Second Edtion

ffiRG GUPTA
 7tn!'IF.rr.r 4Ir;,

CoNTENTS

Preface xix
Aclcnowledgementsrs xw

I. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT ANID SOUND

1.1 lntroduction I
1.2 Intensity of Light in a Picture I
1.3 Image 2
1.4 Picture Frame 2
1.5 AsPect Ratio 2
1.6 Picture Elements 3
1.7 Details and Resolution 4
1.8 VisualAcuteness andViewing Distance 5

1.9 Persistence of Vision and Flicker 6

1.10 Brightness 8
1.11 Tonal Gradation and Contrast I
l.l2 Characteristics of Colour 9
1.13 Resolution and Bandwidth of Colours l0
l.l4 Colour TemPeature l0
1.15 Primary Colours 1l
1 .16 ComPlementary Colours 12
l.l7 Additive Mixing of Colours 12
1.18 Subtractive Mixing of Colours /3
1.19 Hue, Saturation and Luminance 14
l.2O Tristimulus Values 16
l.2l Characteristics of Sound 17
1.22 Bass and Treble 18
1.23 Stereophonic and Surround Sound Systdms 18
1.24 Transducers for Light and Sound 19
1.25 Basic Elements of Television 19
1.26 Colour Labels 24
SummarY 24
Exercises 25
Answers 27

2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF TELEVISION 29

2.1 Scanning 29
2.2 Need of Scanning 30
 vllt conn$
Contents lx
2.3 Sawtooth Currents for Scanning J0
2.4 Progressive Scanning 3I 4.10 Solid State Camera based on Charge Coupled Device 92
2.s' Intbrlaced Scanning 33 .
4,11, Night Vision Camera 96
2.6 Fields 34 Summary 98
2.7 Frame, Field and Line Frequencies 35 Exercises 98
2.8 Active Lines 36 Answers 100
2.9 Kell Factor 36
2.10 Resolution 36 5. PICTURE TUBES toz
2.tt Bandwidth 38 5.1 Introduction 102
2.12 Determination ofNumber of Scanning Lines 4l 5.2 Monochrome Picture Tube 102
2.13 Synchronisation 43 5.3 Focussing of the Beam 106
2.14 Blanking 43 5.4 Magnetic Deflection vs Elecffostatic Deflection forTV 107
2.15 Composite Video Signal 44 5.5 Colour Picture Tubes 108
2.16 Positive and Negative Polarities of CVS 44 5.6 Delta'Gun Picture Tube 108
2.17 Horizontal Blanking Pulse 4T 5.7 Precision-in-Line Picture Tube 110
2.18 Vertical Blanking Pulse 49 5.8 Trinitron Picture Tube II2
2.r9 Modulation Requirements for TV 52 5.9 Degaussing 11i
2.20 TV Channels used in India 55 5.10 Adjustments in Colour Picture Tube ll4
2.21 RF Siectrum 56 5.11 Colour PurityAdjustment lI5
Summary 57 5.12 Adjustment of Convergence Il7
Exercises 58 5.13 ..Grey Scale Tracking 120
Answers 6I 5.14 Pincushion Effect 120
5.15 Barrel Effect 122
3. TELEVISION STANDARDS 64 5.16 Flatter Squarer Tubes (FST) 123
3.1 Definition 64 5.17 Standard Designations for Picture Tubes 123
3.2 Need of a TV Standard 64 5.18 ScreenPhosphors 124
3.3 Reasons of rv standards being Different in Different countries 64
5.19 Precautions in Handling Picture Tubes 124
3.4 Different TV Standards 66 5.20 Common Faults in Picture Tubes I25
3.5 Similarities and Variations in Standards 8 5.21 Solid State Picture Transducers 126
3.6 International Use of TV Standards 69 5.22 Plasma Display Panels. 126
3.7 History and Trends 69 5.23 Liquid CryitafDisplays 128
Summary 70 5.24 Projection Television l3l
Exercises 70 ' . Summary 133
Answers 72 Exercises 134
Answers 137
4. TELEVISION CAMERA TUBES 74
6. MONOCHROMETRANSMITTER r39
4.1 Introduction 74
4.2 General Characteristics of a Camera Tube Zs
6.1 Introduction t 39
4.3 Image Orthicon Camera Tube 78 6.2 Monochrome TV Transmitter 139
4.4 Vidicon Camera Tube 80 6.3 Circuit Diagrams for Monochrome TV Transmitter l42
4.5 Plumbicon Camera Tube 84 6.4 Wideband Video Amplifiers 142
4.6 Saticon 89 6.5 RF Carrier Generator 147
4.7 Newvicon 90 6.6 Amplitude Modulation t4g
4.8 Chalnicon 90 6.7 Modulator for Video Signal 151
4-9 silicon-vidicon camera Tube (or silicon DiodeAoay) gl 6.8 Modulators forAudio Signal t53
6.9 Diplexer 154
 Contrns xl
Contents
8J2 Interleaving of Chroma Signals in between Monochrome Signals 223
Summary /,55 8.13 Line Frequency for Colour TV Systems 224
Exercises 155 8.14 Dot Patterns 225
Answers 157 8.15 Factors on which Choice of Subcarrier Frequency Depends 226
Summary 227
7. MONOCHROME TV RECETVER L59 Exercises 228
Answers 229
7.l Introduction /,59
7.2 SuperhetrodYne Receiver 159
9, NTSC AND PAL COI,C)UR SYSTEMS 23I
7.3 Elements of a Monochrome TV Receiver 160
7.4 Importance of Intercarrier Frequency in TV Receivers 166 9.1 Introduction 231
7.5 Electronic Tuner for TV Receiver 167 9.2 Basic Elements of NTSC System 231
7.6 Frequency Response of IF Output Signal 171 9.3 Weighted Colour l)ifference Signals I and p of NTSC System 232
7.7 Surface Acoustic Wave Filter 172 9.4 Resolution of Colours and Bandwidths in NTSC System 233
7.8 Video Detector Circuit 173 9.5 NITSC Transmitter 234
7.g Circuits for Cancellation of Noise 174 9.6 NTSC Receiver 237
7.10 Trap Circuits 176' 9.7 Controls in NTSC Colour Receiver 240
7 .11, Keyed AGC Circuit 184 9.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of NTSC System 240
7.12 DC Restoration 1.83 9.9 PAL Colour System 241
7.13 Deflection Circuits 185 9.10 PAL Transmitter 243
7.14 Sync SeParator 185 9.11 Production of Luminance (Y) and Chrominance (U and, V) Signals 243
7.15 Vertical Deflection Circuits 186 9.12 PAL Encoder 244
7.16 Horizontal Deflection Circuits 188 9.13 Video andAudio Modulators 245
7.17 Phase Splitter l8g ,
g.l4 PAL Receiver 245
7.18 Automatic Frequency Control 190 9.15 Simple PAL (or S-PAL) Colour Decoder 246
7.19 H-Oscillator and Driver 192 9.16 D-PAL Decoder 248
7.20 Horizontal Output PowerAmplifier 192 g.l7 Autometic Correction of Colour Error in PAL Receivers 24g
7.21 Sound Section of a TV Receiver 195 9.18 Controls in PAL Receiver 25 t
7.22 Controls in a TV Receiver 198 g.lg Advantages and Disadvantages of PAL System 253
7.23 Waveforms at Different Stages of a Receiver 199 Summary 254
Receivers based on
7'.24 Television ICs 199 Exercises 255
Summary 202 Answers 257
Exercises 20i
Answers 205 10. SECAM COLOUR SYSTEM 260
10.1 Introduction 260
8. COMPATIBILITY AT{D COLOUR TELEVISION FI.'NDAIVENTALS 207 10.2 SECAM Trarrsmitter 261
8.1 Introduction 207 10.3 SECAM Receiver 263
8.2 ComPatibititY 207 10.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of the French SECAM System 265
8.3 Colour Camera Tubes 210 10.s SECAM V (NrR SECAM) 266
Summary 266
8.5 Singl-TubeCamera 211 E.tcercises 266
8.6 Adjustment of white Balance in colour camera 212 : Answers 268

