially perceived credibility gap might not be taken seriously;
Requires samples to be taken from insulation and sample sites to be sealed potentially introducing
weak spots into the remaining insulation.
Electronic Nose:
Experimental work, not yet transferred to, or proven in, a commercial scenario;
As with Sniffer Dogs, this requires samples to be taken from insulation and sample sites to be
sealed, potentially introducing weak spots into the remaining insulation.
Sources
Detection corrosion under insulation using dogs; Fjellanger Detection and Training Academy;
Sniffing out trouble, Gassco;
The science behind detection dog training; AlfaDog Training Academy, Fano, Italy;
Using dogs to detect hidden corrosion; Journal of Applied Animal Behaviour Science, April
2014.
Electronic Nose:
Lockheed Martin;
Physics Today; http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/magazine/physicstoday/news/10.1063/
PT.5.5003
NASA TRL 8 Production use >3 years or multiple deployments <3 years with limited track record.
Readiness Assessment Electronic Nose

NASA TRL 4 Experimental pilot in laboratory conditions.

REPORT // ENERGY
5.5 Pulsed Eddy Current

Source:
O&G Pulsed Eddy Current TRL: 8
Description
Pulsed eddy works by driving an electromagnetic field though the insulation and into the pipe. Pickup
sensors detect variations in the field that are caused by changes in the pipe. Proprietary software plots
the scans and provides data such as delta phase, delta amplitude, phase angles and voltage spans.
Once this data has been gathered and analysed it is used to identify and differentiate between welds,
corrosion and wire ties.
The technique is potentially able to detect larger areas of corrosion even through jacketing
TRL
9
Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
6
5
4 Coverage 3
Benefits 3 App/Lim
Sample/Full Area 1
2
1
0
Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 2
Costs Risks
Costs
Non-invasive, works through 4" stainless steel, 3" aluminium Operations/Maintenance 2
or 1" galvanised cladding
Production Impact 1
Can detect wall loss, pitting and larger areas of corrosion
Works for most common insulation materials
Benefits
Hand-held scanner available
Cost Benefits 4
Market Ready Safety Benefits 3
Other Industries
Summary
The pulsed eddy current (PEC) technique provides the ability to measure steel wall thickness without
contact between the instrument and steel. The advantage of this means that coated or insulated parts
can be inspected without having to de-lag or remove thick paints, protective materials, etc.
PEC technology allows specialist operators to measure the wall thickness of any carbon steel product
by measuring the depletion of eddy currents within the steel. By taking multiple readings across
the surface, PEC can then provide an overall map of the area to clearly identify areas of corrosion.

REPORT // ENERGY
The table below shows each measurement position from a PEC unit, with each point identifying the
thickness value presented in millimetres.
Typically, PEC is applied where there is no access to a steel surface (due to insulation, coating,
fireproofing, marine growth, or narrow access), where inspections are required underwater or in a
splash zone, or where there is a specific requirement for wall-thickness monitoring.
Significant industry investment and development is currently being applied to the PEC technique. A
newer improved implementation which significantly improves the efficiencies of the technique, whilst
also improving measurement accuracy, is scheduled for release during 2016.
Key Attributes
Ability to measure wall thickness without requiring direct contact on the part;
No need to remove lagging, coatings or protective materials such as weather sheeting;
No surface preparation required;
Can be deployed on topside, splash zone and subsea (via ROV);
Probe lift off range can be up to 250mm away from the steel;
Steel thickness measurement range from 4mm to 50mm;
Temperature range from -100C to +500C;
Very good reproducibility of repeat measurement +/- 0.05mm;
Provides a permanent record of the scanning data, allowing comparison over time;
Typical Applications:
o Composite warps;
o Vessel skirts;
o Sphere Legs;
o Risers;
o Caissons;
o Corrosion Blisters.
Limitations
Works for carbon steel and low-alloy steel only;
Measurements are an average across the probe footprint, not an absolute measurement of a
spot check;
Cannot differentiate between internal and external defects;
PEC readings depend on the electro-magnetic properties of the material;
Scan area geometry should be simple. Readings can be affected by nozzles, welds, internal and
support structures.

REPORT // ENERGY
Sources
Advanced NDT Inspection Services, Bilfinger Salamis UK Limited

REPORT // ENERGY
5.6 Microwave Sensing
Source:
O&G Microwave Sensing TRL: 8
Description
Microwaves of varying frequencies are injected into the insulation surrounding a pipe, and propagate
down the length of the pipe. Any areas of disruption to the insulation including water ingress cause
reflections which are picked up by the receiving device. Calculations then permit determination of
reflection locations along the pipe. This technique can also detect defects and corrosion in the
underlying pipeline directly as these introduce reflections into the signal.
Works well with straight pipes and can propagate well beyond bends of up to 90% in small diameter (8
or less) pipes. Bends in larger pipes can cause significant signal degradation. Works well with rockwool
and polyurethane foam, but is not suitable for glass foam insulation.
Requires further work to determine effectiveness in real plant conditions
TRL
9
Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
6
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits 3 App/Lim
2
Sample/Full Area 1
1
0 Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks
Costs
High sensitivity to water presence Operations/Maintenance 2
Works well with smaller pipes and copes with bends and pipe Production Impact 1
supports
Less effective where insulation is 100% saturated
Benefits
Effective for common insulation types
Cost Benefits 3
Not yet trialled in industry Safety Benefits 4
Other Industries
Summary
Work has been undertaken within the UK Research Centre in NDE (part of Imperial College London)
exploring the possibility of detecting the presence of water within insulation, a necessary precursor
to CUI.
Several current methods of pipeline inspection are sensitive only to regions in which corrosion has
already initiated and caused a reduction in wall-thickness. Instead, this work focussed on detecting

REPORT // ENERGY
the presence of water within the insulation, as an early warning of CUI. Existing methods of inspecting
pipelines for the presence of water, such as thermography and neutron backscatter, have particular
limitations which render them impractical for the inspection of entire lengths of pipeline (the former
has low sensitivity due to the presence of the cladding and the latter has a small inspection area).
The objective of this work was to identify a non-destructive examination (NDE) technique to monitor
lengths of pipeline for the first ingress of water into the insulation, providing an early warning of the
likely occurrence of CUI and prompting remedial action to reseal the cladding, thereby preventing
corrosion from initiating.
The focus of the work in particular was the possibility of a

pipe and cladding forming a coaxial waveguide which can
be used to propagate low frequency microwaves within
the insulation along the length of a pipe. Since water has a
relative permittivity (a measure of a substances effect on
electric fields) much higher than that of the surrounding
insulation, any patches of water along the pipeline give rise
to a strong reflection of the input microwave signal, providing
a method to detect and locate water patches.
The pipe acts as the inner conductor of the coaxial

waveguide, and the cladding acts as the outer conductor. The
microwaves propagate down the length of the pipeline within
the insulation layer between the two conductors, excited by
an antenna inserted into the insulation. If damaged cladding has allowed the ingress of water into the
insulation, then the wet insulation acts as an impedance discontinuity, causing a partial reflection of
the microwave signal. These pulse echo reflections can be used to detect and locate the presence of
water patches.
Experiments undertaken involved a coaxial waveguide with dimensions equivalent to a 6 inch pipe with
3 inch insulation, to test the principle of filtering out interference from higher order electromagnetic
modes using an antenna array i.e. multiple antennas in a circular array around the pipe circumference,
specifically 8 antennas positioned at 45 degree intervals. As part of this design work, an optimisation
routine was developed to find the optimum antenna design for a wide variety of pipeline specifications
(pipe diameters and insulation thickness).
A vector network analyser (VNA) was used to generate the microwave frequency signal, with a
frequency range from 10MHz to 67GHz. The VNA would sweep through the input frequency range
and record the reflection coefficient from the device under test. From this information, a process
called Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) was used to transform the frequency domain data into the
time domain, by Fourier analysis. The velocity of propagation is then used to calibrate the time axis to
distance, in order to determine the positions of the reflectors.
Sensitivity of this guided microwave technique was found to be excellent, with a volume of water
presenting only a 5% cross-section being readily detectable.
As well as detecting of water within lengths of straight piping, the technique has been validated when
applied to pipes which feature bends. For small pipe diameters (those that are 8 or less), and for 90
degree bends (the most commonly encountered bend angle) the transmission coefficient is typically
between 99% and 90%, indicating that the guided microwave technique is almost unaffected by the
presence of typical industrial bends in pipelines of these dimensions. Larger pipeline sizes, in the range
of 12 to 24, demonstrate transmission coefficients that are between 90% and 34%, the latter of
which would render inspecting beyond such bends impractical.

REPORT // ENERGY
Separately Heriot-Watt University has also undertaken design and development of a sensor system for
detection of CUI based on Microwave Sensing theory and using an Oil & Gas pipeline as the primary
asset for research and test purposes.
The design makes use of a sensor horn, constructed from Poly Methyl Methacrylate (PMMA) with a
conductive copper fibre lining. The horn is designed to operate in the frequency range 24-25.5GHz and
functions in an analogous manner to radar.
A number of different experimental scenarios were undertaken with the aim of replicating the various
configurations of a pipe with multi-layer insulation configurations. Defects in the materials were
machined by high precision machinery to ensure they met with specification. Sensor performance in
each configuration is summarised below:
Copper Defects
This experimental configuration was designed to demonstrate the principal of the CUI sensor;
Defects were machined at 3 depths (1.5mm, 1.0mm, 0.5mm) and 5 diameters (15mm, 10mm,
8mm, 5mm, 2mm);
Results showed clear phase shifts between the defects, with the signature being determined by
the permeability of the area being measured.
Copper Defects With insulation

This configuration was designed to prove the sensor could determine defects through insulation,
and used the same test piece from above with the addition of PMMA layers;
The PMMA simulated the insulation layer of the pipe, with the copper test piece representing
the pipe;
A clear phase shift between the defects could be seen for all the defects, as in the previous
experiment;
As the insulation depth increased, the intensity of the signal decreased due to the permittivity of
the PMMA reducing the net electric field.
Water Ingress
Where water levels increase within the insulation, this is detected via a particular phase shift (to
the right). This phase shift indicates two things:
o An increased permittivity due to the increase in water;
o An earlier reflection of the input wave due to the increased reflection of the insulation now
that it contains water.
A particular amplitude change was also detected due to the scatter effect and attenuating
properties of water.
Polymer Ageing
The (PMMA) sample was aged for varying amounts of time;
The permittivity of a material would be expected to change as it ages. A particular phase shift in
the results was detected, consistent with what would be expected as a result of ageing.
Accelerated Corrosion
Samples were exposed to chlorine solutions with a DC current of 880mA for increasing periods
of time to simulate both rust formation and then metal loss and pitting;
Results showed magnitude decreases in comparison to the healthy sample due to the changes in
surface finish, reducing reflection;
A phase shift was detected, attributable to the oxide layer, which functions as a dielectric (it is a
poor conductor).