8.8 Chrominance Signal 215 i rT. TELEVISION ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION r: 269

I1.1 lntroluction 269

8.10 Weighting Factors for Colour Difference Signals 217 ll.2 Difference between TransmittingAntenna and ReceivingAnteua 269
8.11 Modulatin of Subcarrier by Colour Difference Signals 220
,tll Contant
contents xlll
ll.3 Characteristics ofAntenna 271 r3.6 High Definition Television (HDTV) 32g
ll.4 Basic Hatf-WaveAntenna 273 13.7 Wide Dimension High Definition TV 330
11.5 TV TransmitterAntennas 277 13.8 New Techniques used for High Definition 331
ll.6 TV ReceiverAntennas 279 13.9 MAC System 331
ll.7 Antenna Feeders 282
11.8 Impedance Matching
11.9 Balun 285
284 I l: li ILH',:: :ffit,11"*"n HDrv 3 s4
13.12 Video Telephone and Video Conferencing 135
11.10 Propagation of Radio Waves 286 13,13 Teletext 337
11.11 GroundWve 287 t3.14 Viewdata 33g
ll.Lz S Wave 287 13.15 Remote Control Unit 341
11 .13 Space Wave Propagation 288 13.16 TV Games 343
11.14 Effect of Super-Refraction on Line-of-Sight Distance 289 13.l:l Facsimile (Fax) 345
11.15 Methods of Increasing Line-of-Sight Distance 290 13.18 Fax Transmitter 345
11.16 Reflection and Ghost Image 291 13.19 Facsimile Receiver 347
11.17 Reflection and Fading 292 13.20 Digital Fax 348
11.18 FringeArea 293 13.21 TV in Multimedia 34g
11.19 BoosterAmptifier 293 13.22 Three-Dimensional (3D) TV 319
13.23 Stereoscopic Effect with the Aid of Special Glasses 35 I
13.24 Autostereoscopic Methocls 352
Answers 297 Summary 355
Exercises 356
12. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION FOR TELEYISION 299 Answers 359
12.1 Need of a Satellite for Communication 299
12.2 Origin of Satellite Communication 299 14. VIDEO RECORDING AND REPRODUCTION 361
12.3 History of Satellite Communication 299 14.1 Introduction 361
12.4 Current Status and Recent Trends 300 I4.2 Principle of Recording Electrical Signals on Tape and
12.5 Geostationary Orbit and other Orbits 301 their Reproduction 361
12.6 Elements of SatelliteCommunication 302 14.3 Rotating Heads and VHS For,mat 363
12.7 Frequency Bands 3OS 14.4 Helical Recording 364
12.8 Design Concepts for Satellite Links for TV 307 14.5 Need of Frequency Modulation for Video Recording 3d4
12.9 Satellite Relay Systems for Television 309 14.6 undercolour svstem for Recording of Luminance and colour'
12.10 Long Distance Satellite Broadcast Service for Terrestrial Networks s09 Signals 365
l2.ll TV Receive Only (TVRO) for Cable Operators 309 t4.7 Recording of Video Signals or Magnetic Tape 365
12.12 Direct-to-Home TV (DTH) Satellite 310 14.8 Reproduction of Video Signals from Magnetic Tape 367
Summary 312 14.9 Combined Stages of Recording and Playback in VCR 368
Exercises 313 14.10 Video Recording on Disc 370
Answers 316 t4.tt Video Compact Disc (VCD) 371
t4.12 Digital Video Disc (DVD) 373
13. DIGITAL TELEVISION AND OTHER MODERN DEVICES 318 14.13 Techniques used to Increase Capacity in DVDs 3ZT
13.1 Infoduction to Digital Television (DTV) 315 14.14 Features of DVDs 379
13.2 Digital Baseband Signal 320 r4.15 Applications of DVDs 380
13.3 Digital Picture fransmission and Reception 323 14.16 Bln-Ray Disc 380
13.4 Picture-in-Picture Feature in Digital TV 325 Summary 384
13.5 Surround Sound System 326 Exercises 385
Answers 387
xlV Contcnt Concnts. xV