REPORT // ENERGY
Painted Coating
A sample was provided by a company who produce commercial coatings for pipelines and other
assets;
The sample was prepared by hand so the coating was not uniform along the total length;
The coating contained Aluminium pigments which could potentially disrupt the signal and mask
the corrosion area (3cm x 3cm);
The corrosion was detected by a phase shift due to the permittivity of the corrosion spot;
Varying magnitudes were observed in the healthy base material, due to the scatter effect of the
aluminium pigments as well as the variance in the coating application.
Future Work / Vision

Design of a hand-held tool;
Design of a collar array;
Design of a horn antenna lens.
Key Attributes
Highly sensitive to water volumes, down to a 5% cross-sectional area;
A robust detection technique across a range of pipeline conditions;
The effect of most common insulation types is minimal;
It is possible to inspect beyond a typical industrial pipe bend;
It is possible to inspect beyond typical pipe supports.
Limitations
This technique has been successfully tested with both rockwool and polyurethane foam
insulation, but this method cannot be used for glass foam insulation due to its high level of
attenuation;
In scenarios where the transition from completely dry insulation to insulation that is fully
saturated with water, the reflection coefficient drops by a factor of two over a length of 0.25m.
This may introduce problems for field implementation if transition lengths between wet and dry
are significantly longer than this;
Further work required to obtain evidence of the effectiveness of the technique in conditions
subject to pipeline deviations such as dents, ovality and non-concentricity.
Sources
Microwave Based Monitoring System for Corrosion Under Insulation; School of Engineering &
Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh;
Use of Microwaves For The Detection Of Corrosion Under Insulation; Robin Elllis Jones,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College, London;
Use of Microwaves For The Detection Of Corrosion Under Insulation; R E Jones, F Simonetti, M
J S Lowe and I P Bradley; Imperial College London, University of Cincinnati and BP Exploration &
Production Company.

REPORT // ENERGY
5.7 Microwave Detection of Water within insulation
Source:
O&G Microwave Detection of Water TRL: 8
Description
This technique utilises a coaxial waveguide formed from the pipe and cladding which can be used to
propagate low frequency microwaves within the insulation along the length of a pipe. Since water has a
relative permittivity (a measure of a substances effect on electric fields) much higher than that of the
surrounding insulation, any patches of water along the pipeline give rise to a strong reflection of the
input microwave signal, providing a method to detect and locate water patches.
TRL
9
Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
6
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits 3 App/Lim
2
Sample/Full Area 1
1
0 Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks
Costs
High sensitivity to water presence Operations/Maintenance 2
Works well with smaller pipes and copes with bends and pipe Production Impact 1
supports
Less effective where insulation is 100% saturated
Benefits
Effective for common insulation types Cost Benefits 3
Safety Benefits 4
Other Industries
Summary
Work has been undertaken within the UK Research Centre in NDE (part of Imperial College London)
exploring the possibility of detecting the presence of water within insulation, a necessary precursor
to CUI.
Several current methods of pipeline inspection are sensitive only to regions in which corrosion has
already initiated and caused a reduction in wall-thickness. Instead, this work focussed on detecting

REPORT // ENERGY
the presence of water within the insulation, as an early warning of CUI. Existing methods of inspecting
pipelines for the presence of water, such as thermography and neutron backscatter, have particular
limitations which render them impractical for the inspection of entire lengths of pipeline (the former
has low sensitivity due to the presence of the cladding and the latter has a small inspection area).
The objective of this work was to identify a non-destructive examination (NDE) technique to monitor
lengths of pipeline for the first ingress of water into the insulation, providing an early warning of the
likely occurrence of CUI and prompting remedial action to reseal the cladding, thereby preventing
corrosion from initiating.
The focus of the work in particular was the possibility of a pipe and cladding forming a coaxial waveguide
which can be used to propagate low frequency microwaves within the insulation along the length of a
pipe. Since water has a relative permittivity (a measure of a substances effect on electric fields) much
higher than that of the surrounding insulation, any patches of water along the pipeline give rise to a
strong reflection of the input microwave signal, providing a method to detect and locate water patches.
The pipe acts as the inner conductor of the coaxial waveguide, and the cladding acts as the outer
conductor. The microwaves propagate down the length of the pipeline within the insulation layer
between the two conductors, excited by an antenna inserted into the insulation. If damaged cladding
has allowed the ingress of water into the insulation, then the wet insulation acts as an impedance
discontinuity, causing a partial reflection of the microwave signal. These pulse echo reflections can be
used to detect and locate the presence of water patches.
Experiments undertaken involved a coaxial waveguide with dimensions equivalent to a 6 inch pipe with
3 inch insulation, to test the principle of filtering out interference from higher order electromagnetic
modes using an antenna array i.e. multiple antennas in a circular array around the pipe circumference,
specifically 8 antennas positioned at 45 degree intervals. As part of this design work, an optimisation
routine was developed to find the optimum antenna design for a wide variety of pipeline specifications
(pipe diameters and insulation thickness).
A vector network analyser (VNA) was used

to generate the microwave frequency
signal, with a frequency range from 10MHz
to 67GHz. The VNA would sweep through
the input frequency range and record the
reflection coefficient from the device under
test. From this information, a process called
Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) was used
to transform the frequency domain data
into the time domain, by Fourier analysis.
The velocity of propagation is then used to
calibrate the time axis to distance, in order
to determine the positions of the reflectors.
Sensitivity of this guided microwave technique was found to be excellent, with a volume of water
presenting only a 5% cross-section being readily detectable.
As well as detecting of water within lengths of straight piping, the technique has been validated when
applied to pipes which feature bends. For small pipe diameters (those that are 8 or less), and for 90
degree bends (the most commonly encountered bend angle) the transmission coefficient is typically
between 99% and 90%, indicating that the guided microwave technique is almost unaffected by the

REPORT // ENERGY
presence of typical industrial bends in pipelines of these dimensions. Larger pipeline sizes, in the
range of 12 to 24, demonstrate transmission coefficients that are between 90% and 34%, the latter
of which would render inspecting beyond such bends impractical.
Key Attributes
Highly sensitive to water volumes, down to a 5% cross-sectional area;
A robust detection technique across a range of pipeline conditions:
o The effect of most common insulation types is minimal;
o It is possible to inspect beyond a typical industrial pipe bend;
o It is possible to inspect beyond typical pipe supports.
Limitations
This technique has been successfully tested with both rockwool and polyurethane foam
insulation, but this method cannot be used for glass foam insulation due to its high level of
attenuation;
In scenarios where the transition from completely dry insulation to insulation that is fully
saturated with water, the reflection coefficient drops by a factor of two over a length of 0.25m.
This may introduce problems for field implementation if transition lengths between wet and
dry are significantly longer than this;
Further work required to obtain evidence of the effectiveness of the technique in conditions
subject to pipeline deviations such as dents, ovality and non-concentricity.
Sources
Use of Microwaves For The Detection Of Corrosion Under Insulation; Robin Elllis Jones,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College, London;
Use of Microwaves For The Detection Of Corrosion Under Insulation; R E Jones, F Simonetti,
M J S Lowe and I P Bradley; Imperial College London, University of Cincinnati and BP Exploration
& Production Company.

REPORT // ENERGY
5.8 Vapour Phase Corrosion Inhibitor
Source:
O&G Vapour Phase Corrosion Inhibitor TRL: 8
Description
A vapour phase corrosion inhibitor is a volatile compound and forms a stable bond at the interface of
the metal, preventing penetration of corrosive substance to metal surfaces. VCI offers an alternative
way to protect stored equipment, facilities and their contents.
Adsorption of the inhibitor on to the metal surface provides a protective hydrophobic inhibitor layer to
slow corrosion significantly. Compared to other methods of corrosion prevention such as gas blanketing
and dehumidification, vapour phase corrosion inhibitors (VPCI) provide substantially better corrosion
control at lower cost and require very low dosage rate.
TRL
9
Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
6
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits 3 App/Lim
Sample/Full Area 1
2
1
Risks
0
Cultural Change 3
Safety 1
Complexity 2
Costs Risks Costs

Requires low dosage rate (12-24 month intervals) Operations/Maintenance 2
Stable up to 176C Production Impact 0
Rapid penetration through insulation jacket or thermal
insulation to reach pipe surface
Benefits
Can be applied through gravity fed system or portable injection
pump Cost Benefits 3
Can prevent further corrosion of surfaces already oxidised Safety Benefits 3
Volatile until bonded with surface and requires materials to

have stable passivating properties, strong tendencies towards Other Industries
surface adsorption
Summary
Vapour phase corrosion inhibitors (VPCI) are an alternative protection method that is both effective at
controlling corrosion and inexpensive. A VPCI is a volatile compound and forms a stable bond at the
interface of the metal, preventing penetration of corrosive substance to metal surfaces. VPCI offers an
alternative way to protect stored equipment, facilities and their contents.