T5. TELEVISION STUDIO AI{D TR.ANSMISION IINK 390 17.9 Power Supply for TV Broadcast Transmitters '436
Summary 436
l5.l Introduction jgl Exercises 437
15.2 Production Control Room (PCR) 3g0 Answers 439
15.3 Communication between Units 391
15.4 Live Performance Studio 391 18. TEST INSTRUMENTS AND ALIGNMENT PROCEDURE MI
15.5 Cameras 391
15.6 Special Effects Generator (SEG) i94 18.1 Introduction 441
15.7 Switcher 395 18.2 Pattern Generator 442
15.8 Studio Lights 395 18.3 Colour Bar Generator 445
15.9 Microphones 396 18.4 Colour Bar Signal Generator 446
15.10 Equipment 396
Telecine 18.5 Sweep Generator (Wobulator) 447
15.11 Control of Reverberation in a TV Studio 397 18.6 Marker Generator 448
15.12 Production of Prografirmes Outside the Sludio 399 18.7 Sweep Generator with Marker 449
15.13 Electronic Neu,s Gathering (ENG) 399 18.8 Special Instruments for Testing a Digital TV 451
15.14 Outside Broadcast Van (OB Van) 399 18.9 Alignment of a TV Receiver 453
15.15 Studio to Transmitter Link 399 Summary 456
15. 16 Slow Motion in TV
40 t Exercises 457
15.i7 Slow Scan TV
403 Answers 459
Summarv 403 i,

Exercises 403 19. TROUBLESHOOTING IN VIDEO SYSTEMS 46r

Answers 405 19.1 Introduction 461
19.2 Faults in Monochrome TV Receivers 461
16. NON.RADIATING VIDEO SYSTEMS 408
19.3 Faults in Colour TV Receivers 471
l6.l lntroduction 408
16.2 Closed Clircuit Television (CCTV) 408 19.5 Faults in Monochrome and Colour TV Transmitters 475
16.3 Master Antenna Television (MATV) 410 lg.6 Testing of TV Transmissions 476
16.4 Cable I'elevision (CATV) 412 19.7 Troubleshooting in VCR 476
16.5 Channels for Cable TV 415 19.8 Troubleshooting in DVD Players 479
16.6 Pay TV Through Cables 418 19.9 Preventive Maintenance of lideo Equipment 48A
16.7 Two-Way Cable Systems 420 Summary 482
16.8 Cable Radiation . 421 Exercises 483
16.9 Digital CATV 421 Answers 485
Summary 422
Exercises 422 APPENDICES
Answers 424
1. UNITS OF LIGHT AND SOI.JND I
487
17. POTER SUPPLY SYSTEMS FOR TELEVISION 425
A1.1 Units of Light 487
17.l Introduction 425
17.2 Extra High f"ension Voltage 425
17.3 Voltage Multipliers 427 2. REPRESENTtrTION OF COLOURS 49t
17.4 Measurement of EHT 428 A2.l Trichromatic Coefficients and Colour Triangle 491
17.5 Regulated Power Supply for Low Voltage Stages 4i0 A2.2 Chromaticity Diagram 492
17 .6 S.qes Regulator 431
A2.3 Spectral and Non-Spectral Colours 493
17.7 P&Nillel or Shunt Reguiator Clircuit 433 A2.4 Colour Circle 493
17.8 Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS) 434
"fiYl :Coht?nt Corrtents xvll

3. COMPARION-OF TV A{.L{ERA TUBES 496 ll. COMPRESION STANDARDS FOR DIGITAL TELEVTSTON SO
4. COMI'ARISON BET/EEN EI.ECTROI\{AGNETIC AT{D All.l Need of Compression 547
EI-E CTROSTAilC DEFLECTI ONS 497 1^11.2 Types of Compressions 548
5. COMPARISON OF COLOUR PICTURE TUBES
All.3 Scope and Methods of Compression 548
499 All.4 Need of Standardisation for Compression Technique S5I
6. FREQUENCY.MOOUTTION: THEORY, METHODS AND A11.5 JPEG 551
TRANSMISSION 500 A11.6 MPEG-l 555
A6.l Definition of FM Att.7 MPEG-2 558
500
411.8 MPEG-4 559
A6.2 Methods ofAchieving Frequency Modulation 502
411.9 H.26X Compression Standards Developed by ITU-T 560
A6.3 Transmission Equation and Path Loss 506
Al1.10 Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) 561
7. DEMODULATION OF FM: THEORY AND METHODS 510 12. BROADCAST OF HDTV PROGRAMMES 563

A7 .2 Foster Selley Phase Shift Discriminator 512

Al2.l Difficulties in Broadcasting HDTV Programmes 563
412.2 Piorreering Systems of HDTV Broadcast Sd3
A7 .3 Ratio I)etector 514
412.3 Modern Systems of HDTV Broadcast 564
412.4 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing SdS
8. WAVEFORMS AT DIFFF'RENT STAGES OF A TV RECETYER 517 A12.5 ATSC SVSB Modulation 568
9. COMPARTSON TABLE FOR NTSC, pA! AND SECAM SYTEMS 521 A12.6 Super Hi-Vision 570
10. MULTIPLE ACCESS SYSTEMS 525 INDE)( 571
A10.1 Meaning of MultipleAccess 525
A10.2 Need of Multiple Access 525
410.3 Types of Multiple Access Systerns 525 .

410.4 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) 526 . ,

A10.5 Method ofAssigning Slots 529

A10.6 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) 530
410.7 Structure of a TDMA Frame 530
A10.8 Reference Burst 532
Al0.9 Traffic Burst (TB) 532
Al0.l0 Components of RB and TB533
A10.11 TDMA Frame Efficiency 535
A10.12 TDMA Superframe 5i6
410.13 TDMAFrameAcquisition and Synchronisation 536
Al0.l4 Advantages and Disadvantages of TDMA System 538
li;: A10.15 CodeDivisionMultipleAccess(CDMA) 5i8, ' , ':.
A10.16 Spread Spectrum (SS) 539
A10.17 Pseudo-oise 6R Sequence 540
A10.18 Frequency-Hop Spre4d Spectrum (FHSS) 542
: ir'
A10.19 RandomAccess 54i
A10.20 Packet Switching 543
Al0.2l Comparison of Three Muttiple Access Systems 545 ' ;
 r:.1-J
:.

PREEACE l
l

l
l

Television Engineering and Video Systems was first published in 2005 and its l

international edition saw the light of day in 2006. Since then the field of television l

engineering and ideo systems has witnessed rapid growth, especially in digital TV l

broadcast and video recording systems. This necessitated the revision of the book to
expose the readers to the most latest and revolutionary ideas. New developments like
HDTV (and beyond), video conferencing, IPT\', DTH, digital TV, digital CATV, pay
TY 3D TV, large flat panel monitors (Plasma and LED-LCD), projection TV, etc.,
have takenplace in the recentpast and the use ofthese techniques is increasing at a fast
pace in homes and offices. Digitisation coupled with the latest compression standards
(MPEGs andIJ.26X series) forms the basis of these systems.
Governments anrJ big industrial houses are investing generously on research to
increase the recording capacity of laser-based discs, 3D TV and projection TV. The
book covers all the techniques u'hich have been put to operation till May 2011. This
text also outlines future trends which are likely to come into vogue within the next 2
to 3 years. For instance, Sony and Tohuku University of Japan, in July 2}l},jointly
announced a BD with a capacity of 1000 GB'for dual layer. Research on holographic
video disc which can store 800 GB per layer is ongoing. Application of holograpic
techniques in producing heckle-free 3D TV are also on the horizon. New and more
powerful compression techniques being developed have also been discussed in the
text"
--
H.rr.., it is ttre need of the hour that undergraduate students of electronics and
communication engineering become well conversant with these new developments.
The subject 'TV Engineering' is taught as a part of BTech, BE and Diploma courses
in ali technical universities and technical boards of all states. The book has been
primarily written for students of these courses. This course is generally taught in the
final semester. The students, by this time, haye covered electronic circuits and devices
(both analog and digital) and have good understanding of circuit theory. Hence, in this
edition, circuits specific to,TV (like wide-bandwidth amplifiers, keyed AGC circuits,
trap circuits, noise cancglling circuits, video arrd audio modulators and demodulators,
electroriic tuning, etc.) hve been explained in detail, while systems in general have
been explained with the help ofblock diagrams.
Postgraduate,level studnts pursuing lWS. (Electronics), MTech, ME, MS, and
students of professional institutes like IETE, IE, IEEE,'IEE and C and Guilds can
also use this book as an academic text for studying some advance topics given in
Chapters 5, t2,13 and 14. Students preparing for GATE/IES examinations can focus
on Clrapters 5,1L,12,1.3 and 14. Students of fllm and TV institutes will find Chapters
l-7,9, and 12-16 very useful.
 XX Prefoce
The book can be used as a source of reference by the engineering staff at TV
centres of Doordarshan and other channels, service technicians-; cable
operators and
TV manufacturers as well. Self-employed technicians can refer to Chapters l-3,
5,7,
9, and 17-19.
New to this Edition
A major objective of the book is to explain the concepts of traditional SDTV, modern
HDTV and DTV. Chapters have been enhanced holistically to include the state-of-the-
art. New topics, required by the syllabus of major universiiies and polytechnics,
added
to the book include
o New trends in traditional systems
o Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) and its advantages, Plasma display panels
o Integrated circuits in monochrome terevision receivers
Direct-to-Home (DTH) and other satellite relay systems for television
Digital television, High Definition TV and beyond, wDTy 3D TV video
conferencing
o Digital
vicleo disc, Blu-ray disc, and BD player
. special instruments for testing a digital TV, digital TV analyser
In this edition, exercises comprising solved examples, short-answer questions,
multiple-choice questions and numerical questions have been enhanced with
new
problems and answers.
The book comprises separate chapters on television standards, picture fubes,
monochrome transmitters and monochrome receivers for complete coverage,
and
emphasises on [uality maintenance, troubleshooting, and safety precaution
for
equipments.
The topics on satellite communication have been reduced substantially to confine
them to TV broadcasting and DTH. While inclurJing the latest techniques and
systems,
care has been taken not to dilute the fundamental concepts and principles
of scanning,
resolution, compatibility, traditional TV cameras, monitorr, .rrorhrome and
colour
TVtransmittersandreceivers TSC, PALand SECAM),TVantennasandpropagation,
TV studio, CCTV cable TV and video recording. Content on test instrumen-t, urr
troubleshooting has also been retained to help the students use them as lab manuals
for
practical work, which can also be of great help to service engineers.
Book Overview
A11 topics have been explained lucidly and the book is organised in the following
manner.
Chapter I presents characteristics of light and sound, which are the main source of
signals fr
1TV
system and audio/video recording. Chapter 2 explains the fundamental
concepts of television such as scanning, synchronisation, blanking, CVS, resolution,
and bandwidth. It lists the merits of negative modulation and details of calculating
the
number of lines for resolution in HDTV. Chapter d.sr.iU". iiff;.;;iTv standards
for the concepts described in Chapter 2. It compares similarities and dissimilarities of
Prefaie xxl
various standards. Reasons why J-standard has not been listed in the CCIR list have
been added in this edition. Chapter 4 explains in detail the input transducers used to
convert intensity of light into electrical signals. Chapter 5 presents a comprehensive
description of output transducers (picture display panels) which reconvert the electrical
signat into light and thus reproduce the original picture, using the synchronisation
pulses contained in the CVS, produced by the camera. CRT and flat display panels