REPORT // ENERGY
Adsorption of the inhibitor on to the metal surface provides a protective hydrophobic inhibitor layer
to slow corrosion significantly. Compared to other methods of corrosion prevention such as gas
blanketing and dehumidification, VPCIs provide substantially better corrosion control at lower cost and
require very low dosage rate.
This summary focuses on the (VPCI) CorroLogic VPCI-658 which is manufactured by corrosion protection
solutions company Cortec Corporation. A study was undertaken to ascertain the effectiveness of VPCI-
658 against a control group.
Four samples were assembled, two samples were used as controls (no inhibitor applied), and two
samples were wrapped with thermal insulation that was impregnated with CorroLogic VPCI-658.
The effectiveness of this inhibitor at minimising CUI damages was evaluated by different corrosion
tests. Two samples (one with inhibitor, 1 control) were placed in in a cyclic corrosion test chamber for
4800 hours. A 24 hour cycle consisted of 8 hours salt spray, 8 hours humidity at ambient temperature,
and 8 hours dry cycle at 45C.
The samples (one with inhibitor, 1 control) were disassembled every 720 hours (30 days) to evaluate
their surface condition and document the extent of corrosion damage at pipe/insulation interfaces.
The remaining two samples were tested in wet and dry cycles. A 200 ppm sodium chloride solution
was injected by tube into the pipe/insulation interfaces every 48 hours. Hot dry air (120-140oC) was
blown through the pipes (inner diameter) for two hours per day and ten held at ambient temperature.
These samples were also disassembled every 720 hours (30 days) for visual inspection and evaluation.
Corrosion rates were continuously monitored using Metal Samples MS3500E (a data-logger for data
storage) and electrical resistance probes.
The most noticeable changes were the positive shift in the breakdown potential and expansion of
the passive range for these alloys in the presence of CorroLogic VPCI-658. The inhibitor changed the
reactivity by reducing the pH level, increased the passivation range significantly, and was beneficial in
reducing localised corrosion damage.
Each one of the tests showed significant corrosion attack on the control samples but there was either
no corrosion or indiscernible rust formation on the samples treated with VPCI-658. Cortec states that
the results have demonstrated that CorroLogic VPCI-658 can successfully reduce corrosion attack
under insulation despite the pipe surfaces being maintained in continuously wet/dry cyclic conditions.
Key Attributes
Low cost;
Requires low dosage rate (12-24 month intervals);
Easy to apply;
Versatile;
Can and is be used to protect multiple metal types in a variety of industries;
Hydrophobic (exclude water molecules) film of roughly 6.35 micron on the surface that is stable

REPORT // ENERGY
up to 176C;
Rapid penetration through insulation jacket or thermal insulation to reach pipe surface;
Can be applied through gravity fed system or portable injection pump;
Can prevent further corrosion of surfaces already oxidised.
Limitations
Volatile until bonded with surface;
Requires materials to have stable passivating properties, strong tendencies towards surface
adsorption.
Sources
cortecvci.com/index2.php;
cortecvci.com/Publications/Papers/CorroLogic-VpCI-658-inhibitor-effects-on-CUI-final-report.
pdf;
cortecvci.com/Publications/PDS/VpCI-658.pdf.

REPORT // ENERGY
5.9 Lateral Wave LFET
Source:
O&G Low Frequency Electromagnetic Technique TRL: 7
Description
The Low Frequency Electromagnetic Technique (LFET) is used to detect defects by passing a low
frequency magnetic field though metal plate or pipe. By using several sensors in a LFET scanner, a 3D
image of the collected data is produced so that the shape and depth of the defect can be determined.
LFET scanners are used to inspect storage tanks and other convex or concave ferrous surfaces, as
well as non-ferrous metal tubing & piping surfaces. Scanners are available in flatbed, pipe crawler and
modular crawler variations, allowing scanning of horizontal or vertical magnetic surfaces.
In most situations minimal or no surface preparation is required but if surface preparation is required
beyond basic preparation, time involved along with cost will both increase
TRL
9
8
Retrofit 1
7 Offshore 1
6
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits 3 App/Lim
2
Sample/Full Area 1
1
0
Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 2
Costs Risks Costs

Inspection of pipe or flat surfaces Operations/Maintenance 2
Both magnetic and non-magnetic metals can be scanned Production Impact 1
Minimal pipe preparation and in some cases no preparation
required
Benefits
Real-time display with some LFET scanners
Cost Benefits 3
Inspects through ID or OD scale Safety Benefits 4
Other Industries
Summary
Low Frequency Electromagnetic Technique (LFET) works by injecting a low frequency magnetic field
into a metal plate or tube and using scanner-mounted pickup coils to detect the induced AC magnetic
field in the material measuring the distortions in the resulting magnetic field that occur over a flaw.
This pickup coil is placed such that the return path for the magnetic field is through the area to be
tested. Flaws are detected by measuring the magnetic field directly over the flaw area with sensor
coils.

REPORT // ENERGY
A flaw or defect causes the magnetic flux lines in that area to be distorted or different than expected.
This distortion can be measured as a change in phase and/or amplitude. With suitable calibration tables
the flaw can be analysed and a determination of flaw depth and shape can be made. By using several
sensors in the scanner array it is possible to display a 3D image of the collected data so that the shape
and depth of the flaw can be determined.
LFET scanners can be used in settings where

competing technologies fail or are inconvenient
LFET scanners detects flaws, including corrosion

cells and hydrogen damage, caustic and
phosphate gouging, oxygen pitting, departure
from nucleate boiler, ID pitting, corrosion, and
erosion.
Cracking is also detectable and its detection

can be optimised by modifying the pick-up coil
configuration.
There are various scanner systems that employ LFET technology manufactured with specific application
or situations in mind. Flatbed scanners for above ground tank scanning have a large scanning area, pipe
crawlers which run above pipes of varying diameter, 360 pipe crawler scanners which automatically
adjust to pipe diameter and modular crawler scanners that can be used to scan either horizontal or
vertical magnetic surfaces.
Key Attributes
Technology is in use and readily accessible from vendors;
Inspection of pipe or flat surfaces;
Both magnetic and non-magnetic metals can be scanned (as can economizer tubing);
Minimal Pipe Preparation and in some cases no preparation required;
Real-Time display with some LFET scanners;
Inspects through I.D. or O.D. scale.
Limitations
If pipe or surface preparation is required timescale is negatively impacted as are costs.
May not see through metal cladding/galvanised steel/certain other metals
Does not work well with irregular geometry
Requires highly skilled operatives
Sources
http://testex-ndt.com/products/lfet-products/
http://www.russelltech.com/
http://jenteksensors.com/oilgaspetrol.php
NASA TRL 7 Initial production use (less than 3 years)

REPORT // ENERGY
5.10 Corrosion Radar
Source: Oil
& Gas Corrosion Radar TRL: 4
Description
Corrosion Radar is a technology developed and patented by Cranfield University in response to the
industrial need for remote corrosion inspection and monitoring. It is a sensing technology for monitoring
CUI, corrosion under pipe support (CUPS) and buried pipe corrosion.
The Corrosion Radar system operates using permanently installed flexible long-range sensors mounted
along the outer surface of pipes (inside any insulation), eliminating the need for inspection scaffolding.
The sensors consist of 1mm wide lengths of flexible electromagnetic waveguide (resembling a wire
from the exterior, but having geometrical features inside) which support wave propagation, and an
innovative metallic sacrificial coating. This coating oxidises along with any external surface pipe
corrosion around it.
TRL
9
Retrofit 0
8
7 Offshore 1
6
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits 3 App/Lim
Sample/Full Area 0
2
1
Risks
0
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 3
Costs Risks Costs

Key Attributes
Staff Training 3
Long range remote corrosion monitoring technology with
continuous pipe coverage. Operations/Maintenance 2
Permanently installed sensors. Production Impact 1
Locates corrosion under insulation from several hundred

metres away. Benefits
Works even in a complex network of pipes. Cost Benefits 3
Insulation needs to be removed for sensor installation. Safety Benefits 2
Experimental technique, not yet transferred to, or proven in, a
commercial scenario Other Industries
Summary
Corrosion Radar is a technology developed and patented by Cranfield University in response to
the industrial need for remote corrosion inspection and monitoring. It is a sensing technology for
monitoring corrosion in applications such as corrosion under insulation (CUI), corrosion under pipe
support (CUPS) and buried pipe corrosion. It aims to assist with pinpointing the location of hidden
corrosion, thereby reducing the risk of leakages and the cost of inspection.

REPORT // ENERGY
The Corrosion Radar system operates using permanently installed flexible long-range sensors
mounted along the outer surface of pipes (inside any insulation), eliminating the need for inspection
scaffolding. The sensors consist of 1mm wide lengths of flexible electromagnetic waveguide
(resembling a wire from the exterior, but having geometrical features inside) which support wave
propagation, and an innovative metallic sacrificial coating. This coating oxidises along with any
external surface pipe corrosion around it.
Waves are sent in the waveguide using a hardware device and proprietary algorithms then detect the
location(s) of degraded sacrificial coating with an accuracy of +/-10cm from up to 500m away. This
significantly reduces the costs associated with blind inspection, by directing further inspections to
only the corrosion prone locations identified by Corrosion Radar.
The waveguide sensor itself is inexpensive and doesnt require specialist skills to install. The sensor is
passive under normal circumstances and is activated only when a field engineer connects a Corrosion
Radar Instrument on one end during periodic data collection. Note that the use of permanently
installed data collection instruments on-site for online monitoring is also feasible, but this has not
been developed yet.
Corrosion Radar builds upon the strengths of the Sacrificial Wire technique and eliminates some
of that techniques shortcomings. Firstly, Sacrificial Wire can only indicate whether corrosion has
occurred at some point along the wires length using a continuity test, but it cannot tell the location,
meaning several smaller wires with two ends need to be laid one after the other to monitor a pipe.
Also, once corroded, a wire needs to be replaced. In comparison, Corrosion Radar is designed to
locate the corrosion (within +/- 10cm) using a single sensor monitored from one end. The sensor
continues to work even when its coating is corroded at multiple locations because the wave continues
to propagate. As such, multiple corroded sections can be detected and located by a single sensor.
Sensors of a chosen length (e.g. 100m) each are connected together in a preferred arrangement to
enable replacement of a section if required.
The capability of Corrosion Radar has been demonstrated in lab conditions, with a lab prototype
available for demonstration purposes. Cranfield University are now looking for industrial sponsors,
partners and field test sites in order to further prove and develop the technology. Beyond periodic
inspection of pipelines, the Corrosion Radar team is continuing its research into online monitoring of
corrosion and algorithms to quantify the severity of corrosion and moisture.