based on plasma and LCD have been described with their relative merits and demerits.
Projection TV has also been explained in this chapter.
Ctrapter 6 explains different stages of a monochrome TV transmitter. It describes
the use of wideband amplifiers for ampliffing TV camera's output, video modulator,
diplexer and transmitting antenna. Chapter 7 elucidates different stages of mono-
chrome receivers. This chapter contains circuit diagrams specific to TV and describes
various controls. Block diagrams of three ICs used have been given. Chapter 8
explains compatibility between colour and monochrome systems, production of colour
difference signals, generation of colour subcarrier and interleaving of luminance and
chrominance signals. It also introduces three colour systems. Chapter 9 describes in
detail NTSC and PAL colour systems introduced in Chapter 8. It explains correction
of colour effor in S-PAL and D-PAL receivers. Chapter 10 explains SECAM colour
system.
Chapter lL describes various transmitting and receiving antennas and propagation
of elecfromagnetic waves. It explains line-of-sight range of TV transmitters. Chapter L2
deals with TV signals reiayed by geostationary satellites to increase the line-of-sight
range. It describes TV broadcasting by satellites for other terresffial transmitters, for
cable operators (TVRO service) and for DTH service. It explains the design of satellite
relay links for terrestrial TV broadcasts, and for DTH, it explains STB and CAS.
Chapter 13 presents a detailed explanation of the most modern DTV broadcast, EDTV
HDTV WDTV teletext, view data, video telephone and video conferencing, facsimile,
TV in multimedia and the latest 3D TV systems. Chapter 14 deals with recording of
video and audio signals. Recording on tape is being phased out, so has been described
only briefly as it still finds place in the syllabus of some courses. The modern systems
of VCD, DVD and the latest blu-ray disc, along with BD player have been discussed
at tength. Comparative tabtes and applications have also been included. Chapter 15
discusses television studio and its linkage with the TV transmitter and the use of OB
van for direct transmission of field events to distant locations through satellites.
Chapter 16 describes cable systems like CCTY MATV and CATY which are non-
radiating type in the sense that they do not use wireless transmissions. CCTV is a closed
system whidh has been described in detail along with its applications. CATV is widely
used and is providing hundreds of channels of TV programmes through TVRO satellite
systems. MATV is a fore runner of CATV and has now very limited applications. It
has been described briefly as a historical event. Chapter 17 deals with the production
of EHT, HT and LT for TV receivers. Different types of regulated supplies, including
SMPS with their merits and applications have been explained. Logical Fault diagnosis
in SMpS has also been described. New examples elucidating how a shunt regulator
provides better load protection as compared to a series regulator have been included
in this edition. Chapter 18 illustrated test instruments for traditional TVs in the first
edition. In this edition test instruments for emerging DTV like TV test transmitter, TV
 xlll Pract
Preface xxlll
tcst receiver and digilal tV unutyser have been added. Procedure for aligning a TV
receiver has ,also been explained. Chapter 19 explains typical faults in monohrome The centre comprises the following additionat study resources for both insffuctors
and colour TV systems, logical inferences from syriptoms, sectional approach of fault and students.
diagnosis through a flow chart, troubleshooting in DVD players, and in the end some
guidelines for preventive maintenance have been given. For Students
Appendix I describes units of light and sound. Appendix 2 elucidates the represen- Objective Type Questions
tation of colours and also contains examples for calculating colour phasors. Appendix 3 Chapter ZO, f tne nrrirti"", on Preventive Maintenance will be available here.
compares various camera tubes. A comparison of electrostatic and electrmagnetic
deflections is presented in Appendix 4. ppendix 5 compares different picture tubes. Feedback
Appendix 6 on FM theory methods and transmission explains frequency modulators
in detail. It also derives transmission equation, path loss, noise figures ofarnplifiers and Comments and suggestions on this book are most welcome. You can write to fiie at
profgup t ab b d@gm ai l. c om
equivalent noise temperature. FM detector theory and methods have been described
in Appendix 7. Various wavefoms at the input and output of different stages of the
receiver have been illustrated in Appendix B. R G Gupta
Comparison of NTSC, PAL and SECAM systems has been given in Appendix 9.
Appendix l0 explains various multiple access techniques (FDMA, TDM, CDMA
and random access packet switching) useel to enable the large bandwidth provided Publisher's Note
by a relaying satellite to allow multi-users from around the world to utilise full
bandwidth of a satellite. Appendix 11 describes compression techniques based on Remember to write to us. We look forward to receiving your feedback, comments and
spatial compression (DCT analysis), motion vector compression (IPB frames), object- ideas to enhance the quality ofthis book. You can reach vs attrnh.elefeedbaclc@gmail.com.
oriented compression and colour space (Y Cb Cr) compression. JPEG, JPEG iOOO, Please mention the title and author's name as the subject. In case you spot piracy of
MPEGs andH.21Xseries have also been desribed with their limitations. IpMp, DRM this book, please do let us know.
and IPTV have also been explained briefly. Appendix 12 explains in detail the latest
DTV broadcast methods like DVB and AISC SVSB and also throws light on Super
Hi-Vision TV of the future.
The text allows a smooth flow of ideas: frorn an introduction to the concept to
lucid explanations with the help of, circuits, mathematical equations, examples,-etc.,
including description of systems with the help of block diagrams, along wittr analyses
of the merits and demerits of different techniques and applications, and nally a sum-
mation of key points.
Solved examples are given in the book to elucidate real-tie association with the
concepts described in the text. Exercises have been given at the end of each chapter
which match the modern examination pattern and would be very beneficial to the
examinees.
Conceptual pedagogical features comprise review questions, requiring long ans-
wers and/or mathematical derivations; and short-ansrver questions, stressing on-'why,
and 'how' aspects. These are meant to judge the ability of the students to grasp basic
concepts. Objective pedagogical teatures comprise multiple-choice questions and
numerical questions. These have also been includecl in Chapter 19 of this edition to
judge the ability of the students to coruectly diagnose a fault *itt giurn symptoms.
.

Online Learning Centre

This book is supported by an online.learning centre which can be accessed a,t,
http : //www. mhhe. co m/ gup t a/t ev s J
rl { 'i r' l

ACKNOWLEDGEMEI{TS

lmpressed by the overwhelming response to my first book Audio and Video Systems
(written on the advice of our family friend and weli wisher, Shailendra Dwivedi of
Shivam Arts, Lucknow, to whom I shall ever remain grateful for timely advice) in
India and abroad, the former Managing Director and Chairman of Tata McGraw-
tlill Education, Dr N Subrahmanyam, entrusted to me to write a book on Television
Engineering. Consequently the book Television Engineering and Video Systems (le)
was published in late 2005. I am thankful to DrN Subrahmanyam for encouraging'me
to write that book, and I am happy that I proved worthy of the trust reposed in *r, u,
its six reprints came out within a short span of four years
The techniques oftelevision enlineering have, since then, undergone revolutionary
changes with the advent of digital HDTV broadcast through terrestrial as well as satelite
networks. consequently, DTH, 3D Tv, video bonferencing, plasma and LED.LGD
panels, projection TV and blu-ray discs have become increasingly popular. Various
universities and boards have already included these changes oi ur. in the process
of revising their syllabi. The Head-Higher Education Publishing and Markting at
TMH, Ms Vibha Mahajan. visualised this new scenario and suggested publication of a
revised edition of the book Television Engineering and Video ystems. I acknowledge
her timely decision and express my gratitude ror ttrls opportunity.
I am also thankful. to the learned reviewers mentioned below, who gave very
valuable suggestions for this second edition.

Savina Bansal Gani Zail Singh College of Engineering and kchnologt,

Bathinda, Punjab
Akhilesh Verma Government Polytechnic, Pauri Garhwal, (Ittarakhand
Ashutosh Mishra Shankara Institute of Technologt, Jaipu4 Rajasthan
V B Baru sinhgad college of Engineering vadgaon, pune, Maharashtra

I would like to thank Poonam Pathak and all my ftiends and colleagues at the EC
Department at BBD National Institute of Technology and ManagementlLucknow, for
the tokens of their affection on the occasion of my retirement frm BBD, wtrich were
used by me for writing the new text for revising the previous edition.
Special thanks are due to Varsha Garg, a student of Connputer Science and Engi-
neering at Northern India Engineering College, Lucknow, who took out time from her
busy study schedule and helped by preparingexcellent drawings from just broad ideas
given to her. She is a very hard working and intelligent girl with greaiaptitude in
fine
arts and graphics, and I wish her all the success in life.
xxvl Acknowlo$rmont

Completion of this revised edition on a fast changing engineering subiect has been
the result of a great team effort. The whole team at TMH, including Ms Koyel Ghosh,
Ms Nimisha Kapoor and Mr Piyaray Pandita deserve congratulations and my heartiest
thanks for the good work done.
CHARACTERISTICS
I would like to mention that online resources such ,as Wikipedia, Howstuffworks
and rsearch articles and pictures published by various scholars have contributed as OF LIGFIT AND
references for updating technical details in this edition.

R G Gupta
SOUNI)

I.I INTRODUCTION
The word 'television' has its origin in two Greek words 'tele' and'vision' . TeIe means
'at distance' and vision means 'seeing'. After the successful development of radio
broadcast of sound, man started dreaming of seeing pictures too at a distance beyond
barriers. However, there was one serious problem in broadcasting the pictures. While
in sound, there is only one amplitude at a time, in a scene there are thousands of
points, each having different amplitude of light (brightness and colour) at any instant
of time (spreading through width, height and depth in space). Each point of variation
at a time requires a channel for transmission, hence to transmit the whole picture,
several thousands of radio frequency channels were needed. This was not feasible.
These space variations of intensity and colour occuruing simultaneously were to be
converted into electrical signals varying with time (i.e. single valued function of time)
for traiismission through a single radio frequency channel. To achieve this, values
of light in a picture-image were first converted into an electrical charge-image on a
photosensitive target bnd then the charge was extracted from point to point in quick
succession by a process called scanning. The scanned signal represented variation of
light with time and so it was in a form suitable for radio transmission. Again at the
receiver, the detected signal varying with time was reconverted into light varying in
space on the fluorescent screen of a specially designed cathode ray tube. The scanning
speed was t'aster than the persistence of vision, an important characteristic of the
eye. This made the discrete points appear as one whole picture. The original picture
wasthus reproduced and'man's drearn of seeing picturesata distance was realised.
Before the study of the elements of a TV transmiffing and receiving system is taken
up, it is necessary to study the characteristics of light and sound which have to be
transmitted for receiving TV programmes at a distance. Units in which the values of
light and sound are expressed have been defined in Appendix l.