REPORT // ENERGY
Key Attributes
Long range remote corrosion monitoring technology with continuous pipe coverage.
Permanently installed sensors.
Locates corrosion under insulation from several hundred metres away.
Works even in a complex network of pipes.
Limitations
Insulation needs to be removed for sensor installation.
Experimental technique, not yet transferred to, or proven in, a commercial scenario.
Sources
Cranfield University
Corrosion Radar; http://www.corrosionradar.com/
NASA TRL 4 Experimental pilot in laboratory conditions.

REPORT // ENERGY
5.11 Acoustic Resonance
Source:
O&G Acoustic Resonance TRL: 3
Description
A sending transducer transmits a broad-band acoustic signal towards the pipeline. The signal then
spreads in the structure, exciting half-wave resonances, and the structure's response signal is then
detected by the receiving transducer.
Analysis of the frequency content of the response signal gives the resonance peak frequencies, from
which the base resonance frequency - and ultimately the structure's thickness - can be estimated.
During post-processing, multiple measurements can be combined to estimate the size and depth of
flaws, such as wall loss, in the metal structure.
TRL
9 Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits 3 App/Lim
Sample/Full Area 1
2
1
Risks
0
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 2
Costs Risks Costs

Potentially very accurate Operations/Maintenance 2
Does not directly detect corrosion, detects wall loss and may Production Impact 1
not be able to distinguish between external and internal wall
loss;
Benefits
Cost Benefits 2
Safety Benefits 2
Other Industries

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
Acoustic resonance technology (ART) uses a sending transducer to transmit a broad-band acoustic
signal towards the metal structure. The signal then spreads in the structure, exciting half-wave
resonances, and the structures response signal is then detected by the receiving transducer.
Analysis of the frequency content

of the response signal gives the
resonance peak frequencies,
from which the base resonance
frequency and ultimately the
structures thickness can be
estimated. During post-processing,
multiple measurements can be
combined to estimate the size and
depth of flaws, such as wall loss, in
the metal structure.
This technique can potentially be

used for detecting corrosion and wall loss in vessels without entering the vessels, however we are not
aware of any products or trials looking at this area.
Key Attributes
Potentially very accurate scans;
Limitations
Accuracy is limited with irregular geometry
Needs 360 degree access to pipeline
The deployment of the technique is slow with the receiving sensor needing to be in close
proximity to transmitter.
Sources
Halfwave website: http://www.halfwave.com/acoustic-resonance-technology-art/
NASA TRL 3 Proof of concept

REPORT // ENERGY
5.12 Sacrificial Wire
Source:
O&G Sacrificial Wire TRL: 3
Description
Currently under trial by BP and Shell, this technique is based on the location of thin wire adjacent to the
pipe and under the insulation, where the thickness and material of the wire is chosen to corrode at the
same rate as the pipe itself. The wire is typically wrapped around the pipe as a continuous spiral
forming a complete circuit and can be extended to a suitable monitoring point.
Should corrosion occur then the wire loses the ability to conduct electricity. This can be detected by
operators using COTS hand-held resistance meters or multi-meters to determine the resistance of the
wire. Wires of varying thicknesses can be employed simultaneously to provide an estimate of rate of
corrosion.
This technique is relatively low cost both to install and to monitor and can be applied to new pipes and
retrofitted to existing pipes following a repair
TRL
9
Retrofit 0
8
7 Offshore 1
6
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits 3 App/Lim
2
Sample/Full Area 0
1
0 Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 3
Costs Risks
Costs
Minimal equipment to install and use Operations/Maintenance 2
Minimal training Production Impact 1
Potential for automated continuous data collection
Depends on element failure to detect corrosion Benefits
Indicates presence/absence of corrosion but not rate of Cost Benefits 3
corrosion Safety Benefits 2
Other Industries
Summary
This solution for CUI detection is based on the location of thin wire adjacent to the pipe and under the
insulation, where the thickness and material of the wire is chosen to corrode at the same rate as the
pipe itself. The wire is typically wrapped around the pipe as a continuous spiral forming a complete
circuit and can be extended to a suitable monitoring point.

REPORT // ENERGY
Should corrosion occur then the wire loses

the ability to conduct electricity. This can be
detected by operators using COTS hand-held
resistance meters or multi-meters to determine
the resistance of the wire. Wires of varying
thicknesses can be employed simultaneously to
provide an estimate of rate of corrosion.
This technique is relatively low cost both to install

and to monitor and can be applied to new pipes
and retrofitted to existing pipes following a repair.
In addition to the continuous corrosion fuse technique described above, Cosasco offers two other
variants on this technology:
Inserted probe array;
Electrical Resistance (ER) Probe.
The Inserted Probe Array consists of a set of 4

probes inserted through the insulation at discrete
points symmetrically round the circumference of
the pipe and is designed to be used following
a repair to the pipe and/or insulation. As the
probes can be inserted without removal of the
insulation, this technique is also suitable for
retrofitting existing pipes.
Electrical Resistance Probe provides a

measurement of corrosion at a specific point on the pipeline. The sensor element can be inserted
through existing insulation.
Whilst the cost of installation is relatively low, it should be noted that sacrificial detection sensors
detect corrosion by failing, and require replacement as and when an event is detected and the pipe
and/or insulation is repaired.
The techniques described here and as described by Cosasco are intended to be used in a manual
operator/engineer based scheduled rota and can also be used within a risk assessment based approach.
Lockheed Martin notes that with the advent of low cost/low power Wifi and Bluetooth enabled
sensors (Internet of Things) it may prove feasible to combine basic remote sensors and the sacrificial
wire technology to provide automate continuous input to a plant data historian allowing for earlier and
more consistent detection.
History of Use
Cosasco originally developed Sacrificial Wire detection for BP for use in Alaska. Following successful
laboratory trials BP installed 200 wires in Alaska circa 3 years ago. BP has not reported back on the
effectiveness of the technique yet, possibly because the pipelines in the trial are managed effectively
and have not suffered significant recent corrosion.
The products have also been used offshore in Thailand, however as with BP the products have not
been in place long enough for significant corrosion to occur.
Cosasco is also currently conducting separate trials with BP and Shell, the results of which are not yet
available at the time of writing.

REPORT // ENERGY
Key Attributes
The key attributes of these methods for CUI detection are:
Relatively Low Cost;
Can be fitted to new pipes or retrofitted to existing pipes with minimal impact on existing
insulation;
Minimal training required both for installation teams and for operators/support technicians;
Minimal equipment required to install and use;
Potential for automated continuous data collection.
Limitations
Relatively new product set currently undergoing field trials so effectiveness is unknown;
As it depends on failure of elements to detect corrosion it is essentially binary in nature. It is
possible to install multiple wires to permit a stepped response;
Whilst a single wire mesh can be used to cover large areas/lengths of pipe, any failure at any point
on the wire necessitates the removal of insulation for the whole of the mesh covered area for
visual inspection of the pipe and replacement of the entire mesh;
As the wires are designed to corrode at the same rate as the pipe, but are thinner, they will require
replacement throughout the lifetime of the pipe. Lifespan of the product is therefore based on the
quality of overall CUI control by the operator;
Where the products are used in a periodic or risk based assessment regime, it is possible for some
time to elapse between the sensor wire failing and this being picked up by technicians, during
which time the pipe may deteriorate further. Thus a single wire installation cannot be relied on
to indicate how much corrosion has happened, only that corrosion has taken place since the last
inspection.
Sources
CUI Sensors Rev5 Feb15.pdf available on request from Cosasco;
CUI Data Sheet 2016.pdf available on request from Cosasco;
Interview conducted by Lockheed Martin with Derek Morton of Cosasco on 20 January 2016.

REPORT // ENERGY
5.13 Electromagnetic Inductance
Source:
O&G Electromagnetic Inductance Degradation TRL: 3
Description
Electromagnetic inductance degradation technique has the potential to monitor the microstructure of
steel during processing or in service. By measuring the magnetic properties using a portable probe it is
possible to determine the materials properties to quantify degradation during service, such as creep
damage or embrittlement, or to identify the signs of microstructural pre-cursors to fatigue crack
development.
Although this technology is at an early stage in its development it has the potential to add another NDT
technique with a range of applications including those in the oil and gas domain.

9
8 Retrofit 1
7 Offshore 1
6
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits 3 App/Lim
2
Sample/Full Area 1
1
0
Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks Costs

Can scan large areas Operations/Maintenance 2
Provides accurate material measurements Production Impact 1
Provides condition based analysis on a the materials
microstructure
Benefits
Can be used to perform quality test inspection during steel
production and fabrication. Cost Benefits 2
Safety Benefits 2
Other Industries

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
The National Physical Laboratory has undertaken research in using electromagnetic inductance for
the detection of degradation in steel structures within a number of industries.
Steel is the engineering material of choice in many demanding and safety critical applications,
including sub-sea pipelines and risers in the oil industry, tube and boiler components in electrical
generation, and pressure vessels in the nuclear industry.
In these applications it is very important to be able to monitor the condition of the microstructure,
especially to quantify degradation during service, such as creep damage or embrittlement, or to
identify the signs of microstructural pre-cursors to fatigue crack development.
The microstructure of steel governs its electromagnetic (EM) properties and, therefore, EM sensing
offers potential measurement techniques to monitor the microstructure during processing or in
service. By measuring the magnetic properties using a portable probe it is possible to determine the
required material properties.
An example is the determination of the stress in 316 stainless steel using the relative magnetic
permeability. Building on NPLs experience in measuring the properties of magnetic materials with
stress applied, a technique has been established that uses NPL reference materials and calibration
curves to remotely measure the stress within safety critical assets.
NPL has a range of electrical conductivity reference materials used by the automotive and aerospace
sectors to determine the hardness of aluminium and aluminium alloys and combined with an extensive
range of magnetic material measurement facilities and magnetic field standards are applying this
knowledge to develop Non Destructive Testing (NDT) solutions for a range of applications, including
those in the Oil & Gas domain.
Key Attributes
Can scan up to 250mm away from the surface;
Provides accurate material measurements;
Can penetrate deep into structures;
Provides condition based analysis on a materials microstructure;
Minimal operator training required.
Limitations
An unproven technique for corrosion detection;
Scanning area limited by array size.
Sources
National Physical Laboratory (NPL).