I.2 INTENSITY OF LIGHT IN A PICTURE

The intensity of illumination can vary from darkness (light of faint stars in the universe,
w.hich is taken as reference : 0 dB) to light of bright sun on snow (110 dB). On this
scale, twilight is 50 dB and good reading light is 80 dB. Similarly colour can have
countless variations in a picture within the limits of visible spectrum (red to violet).
2 ltlovlilon Engtntorlng a1d Vtdto Syrtrms
A scene consists gf variations of intensity of light and colour in space in three
dimensions and its image in two dimensions. The variations may be sharp (abrupt) or
may show slow gradation of shade from white (brightest light) to black (zero light).
The rate of variation of the intensity represents frequency of variation. In TV it may
vary from 0 to about 5 MHz.
I.3 IMAGE
An eye senses the variations of light occurring in its field of view and forms an image
of the scene on the rptina. Similarly a camera picks up a portion of the scene falling
in its field of view and forms its irnage on a photographic film (as in cinema) or on
a semiconductor plate (as in TV camera tube). The image is thus a two-dimensional
picture on a plane surface. The effect of the third dimension (depth) in the'image is
produced by the fact that light from the distant objects is of reduced inteniity, the
reduction being proportional to the distance. Good artists create the impression of
depth in their paintings by using this principle.
I.4 PICTURE FRAME
When a scene is filmed, the field of view of the lens being limited, the camera catches
a small portiou of the scene when its shutter is opened. The image recorded on the film
in an exposure is called picture frame in cinema terminology. Each exposure gives a
still picture. If a scene does not change (e.g. a hill or a building), all exposures will
give the same image. But when an event is filmed, the scene changes from instant to
instant. Recording of a changing scene requires several exposures in quick succession.
In cinema, there are 24 exposures (photographs) per second recorded an 24 films,
moving and coming in the focus of the camera lens one after the other. Each exposure
gives a still picture, but each still is a different picture while filming a changing scene
(or movie picture).
In television, the situation is slightly different. The TV camera lens continuously
focuses the scene on a target plate. There are no shutters opening or closing. Instead the
image is converted into an electrical charge-image, and'electrical signal is extracted
from each point of the charge image in quick succession by a continuous extraction
process withtintemrption (akin to closing the shutter) every 40 miltisecond (explained
in detail in Chapter 4). In TV, the process of extraction of signal from point to point
is called scanning and intemrption is called blanking (these are described in Chapter 2).
25 frames are scanned in one second in European system (adopted by India) and 30 in
American system (This difference in the two systems is due to electric mains freqrrsnsy
being 50 in Europe and 60 in America). Each sequence of scanning in TV (like each
exposure in cinema) is aframe
falled
1.5 ASPECT RAIIO
Width to height ratio of a picture frame is called aspect ratio. Width is kept longer than
height because of the foliowing facts:
Clprwrlrlc of Uglr and Sound 3
l. Horizontal dimension of,a scene is generally more than its vertical dimension.
2, Eyes can move with more ease and comfort in the horizontal plane than in the
vertical.
3. The fovea, the surface of maximum sensitivity and resolution at the centre of the
retina in the eye has greater width than height. Hence, the longer width of the
image ensures more efficient use of the fovea.
4. As a result of intensive subjective tests by cinema professionals, aspect ratio of
4:3 was found to be most pleasing aesthetically, and less fatiguing to the eyes.
The same ratio was accepted by television engineers as cinema films formed a
major part.of TV programmes. This enabled direct transmission of films without
wastage of any film area.
Thus for conventional TV screens, the aspect ratio is 4:3 in all TV systems"
Proponional size of the objects will not chang with change in size of the screen so
long as the aspect ratio remains the same. (For wider screens of high definition TV,
aspect ratio of l6:9 has been standardised. Recording at 16:9 aspect rulio .un be shown
on 4:3 ratio screen by,sing full width and smaller height)
Dimensions of a TV receiver are specified by the diagonal length of the screen.
When width is 4 x and height,3 x, diagonal would be 5 x (Pythagorus theorem). Thus
the diagonal will give the value of. Hence for the aspect ratio of 4:3, height and
width
of the screen can be determined, as shown in Example l.l.
i---
I ExlTpIe r.l i -
Determine height and width of a TV ,.rr., of
Soluon5 x : 30 cm, therefore x : 6 crn
I{ence, height:6x3:18cm and width:6x 4:24cm
I.6 PICTURE ELEMENTS
For analysis and processinB, &n image can be considered to be consisting of tiny
areas (dots), called picture elements (PELS) or more popularly,pixels.A photograpir
comprises fine grains of silver which show varying shades of light. A printed pictre
(as in a newspaper) is composed of very small black and white dots. imitarty
a TV
picture as seen on the screen of a picture tube in a TV receiver cqnsists of hundreds
of
thousands of pixels. These pixels are too small to be seen ordinarily.
The pixels, although randomly distributed, can be supposed to lie on closely spaced
horizontal lines on a picture frame to simplify for understanding. The maximum
number of pixels that can appear on a vertical line on the screen,rilt b. equal to the
number of horizontal lines, as shown in Fig. I . 1 . In the figure, there are l8 horizontal
lines, and thereforo there are l8 pixels on a vertical line. As the aspect ratio is 4:3, there
would be 18 x 413 :24 pixels on a horizontal line. Total number of pixels on the screen
of Fig. 1.1 will be 18 x 24: 432.The illustration is on a small scale. In practice there
ate 625 scanning lines in European system of television and 525 lines in American
system. Hence maximum number ofpixels in European system would be 625 x 625 x
4/3 :520833, and inAmerican slrstem, 525 x 525 x 413:367 1OO.In actual practice,
'4 Tllwfilon Ehgfnirlnl otd Ylfib Sytrm Chaastorletlct of trgt and ound ,,

pixels that contribute to the reproduction of a picture are much less than the abovc
values (about 223 000 in European system and about 152 000 in American system) due
I.8 VISUAT ACUTENESS AT{D VIEI/ING DISTANCE
to loss of some lines in blanking as explained in Chapter 2. Human eye has resolution of I minute (or l/60 degree). It means that if two closely
spaced objects form a minimum angle of I minute at the eye, they would be distinctly
visible. For srnaller angles, the vo objects would appear as merged with each other.
The angle subtended at the eye will depend on two factors.
l. The space, between the objects.
2. The distance, D, from which the objects are being seen.
For clear resolution /D is given by Eq. (1.1) which is derived as follows with
reference to Fig. 1.2.