REPORT // ENERGY
5.14 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
Source:
O&G Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy TRL: 3
Description
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) is an inspection method used to characterise
electrochemical processes such as corrosion. The method works by applying a small amplitude AC
current (usually in the range 5 to 50 mV) of varying frequencies (0.001 Hz to 100,000 Hz) to a
material and measuring its response. It is a non-destructive method for the evaluation of a wide
range of materials, including coatings, anodised films and corrosion inhibitors.
TRL
10
9 Retrofit 0
8
7
Offshore 0
5
4
Coverage 1
2
1 Risks
0
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 2
Costs Risks Costs

Successfully applied to the study of corrosion systems for 30 Operations/Maintenance 3
years
Production Impact 0
Very well suited to the study of paints and coatings used to
prevent corrosion, to the extent that there are ISO norms
developed for such tests Benefits
Requires an accurate control of the operating/testing Cost Benefits 1
conditions
Safety Benefits 1
Results can be challenging to interpret, particularly the
assignment of correct circuits/equations to the experimental
data Other Industries
Summary
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) is an inspection method used to characterise
electrochemical processes such as corrosion. The method works by applying a small amplitude AC
current (usually in the range 5 to 50 mV) of varying frequencies (0.001 Hz to 100,000 Hz) to a material
and measuring its response. It is a non-destructive method for the evaluation of a wide range of
materials, including coatings, anodised films and corrosion inhibitors.

REPORT // ENERGY
Analysis of the response is used to extract information about

the interface, its structure and reactions taking place there.
Chemical reactions such as corrosion tend to dominate at
certain frequencies. The responses are then modelled as
complex impedance circuits (where impedance is defined
as the opposition to the flow of AC current) and analysed
graphically using Nyquist plots and Bode plots. . For example,
the Bode plot to the right shows the impedance vs frequency
properties over time of a coating submerged in a solution of
sodium chloride (NaCl).
EIS can provide detailed information of the systems under

examination, including parameters such as corrosion rate, and direction of localised corrosion. In fact,
EIS has been successfully applied to the study of corrosion systems for many years and has been
proven to be a powerful and accurate method for measuring corrosion rates.
In particular, defects, limitations and the presence of corrosion in coatings are detectable with the
use of EIS. The metal coated system is generally fairly complex and consists of a metal substrate, a
surface pre-treatment and some layers of paint with different chemical and physical properties. All
these parameters can influence the electrochemical behaviour measured by EIS, and therefore also
the electrical models used to explain the impedance results.
EIS is a highly sensitive technique which makes it a good reference for other NDT methods. However,
this is a laboratory technique typically applied either to simulations of corrosion (often aligned to
ASTM standard G189) or to coating samples. As such, it is a complementary technique, typically used
in conjunction with other corrosion detection techniques.
Key Attributes
Successfully applied to the study of corrosion systems for 30 years;
Very well suited to the study of paints and coatings used to prevent corrosion, to the extent that
there are ISO norms developed for such tests.
Limitations
Requires an accurate control of the operating/testing conditions;
Results can be challenging to interpret, particularly the assignment of correct circuits/equations
to the experimental data.
Sources
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy as a tool for investigating underpaint corrosion; P.L.
Bonora, F. Deflorian, L. Fedrizzi;.
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy and its Applications (2014); Andrzej Lasia;
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
Use of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) for the Evaluation of Electrocoatings
Performances; Marie-Georges Olivier and Mireille Poelman; University of Mons, Belgium.

REPORT // ENERGY
5.15 Ultrasonic Surveys
Source:
O&G Ultrasonic Surveys TRL: 3
Description
Uses high frequency sound energy to inspect pipes and vessels. Works on steel, castings, welds and
composites. Can detect discontinuities, moisture and corrosion. Ultrasonic waves are introduced into a
material, where they travel in a straight line and at a constant speed until they encounter a surface. At
the surface interface, some of the energy is reflected and some is transmitted. The amount of reflected
or transmitted energy can be detected and provides information about the size of the reflector. The
travel time of the sound can be measured and this allows the distance the sound has travelled to be
calculated.
Recent improvements in techniques developed in the health industry and the use of an ultrasonic array
roller allow long lengths to be inspected for signs of corrosion under insulation once the array has been
attenuated for the insulating medium. Requires access to pipes and vessels but can be restricted by
insulating materials and casings such as aluminium.
TRL
9
Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
6
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits 3 App/Lim
2
Sample/Full Area 1
1
0 Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks
Costs
Detects discontinuities, moisture and corrosion Operations/Maintenance 2
Non-invasive, can be used whilst plant is running Production Impact 1
Works through some types of insulation not through metal
cladding
Benefits
Better suited for straight pipes
Cost Benefits 2
Requires skilled staff to interpret results Safety Benefits 1
Other Industries
Health
Summary
The Ultrasonic Inspection technique is a non-destructive testing (NDT) method involving high frequency
sound energy to carry out inspections and make measurements on pipes and vessels. Inspections can
be conducted on a wide variety of materials including castings, welds and composites. The information
collected from an object includes the presence of discontinuity, presence of moisture and signs of
corrosion.

REPORT // ENERGY
Ultrasonic waves are introduced into a material, where they travel in a straight line and at a constant
speed until they encounter a surface. At the surface interface, some of the energy is reflected and
some is transmitted. The amount of reflected or transmitted energy can be detected and provides
information about the size of the reflector. The travel time of the sound can be measured and this
allows the distance the sound has travelled to be calculated.
Recent improvements in
techniques developed in the
medical industry and the use of an
ultrasonic array roller allow long
lengths to be inspected for signs
of corrosion under insulation once
the array has been attenuated for
the insulating medium.
The technique is very effective for

easy to access pipes and vessels
but can be restricted by insulating
materials and casings such as
aluminium.
Research into suitable types of cladding and insulation to aid this type of inspection is required so
that it can be designed in to the plant. Research into transducer design to enable scanning through
materials such as aluminium cladding is also required.
Key Attributes
Can be used to monitor defects and detect the presence of water;
Monitoring can take place whilst the plant is still in operation, therefore there is minimal impact
on operations;
Can be used to monitor corrosion, welding and plant integrity;
Can detect surface corrosion through insulation;
Can be very cost effective providing vessels and pipes are in an easy condition to scan. i.e., long
lengths of pipe with ultrasonic friendly cladding or easily accessible vessels.
Limitations
May not work on all vessels;
Is limited to lengths of pipe with few joints or bends;
Limited by insulation cladding. Aluminium cladding makes penetration difficult;
Data interpretation requires skilled personnel, although there are a number of highly developed
procedures and codes which reduce the need for expert interpretation.
Sources
HSE Technical Document - Corrosion under insulation of plant and pipework v3 - SPC/TECH/
GEN/18;
Saurav Kumar Gupta Seminar on Ultrasonic Technique for Corrosion Detection;
Svein-Eric Masoy InPhase Solutions.

REPORT // ENERGY
5.16 Terahertz Spectral Imaging
Source:
Nuclear Terahertz Spectral Imaging TRL: 2
Description
Terahertz (THz) waves occupy the wavelength range between microwave and infrared. In THz imaging,
the internal structure of an object is determined by analysing changes in a THz signal applied to the
object. THz waves can penetrate opaque materials and detect internal defects within non-metallic
materials which visible light cannot, such as foam, ceramics, glass, resin, paint, rubber, composites,
and concrete.
THz imaging has been extensively used in the Space and Aerospace sectors for testing of thermal
protection, foam insulation and carbon composites. Experimental results also show that THz imaging
may be used for detection of corrosion under paint and detection of corrosion within steel reinforced
concrete.
TRL
10
9 Retrofit 1
8
7
Offshore 1
5
4 Coverage 2
Benefits App/Lim
3
Sample/Full Area 1
2
1
Risks
0
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks Costs

Can detect defects within non-metallic, opaque materials Operations/Maintenance 2
which visible light cannot
Production Impact 0
No human radiation hazard, unlike microwaves
Relatively new NDT technique, unproven for corrosion
Benefits
detection
Cost Benefits 4
Safety Benefits 3
Other Industries
Nuclear
Space
Aerospace

REPORT // ENERGY
Summary
Long-term corrosion of steel in concrete structures is a particular concern for nuclear power plants as
there is compelling public interest in the safe operation of these plants for the many decades that they
are in operation and the additional decades it takes for them to be decommissioned.
Inspection techniques that are both non-destructive and which can detect long-term corrosion at its
earliest stages are needed to identify when remedial steps need to be taken to insure the integrity of
concrete structures at nuclear power plants.
Physics Materials and Applied Mathematics Research LLC is conducting research into how terahertz
imaging can be used to detect corrosion of steel in concrete structures. The overall objective of
this research program is to establish terahertz imaging and spectroscopy as the pre-eminent non-
destructive examination technique for locating and identifying corrosion in steel reinforced concrete
structures.
This is accomplished by pushing the limits of high-power terahertz systems to increase imaging depth
and by enhancing the detection sensitivity of terahertz spectroscopic methods to directly detect
corrosion by-products in concrete.
In Phase I effort is spent to identify which

corrosion by-product or promoting agent is
most strongly detected with terahertz imaging
and spectroscopy. This is established via a
combination of theoretical and numerical
modelling and experimental benchmarking at
terahertz frequencies.
Images are taken of steel in concrete to

evaluate the imaging depth and quality. The
proposed technique enables rapid inspection
of nuclear plant structures and detection of
corrosion in concrete.
Similar corrosion issues afflict aging infrastructure including highways, bridges, tunnels, buildings, and
dams. Earlier identification of corrosion in these structures significantly enhances public safety as well
as reducing the cost of corrosion, estimated to be in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually.
Key Attributes
Initial research program so some time before key attributes can be established;
Stand-off sensor;
Ability to detect chemical signatures.
Limitations
Initial research program so some time before any limitations become apparent;
None of the research and development programs have any oil and gas focus.
Sources
Physics, Materials, and Applied Mathematics Research L.L.C website - http://physics-math.com/
pmam/.
NASA TRL 2 Technology concept and/or application formulated

REPORT // ENERGY
5.17 Acoustic Emission
Source:
O&G Acoustic Emission TRL: 2
Description
Uses the detection of high frequency acoustic (elastic) stress waves that occur and radiate within a
solid material when it undergoes changes in its internal structure. The waves are generated by the
changes themselves and can be the result of localised yielding or cracking of the base material, or of
the products resulting from corrosion.
The waves are converted to electrical signals by surface mounted piezoelectric sensors, or, in the case
of high temperature structures, on the end of metal waveguides which are attached to the structure.
Can be used for spot checks or for long term monitoring during production
Extensive used in multiple scenarios, including corrosion detection, pressure vessel inspection, leak
detection, crack formation during welding and detecting creep damage in High Energy Piping (HEP)
systems
TRL
10
9 Retrofit 1
8
Offshore 1
7
5
Coverage 0
4
2
1 Risks
0
Cultural Change 2
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks Costs

Can monitor active, inner, outer and embedded defects and Operations/Maintenance 2
corrosion during plant operation on temporary or permanent
basis Production Impact 1
Non-invasive inspection technique
Some disturbance of insulation may be required Benefits
Remote monitoring possible Cost Benefits 2
No external energy is applied to the target Safety Benefits 2
Other Industries
Summary
Acoustic emission (AE) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) method which utilises the detection of
high frequency acoustic (elastic) stress waves that occur and radiate within a solid material when it
undergoes changes in its internal structure. The waves are generated by the changes themselves and
can be the result of localised yielding or cracking of the base material, or of the products resulting
from corrosion.
The waves are converted to electrical signals by surface mounted piezoelectric sensors, or, in the case
of high temperature structures, on the end of metal waveguides which are attached to the structure.

REPORT // ENERGY
The picture below illustrates the AE process.
For detection the source must be active during the monitoring period, which means the structure
needs to be stressed or operating. In the case of a short-term test, additional stress is usually applied
to the structure to stimulate activity. Alternatively, the structure can be monitored for an extended
period, or even continuously, under normal operation.
The AE technique is different than other Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) techniques in two key regards:
Instead of supplying energy to the object under examination, AE listens for energy released by the
object naturally;
AE works with the dynamic processes within the object material i.e. only active/developing
features are detected. Thus, it is possible to distinguish between developing and stagnant defects.
The AE technique is capable of detecting inner, outer and embedded defects. The technique can also
identify defect location by measuring the relative time of arrival of signals at multiple sensors and
carrying out triangulation.
AE systems are usually based around specialist peripheral component interconnect (PCI) boards with
digital signal processing (DSP), installed in an industrial PC or specialist chassis running PC software.
The signals from the sensors are first filtered and amplified using low-noise pre-amplifiers, which are
typically located within the sensors themselves and also provide line drive functionality for long cables.
The PC software analyses the collected signals, removing extraneous noise and identifying the severity
and location of defects.
Acoustic emissions can be detected in frequency ranges under 1 kHz, and have been reported at
frequencies up to 100 MHz, but non-destructive testing of materials typically takes place between
30 kHz and 1 MHz. Unlike other methods of ultrasonic testing, the AE technique detects acoustic
emissions produced by/within a material during stress, rather than actively inputting acoustic waves
and then detecting them after they have travelled through the material.
As a result of the versatility of the technique, it has seen extensive use in multiple scenarios, including
corrosion detection, pressure vessel inspection, leak detection, crack formation during welding and
detecting creep damage in High Energy Piping (HEP) systems.
Standards for the use of the AE technique for NDT have been produced and published by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), by ISO and by the European Community.

REPORT // ENERGY
Key Attributes
Can be used to monitor active defects;
Monitoring can take place from multiple locations, with minimal disturbance to pipe or vessel
insulation, whilst the plant is still in operation;
Can be used to monitor corrosion, welding and plant integrity on an extended or permanent
basis;
Can detect inner, outer and embedded defects and is not affected by defect orientation;
Compared to other NDT techniques, AE detects energy generated inside a material itself, rather
than needing to apply and then detect some form of energy;
Once sensors are in place, AE monitoring and analysis can be carried out remotely, which is of
benefit when operating in harsh environments;
AE sensors are available for use up to operating temperatures of 550C. Waveguides can be used
at any temperature.
Limitations
Relies on defect activity/growth for detection;
Only provides a qualitative assessment of defect activity. As such, follow-up quantitative testing/
inspection is required to measure defect size. However, the use of AE to direct subsequent
inspection improves inspection effectiveness, allowing known problem areas to be prioritised;
procedures and codes which reduce the need for expert interpretation;
Susceptible to signal to noise issues when utilised in noisy environments, thus requiring a high
level of corrective signal processing. Process activities are one source of background noise and
might prevent acquisition of conclusive sensor data.
Sources
Corrosion Monitoring and Testing Facilities; School of Engineering, Robert Gordon University,
Aberdeen;
RR659: Evaluation of the effectiveness of non-destructive testing screening methods for in-
service inspection; Health and Safety Executive;
Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing; NDT Resource Centre;
Use of Acoustic Emission to Detect Localised Corrosion Philosophy of Industrial Use, Illustrated
With Real Examples;
Using Acoustic Emission in Fatigue and Fracture Materials Research; Journal of The Minerals,
Metals & Materials Society;
Acoustic Emission Testing (AET); Inspectioneering Journal

REPORT // ENERGY
5.18 Ultrasound Tomography
Source:
O&G Ultrasonic Tomography TRL: 2
Description
Ultrasound Tomography (UST) is a tomographic technology that enables non-invasive online imaging
and measurement of media inside an industrial pipe or tank. The technology is suitable for example for
measuring emulsion interfaces. The measurement is based on the speed of sound. Monitoring systems
are based in tomographic technologies, which are non-invasive, non-nuclear techniques for cross
sectional or 3D imaging of material properties and distributions in various industrial positions such as in
pipes and tanks.
The target is exposed to acoustic waves and the response measured. Calculations then determine
areas of material change. In principal, initial surveys would be undertaken using a portable instrument
to determine where issues are most likely to occur and then fixed sensors would be installed to provide
live online data feeds.
TRL
9
Retrofit 1
8
7 Offshore 1
6
5
4 Coverage 1
Benefits 3 App/Lim
2
Sample/Full Area 1
1
0
Risks
Cultural Change 3
Safety 2
Complexity 1
Costs Risks
Costs
Can be used to monitor defects and detect the presence of Operations/Maintenance 2
water and surface corrosion, also welding defects
Production Impact 1
Non-invasive, can be used whilst plant is running
Doesn't work through aluminium cladding
Benefits
Effective for long lengths of pipe Cost Benefits 2
Safety Benefits 2
Other Industries
Summary
Ultrasound Tomography (UST) is a tomographic technology that enables non-invasive online imaging
and measurement of media inside an industrial pipe or tank. The technology is suitable for example for
measuring emulsion interfaces. The measurement is based on the speed of sound.

REPORT // ENERGY
Monitoring systems are based in tomographic technologies, which are non-invasive, non-nuclear
techniques for cross sectional or 3D imaging of material properties and distributions in various
industrial positions such as in pipes and tanks.
The figure below illustrates the UST process.
Ultrasound transducers are placed around the measured object. The measurement is performed by
sending a sound pulse with one transducer, and the material between all transducers modulates the
shape of the pulse. These measurements are utilised for reconstructing the speed of sound distribution
inside the object, from which the image and trends are calculated.
Monitoring systems are being developed for the Oil and Gas Process Industries and are designed to
ensure the best possible level of flow assurance. By seeing inside pipes and tanks in real-time, systems
allow operators to overcome tough and costly flow assurance challenges, for example prevention of
deposition and corrosion in pipes or optimization of layers in separator tanks.
The next figure illustrates a potential use of UST to monitor pipes and tanks.

REPORT // ENERGY
In order to make systems safer for people and the environment, tomographic technologies are utilised
to perform the process imaging and measurement without using a radioactive source.
Solutions are based on tomographic technologies, which enable whole volume imaging of a process
pipe or tank without using a radioactive source. Tomographic technologies are especially suitable for
measuring and controlling multiphase flows. Results in process tomographic imaging are displayed as
an image and indices.
The general idea in tomographic measurements is to expose the target of interest to acoustic waves
and measure the response caused by the target. From the response signals it is possible, with the aid
of mathematical models, to infer the distribution of different material within the target.
In principal, initial surveys would be undertaken using a portable instrument to determine where issues
are most likely to occur and then fixed sensors would be installed to provide live online data feeds.
This technology is currently under development and as such there is limited information from the
developer. They have indicated that the technology is likely to be available in the market place in
2017/2018. Due to the development, it is also difficult to discuss the key attributes and limitations of
the technology.
Key Attributes
Can be used to monitor defects and detect the presence of water;
Monitoring can take place whilst the plant is still in operation, therefore there is minimal impact
on operations;
Can be used to monitor corrosion, welding and plant integrity;
Can detect surface corrosion through insulation;
Can be very cost effective providing vessels and pipes are in an easy condition to scan i.e., long
lengths of pipe with ultrasonic friendly cladding or easily accessible vessels.
Limitations
May not work on all vessels;

REPORT // ENERGY
Is limited to lengths of pipe with few joints or bends;

Limited by insulation cladding. Aluminium cladding makes penetration difficult;
procedures and codes which reduce the need for expert interpretation.
Sources
Rocsole

SECTION 6
MANAGEMENT AND CULTURAL IMPEDIMENTS
120
REPORT // ENERGY
In addition to physical and technical constraints on effective CUI and vessel inspection there can be
constraints involving people and processes. Whilst physical and technical constraints are usually easy
to identify if not necessarily resolve, management and cultural constraints are sometimes less obvious
and hence harder to quantify.
Management and Cultural constraints can include:
Knowledge of latest effective processes and techniques and the skills to use them;
Financial;
Supervision;
Training;
Requirements management;
Availability of resources and Work scheduling;
Competency of staff;
Information Management;
Contractual.
Management and Cultural factors may exist at different levels including the activity, facility and
organisational levels, and an effective review process needs to look at the whole picture not just the
technical methods for inspection.
Effective training and regular competency assessments, quality supervision and recognition by
management of the importance of regular inspection regimes are vital to timely prevention and
detection of corrosion and its consequences.
Some factors are more specific to offshore operations. The high level of contractor and sub-contractor
use coupled with a high rotation of staff between platforms can introduce a lack of communication
between groups and prevent a joined up approach. Routine inspections can be delayed or missed
entirely when staff are moved from the platform to make room for higher priority work, or staff may be
diverted into unplanned maintenance activities at the cost of the planned inspection process.

SECTION 7
TECHNOLOGY GAPS
122
REPORT // ENERGY
7.1 Technology Gaps

The current techniques used in the oil and gas industry for vessel inspection do not currently permit
internal inspection without manual entry, and for CUI management and detection the currently used
techniques either have limited coverage or resolution, and/or require the removal of insulation.
There are some promising techniques described in the study which can potentially close these
technology gaps and Lockheed Martin recommends that a shortlist is drawn by the relevant
stakeholders for further pursuit. We recommend that stakeholders:
review the scoring guidelines and Lockheed Martin suggested scores contained within this
document;
for short-term possibilities (i.e., those more-or-less ready to go), identify opportunity for realistic
plant trial and provide the necessary funding, technical support and logistics to allow this to
progress;
for longer term prospects, provide technical and funding support so that these can be moved
towards the trial-ready state.
A definite gap that can be closed quite quickly is that of combining some of the sensing technologies
reviewed with remote mobile and autonomous inspection platforms. It is likely that this will require
some encouragement and support to get the different vendors and developers to work together.

SECTION 8
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
124
REPORT // ENERGY
8.1 General conclusions and recommendations

The study team believes that the assessment methodology adopted is sound, although the maturity,
applicability, cost, risk and benefit scores and associated guidelines would benefit from wider review
and validation by the relevant stakeholders.
8.2 TLB Asset Integrity Theme Workshops

The TLB organised theme workshops on vessel inspection and detection of corrosion under insulation
at Maryculter House Hotel Aberdeen on 24th and 25th February 2016.
The Lockheed Martin Asset Integrity Landscape Draft Report was used as a pre-read for the workshops.
The aim of the workshops was to inform further work to develop products and services which can
reduce costs, increase production efficiency and/or improve safety when carrying out process vessel
inspections and detection of corrosion under insulation. This further work will be coordinated by the
recently announced Oil & Gas Technology Centre.
For further details please refer to the TLB Integrity Theme Workshop Output Report, which was
issued by OGIC to all workshop attendees on 17th March 2016.
8.3 Vessel Inspection

The low frequency electromagnetic technique appears to offer good prospects at moderate cost and
risk and has a high maturity score.
Full matrix capture (FMC) has a similar profile, but is less mature so could be seen as a good longer-
term prospect.
Although robots and remotely operated vehicles on their own have a relatively low benefit score, such
devices are becoming increasingly common (e.g., in the nuclear industry) and might be profitably
combined with other sensor technologies to allow a significant reduction in the need for manual entry
into process vessels and other confined spaces.
8.4 CUI Detection

The pulsed eddy current technique appears to offer good prospects at moderate cost and risk. It has a
high maturity score and there is a sense of significant industry commitment to product development,
marketing and deployment.
Vapour phase corrosion inhibitor stands out as being a prevention (as opposed to detection) technique.
The main concern here is the nature of the chemicals required for the process, especially offshore.
Nevertheless, this technique seems worthy of further investigation as it offers the prospect of reducing
the extent and nature of the underlying problem of CUI.
As with vessel inspection, some of the sensing techniques identified in this study might profitably
be combined with remotely operated vehicles such as pipe and vessel crawlers. Of particular benefit
would be any combined technique that reduced the requirement for scaffolding.
8.5 Further Research

Lockheed Martin recommends that further research is undertaken into closing perceived technology
gaps that could prevent the uptake of some of the methods and technologies described in the study.
We recommend developing an IT architecture that facilitates the development and use of new vessel
inspection and CUI detection and monitoring techniques as they become available. In particular the
architecture should include the following.

REPORT // ENERGY
Open Standards
Developing open standards is key to maximising the rapid take up of any new techniques, it also
facilitates the development of open markets and minimises vendor lock-in.
We recommend that to maximise the impact, new standards should be developed in conjunction with
the appropriate national and international standards bodies.
Secure Sharing of Data

We recommend that techniques are developed across the oil and gas industry to share the raw data
from multiple installations in a secure manner. This data can be provided to all stakeholders and
provide a platform for future innovation.
Automate data collection, transformation and storage
Make use of existing technologies such as COTS data historians, IP protocols, and transmission
technologies such as WIFI and Low Power Bluetooth, coupled with new developments in low cost/low
power sensors being developed for the Internet Of Things.
Develop standard analysis techniques

To maximise re-use and portability, standard analysis techniques should ideally come in the form of
open-source library / software development kits of standard techniques optimised for use with vessel
inspection and CUI detection and monitoring.
Develop standard visualisation techniques

Standard visualisation techniques should be developed with two main audiences in mind control
room staff and maintenance/support engineers.
Control room staff want to know about sudden changes in plant conditions, typically through screens
and alarms on distributed control systems (DCS) and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
systems. Therefore appropriate standards should be developed for visualisation in collaboration with
the leading control systems providers.
Maintenance /Support engineers want to know in more depth about gradual changes in plant
conditions, either continuously monitored or through analysis resulting from spot checks. Therefore
appropriate standards for visualisation should be developed in collaboration with leading desktop
visualisation and analysis providers.

REPORT // ENERGY
Aggregation
As our analysis indicates that no one method is prevalent for either vessel inspection or CUI detection
and management, it is likely that operators will employ several different, possibly overlapping methods.
Therefore analysis techniques should be developed in such a way as to permit aggregation of results,
and visualisation techniques should include the ability to overlay results from several different sources.
The diagram below shows the proposed standards based IT architecture
8.6 Industry collaboration

The study found that the relationships between the various stakeholders are complex, and that there is
a lack of focus on vessel inspection and CUI detection technologies within the oil and gas industry. We
also note that some of the technology being developed initially originated in other industry sectors.
Lockheed Martin recommends that a single leading organisation is given overall responsibility for
focussing vessel inspection and CUI research and development efforts within the oil and gas industry.
This organisation should focus on several strands:
Development of the standards-based IT architecture as described above;

Development of promising vessel inspection and CUI research;
Cross-sector initiatives with relation to vessel inspection and CUI research.

APPENDIX A
ORGANISATIONS CONTACTED
128
REPORT // ENERGY
ORGANISATIONS CONTACTED
Lockheed Martin contacted the following organisations during the course of the study.
Organisations who have contributed to study
Organisation Category
ABB Technology supplier
Absoft Technology supplier
Advanced Corrosion Technologies and Training Technology supplier
Amec Foster Wheeler Engineering contractor
Arnlea Systems, Aberdeen Technology supplier
Bilfinger Salamis Engineering contractor
BP Oil and gas operator
Cranfield University Academic Institution
Cortec Corporation Technology supplier
Cosasco Technology supplier
Cyberhawk Technology supplier
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College Academic institution
Det Norske Veritas Engineering contractor
Doosan Babcock Engineering contractor
Eddyfi Technology supplier
Energy Institute Industry body
EPSRC Industry body
ESR Technology Industry body
Guided Ultrasonics Ltd. (GUL) Technology supplier
Heriot-Watt University Academic institution
High Value Manufacturing Catapult Research
HOIS Industry body
Hydrason Solutions Ltd Technology supplier
Imperial College London. Academic institution
Innovate UK Industry body
Inphase Solutions, Norway Technology supplier
Institute of Corrosion Industry body
Forsys Subsea Ltd Engineering contractor
Intertek Technology supplier
Jentek Sensors Technology supplier
Lockheed Martin Technology supplier
National Physical Laboratory (NPL) Research institution

REPORT // ENERGY
ORGANISATIONS CONTACTED CONTINUED

NERC Industry body/research
Nexen Petroleum UK Ltd Oil and gas operator
Permasense Technology supplier
Pixel Thermographics Technology supplier
Robert Gordon University Academic institution
Rocsole Technology supplier
Rohrback Cosasco Technology supplier
Russell Tech Technology supplier
Shell Oil and gas operator
SIG Technical Insulation Technology supplier
SINTEF Research institution
Sonomatic Engineering contractor
Statoil Technology Invest (STI) Oil and gas operator
Steer Energy Technology supplier
Stork Engineering contractor
Tech27 Systems Ltd Technology supplier
Technip Engineering contractor
TesTex Technology supplier
The National Board of Boiler & Pressure Vessel Inspectors Industry body
Thermal Imaging Limited Technology supplier
TNO, Science and Industry, Business Unit: Oil and Gas Research institution
Total Oil and gas operator
Trac Technology supplier
Tracerco (International) Technology supplier
TWI Industry body
University of Aberdeen Academic institution
University of Cambridge (Chem Eng Dept) Academic institution
University of Cambridge (Eng Dept) Academic institution
University of Cambridge (Institute of Manufacturing) Academic institution
University of Cambridge (Material Science Dept) Academic institution
University of Manchester (Including BP-ICAM) Academic institution
University of Strathclyde Academic institution
VREO Innovation Technology supplier
Xamen Technologies Technology supplier

REPORT // ENERGY
OTHER ORGANISATIONS ON
THE LANDSCAPE
Aspen Aerogels, Incs Technology supplier
Cape plc Engineering contractor
Christian Michelsen Research Research institution
Corrosion Doctors Research institution
Fjellanger Detection and Training Academy Technology supplier
Gassco Oil and gas operator
HSE Government body
Innospection Engineering contractor
Keir Engineering contractor
London South Bank Innovation Centre Academic institution
Metalcare Inspection Services Inc. Technology supplier
QSA Global Technology supplier
Reece Innovation Technology supplier
SE Innovation Technology supplier
Talisman Sinopec Oil and gas operator
Taqa Oil and gas operator
Thor Corrosion Technology supplier

APPENDIX B
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
132
REPORT // ENERGY
B.1 Initial Questions (all respondents)

Which sector does your organisation work in?
Which best describes your remit?
B.2 Oil & Gas Operator Questions

Is your organisation aware of the Wood Report?
Did you or your organisation review the Wood Report?
Were any actions generated within your organisation following review of the report?
Does your organisation suffer from CUI?
What causes of CUI affect your organisations assets?
Which of the following causes of vessel degradation occurs within your organisation?
Has funding been approved or already in place within your organisation for CUI testing
and/or Vessel inspections?
Does your organisation have current maintenance plans in place to deal with CUI and/or
vessel inspections?
Is your current maintenance plan effective?
Is your organisation currently investigating ways to undertake safer vessel inspections?
Which of the below techniques, if any, does your organisation currently employ to detect
potential CUI?
Do you feel your organisation has implemented an effective solution for detection of
CUI?
Does your organisation utilise third parties for CUI testing?
Does your organisation use a Hazard rating for inspection of parts susceptible to CUI?
Is training provided for CUI testing and vessel inspection techniques?
Has consideration been given to new installations with reference to anti-corrosion?
B.3 Solution Provider Questions

Is your organisation aware of the Wood Report?
Did you or your organisation review the Wood Report?
Is your organisation aware of the different types of CUI that can occur?
Which causes of CUI does your organisations techniques detect?
Which of the below techniques does your organisation currently employ to detect
potential CUI?
Which of the following causes of vessel degradation do you provide solutions for?
Does your organisation research the different NDT/inspection methods for identifying
CUI?
Is adequate funding and resources been approved or made available to consider the use
of any alternative inspection methods for CUI?
Are the potential impacts of implementing alternative solutions for CUI testing,
understood and quantified?
Is training provided for CUI testing and vessel inspection techniques?
Do you think that all the potential hazards for undertaking CUI inspections and vessel
inspections using your solutions are understood?
B.4 Contractor Questions

Are you aware of the Wood Report?
Did you review the Wood Report?
Are you aware of the different types of CUI that can occur?
Which of the following causes of CUI are you familiar with?
Which of the following causes of vessel degradation are you familiar with?
Please provide details of the main issues you feel there are with testing for CUI and
vessel inspection

REPORT // ENERGY
What do you feel are the main impacts onsite relating to CUI testing and vessel inspection?
Are you aware of the hazards related to CUI testing and vessel inspections?
Have you received any training for CUI testing and vessel inspection techniques?
B.5 Researcher/Academic Questions

Are you aware of the Wood Report?
Did you review the Wood Report?
Do you agree with the findings in the Wood Report?
Are you aware of the different types of CUI that can occur?
Please provide details, if any, of the main issues you feel there are with testing for CUI.
Which causes of CUI do you or your organisation currently research?
Which of the below CUI detection techniques do you or your organisation currently research?
Are you or your organisation researching different NDT/inspection methods for vessels?
Which of the following causes of vessel degradation are you or your organisation currently
researching?
Are you or your organisation currently investigating ways to undertake safer and/or more efficient
vessel inspections?
Have you received any training for CUI testing and vessel inspection techniques?
B.6 CUI and Vessel Inspection Questions (all respondents)

Is information sourced and reviewed from other suitable industries that you or your organisation
may be able to utilise?
Is knowledge shared with others or similar organisations, with reference to CUI testing and vessel
inspections?
Do you or your organisation utilise or reference standards and guides to assist in undertaking CUI
testing, e.g. BS5970
If standards and guides are utilised, do you find these useful?
Please provide any other comments you feel are valid.

APPENDIX C
GLOSSARY
135
REPORT // ENERGY
APPENDIX C: GLOSSARY
Terms used within this document are listed below
Term Explanation
3-D Three dimensional
3D Laser Scanning Technique typically using a tripod mounted laser

scanner to take series of images in 360o forming a
data set called a point cloud
Acoustic Emission (AE) Technique involving measurement of naturally

occurring stress waves in material to determine
location and size of anomalies
Acoustic Resonance Technology (ART) Technique using propagation of acoustic signal

through metal and detecting the response
AST Above Ground Storage Tank
ATEX Appareils destins tre utiliss en ATmosphres

EXplosibles European directive on use of
equipment in explosive atmospheres
AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle
BS5970 Code of practice for thermal insulation of pipework
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
CCTV Close Circuit Television
COTS Commercial Off The Shelf
CSC Cross Section Change
CUI Corrosion Under Insulation
DAC Distance Amplitude Curves
DIFCAM Digital Imaging For Condition Asset Management
Digital Image Correlation (DIC) Method of detecting changes by comparing images
FDTA Fjellanger Detection and Training Academy
Full Matrix Capture (FMC) Data acquisition technique used to enhance data
capture from a Phased Array Transducer
Guided Wave Ultrasonic Testing (GWUT) Technique involves inducing stress waves that
propagate along the material and measuring
response to determine location and size of
anomalies
HOIS HOIS is a joint industry project (JIP) focussed on

non destructive testing which has been running for
more than thirty years. The project is managed by
ESR Technology

REPORT // ENERGY
GLOSSARY CONTINUED
HSE Health and Safety Executive
ITF Industry Technology Facilitator
Low Frequency Electromagnetic Works by injecting low frequency magnetic field

Technique (LFET) into metal target and detects distortions in the
magnetic field due to variances in the target
MER Maximising Economic Recovery
Microwave Sensing Technique that works on principle that

microwaves are absorbed at different rates by
different materials. Can be used to detect water
within insulation and areas of corrosion
Microwave Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths

ranging from one meter to one millimetre; with
frequencies between 300 MHz (100 cm) and 300
GHz (0.1 cm)
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration of

the United States of America
NDE Non Destructive Examination
NDT Non Destructive Testing
NPL National Physical Laboratory
OGA Oil and Gas Authority
OGIC Oil and Gas Innovation Centre
OGUK Oil and Gas UK
OPEX Operational Expenditure
Phased Array Probe A probe whose signal can be focused and steered
electronically without moving the probe
PMMA Poly Methyl Methacrylate
Pulse Eddy Current (PEC) Measures eddy currents within a steel target,
where the currents are distorted by changes in
material thickness or makeup
RGB Red Green Blue
ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle
RST Remote Scent Tracing
Sacrificial Wire Technique where thin wire is located adjacent to

the target material and corrodes at the same rate
causing the wires resistance to change which can
be detected using a meter

REPORT // ENERGY
GLOSSARY CONTINUED
Spider, Radar Plot or Graph A graphical plot with multiple axes designed for
quick comparison between subjects
TDR Time Domain Reflectometry a mathematical

process used to transform frequency domain
information into the time domain
THz Spectral Imaging Technique using terahertz radiation and

spectroscopy to capture high resolution scans of
metal within concrete
THz, Terahertz Electromagnetic radiation within the ITU-

designated band of frequencies from 0.3 to 3
terahertz (THz; 1 THz = 1012 Hz)
TLB Oil and Gas Technology Leadership Board
Tomography Imaging by sections or sectioning through the use

of any kind of penetrating wave
TRL Technology Readiness Level
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UKCS UK Continental Shelf
Ultrasonic NDT Surveys Technique using detection of reflected ultrasonic

waves to determine location and size of anomalies
Sound waves greater than human hearing range
i.e., > 20 KHz
Ultrasonic, Ultrasound Sound waves greater than human hearing range

i.e., > 20 KHz
Ultrasound Tomography (UST) Technique based on introducing ultrasound

to target material and recording the time and
amplitude of the response. Multiple sensors are
used to provide a 3D image of the target.
Vapour Phase Corrosion Inhibitor (VPCI) Technique used to prevent corrosion by

coating metal objects with a water repellent
(hydrophobic) chemical
VI Vessel Inspection
VNA Vector Network Analyser, a device used to

transmit and receive microwaves
Wood Report Sir Ian Woods report on Maximising Economic

Recovery for the UK Continental Shelf

APPENDIX D
REFERENCES
Below is a list of references used throughout the study. References specific to individuals and technologies are
detailed in the section relating to that technology.
1. UKCS Maximising Recovery Review: Final Report - Sir Ian Wood, 24 February 2014 and available to
download from www.gov.uk
2. RR659 Evaluation of the effectiveness of non-destructive testing screening methods for in-service
inspection prepared by Doosan Babcock Energy Limited for the Health and Safety Executive, 2009 and
available to download from hse.gov.uk
3. HOIS RP2 HOIS Recommended Practice for the Non-destructive Inspection of Weld Corrosion HOIS,
2012. Available to download from hoispublications.com
139
ISBN 1 903 004 72 4
2016 The UK Oil and Gas Industry Association Limited, trading as Oil & Gas UK

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ASSET INTEGRITY THEME

OIL & GAS UK

TECHNOLOGY LEADERSHIP BOARD

In a technology landscape that could be perceived as complex and multi-faceted, it makes

The TLB is focused on ensuring that technology development is collaborative, focused on

Paul White, industry co-chair of the MER UK Technology Leadership Board

2 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

2 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

3 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

Thanks, in no particular order, are extended to the following for their:

Financial contribution for sponsoring the study

Input to the theme in its entirety

2.3 Business Drivers and Constraints

7 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

Technology Vendors / Operators & Prime

NEW TECH, DEVELOPMENT

STEER, FUNDING STEER,

FUNDING STEER, FUNDING

Government Statutory Authorities,

8 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

Operators & Prime Contractors

Facilitation and Innovation Centres

2.5 Current Situation

9 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

2.6 Scope and Objectives

The objective of the Lockheed Martin study is to:

10 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

face-to-face and telephone discussion with stakeholders;

The criteria selected were:

Risk Sub-divided into four components: precautions required to maintain safety;

11 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

2.8 Summary of results

Phased array ultrasonic 9 9 7 6 5 6 13 11

Guided wave ultrasonic 9 9 6 7 6 4 10 13

Full matrix capture 6 6 8 6 7 7 15 13

Wideband sonar beam 3 3 6 7 6 3 9 13

12 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

Vessels -TRL Score

Phased array ultrasonic

13 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

Guided wave ultrasonic 9 9 6 6 5 5 11 11

Pulsed eddy current 8 8 8 8 7 7 15 15

Vapour phase corrosion 8 0 8 6 7 6 14 13

Lateral wave LFET 7 7 7 8 7 7 14 15

14 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

15 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

16 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

2.9 Management and Cultural Impediments

2.10 Technology Gaps

2.11 Conclusions and RecommendationsVessel inspection

TLB Asset Integrity Theme Workshops

17 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

Secure Sharing of Data

Automate data collection, transformation and storage

Develop standard analysis techniques

Develop standard visualisation techniques

18 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

The diagram below shows the proposed standards based IT architecture.

Proposed Standards Based IT Architecture

19 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

2.12 Next Steps

20 ENERGY // ASSET INTEGRITY THEME LANDSCAPING STUDY

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

3.3 Analysis Methodology