Fig. l.l Pixels on a vertical line and on a horizontal line on a sreen

I.7 DETAILS AND RESOLUTION Fig. 1.2 Angle subtended at the eye

Closely spaced small objects or small distinct features in a picture form detils. Let the two closely spaced but distinct objects be A an B.
Smaller the objects or features visible distinctly, higher is the resolution of the details Angle a subtended by A and B atthe eye E: SID radians
or finer are the details being seen. The ability to see the fine details in a picfure is called 180
resolution For example, wrinkles on aface, hair of the eyebrows, veins on a leaf and As I radian - degrees, angle o: -ltq * { dr*..,
It IC L)
similar closely spaced but distinct features should be clearly visible in a reproduced
picture for good resolution. A pixel in a picture represents a very small area (almost For clear resolution, this angle should be : 1/60 degree.
point size) r,r,hich possesses the characteristic brightness and colorr at that point.
If a large number of pixels possess the same intensity of light, say in a broad white 1^
180 x,S
Hence, =- or
nxD 60D-= 180 x 60
(1 .1)
stripe, there are no distinct pixels to be resolved and the scanning beam will not find
any variation for a long scanning time. This means that the frequency ofvariation is low Equation (1.1) will give the minimum resolvable gap ,S between objects, and hence
(say, a few Hz only). In contrast with this, if the variation of intensity occurs quickly
will give the required number of pixels. Width of the resolvable gap and the number of
as in the case of a chequered pattern, small areas or even individual pixels will need pixels in TV can be calculated as shown in Examples 1.2 and 1.3.
to be resolved. This amounts to high frequency of variatibn. Thus resolution is related
to frequency which may vary from dc or.low value (whole picture or broad portions ffi
to be of the same intensity) to high fiequency (about 5 MHz) when neighbouring | -Examplg r,z I .
pixels vary in intensity. Mathematical treatment of resolution and video frequency for Calculate the minimum distanpe between adjacent pixels for the vierving distance
television has been given in Chapter 2. equal to 2.5 m.

Sharpness of Pictures 2.5xn

180x60
High resolution or high freqency of variation produces pictures of sharp outlines.
When the edges of a reproduced picture are defined sharply, the picture is said to be
well defined or sharp. Good definition brings out background details and hence creates
the impression of depth in the picture. Calculate the number of pixels in 50 cm size TV screen for Example 1.2.
Solution For 50 cm size screen, width:40 cm, height:30 cm
6j Ttrffilon, Etffihr1,, nt''ytf slurm ,' '' '1.
Chfacterlstlcs of Ltght ortd Souhd i
,'40 Fllcker
Therefore, tro. of pixels in width'=
OO* 'Iime of persistence of vision is more for darkness than for bright light. This results in
; 30 a phenomenon called flicker. It means dark intervals between bright pictures become
and no. of pixels in height: visible for a very short time and appear as flicker. The relationship between flicker and
O,.O
brightness is given by Ferry Poster law, expressed in Eq. (1.2).
Hence, total no. of pixels : 40 * 30
F": F + 12.61og,o.B (r.2)
Orr, 0^013

: 2260A0
Although 1'angle criteria gives maximum resolution, it is not necessary to see a
picture with maxirnum resolution. Viewing distance should be such that the diagonal
of the screen should subtend an angle of 10-15o at the eyes for comfortable viewing.
This gives the viewing range of 2*3 m for a 50 cm size TV rece.iver.
As the number of pixels are the same in TV receivers of different sizes, the space
between adjacent pixels will be less in smaller size screens and hence the viewing
distance will be smaller. With the aspect ratio of 4:3, the viewing distance of 6 to
8 tirnes the height of the screen is considered satisfactory. (For wide screen high
definition TV systems where the aspect ratio is 16:9, the best viewing distance has
been estimated to be 3-4 times the height'of the screen.)
Viewing distance will also.dependupon the brightness ofa picture. InArnericauTVs,
pictures arebrighter (as explainedin Sectionl.9) than Indian TVs. Hence viewing
distance for the American TVs can be more and therefore spaces between pixels can be
lreater. This, in turn, tnoans that the numbei of pixels is smaller and hence the nurnber
of scanning lines per frarne is-also smaller. This is the reason why the American TV
system has 525 l,ines per frame while the Indian system has 625lines per frame.
l.g PERSISTENCE OF VISION ANID FLICKER
When the eye sees light, it continues to see it for about 60 ms after the light source is
removed. This property of the eye is calledpersistence of vision.It has been possible
to see movie pictures because of this property of the eyes. In ciuema, the pichre reel
consists of films of still pictures. When these films are projected on the screen one by
one in quick succession so fast that the next film is projected in much less time than
60 ms, the two films appear to be continous. The display of the first film dies out only
after the second film appears on the screen. The discontinuous pictures blend with each
other and the discontinuity is not seen. Thus due to persistence of vision, we see the
crntinuous motion in movie pictures. Similar thing happens in television. The picture
frames displayed on a TV screen change one after the other faster than persistence
of vision. Display of each complete frame takes only 40 ms in Indian system of 25
frames per second and about 33 ms inAmerican system of 30 frames per second, while
persistence of vision is 60 ms. As,countries all over the world are following either of
these systems, displays on the TV screen in all TV systems appear to be continuous,
allowing all motions to be seen as in the actual scene.
where { is the critical frequency at which flicker will not be seen, f is a constant
rclated to the viewing conditions (it is 37 for normal conditions) and B is the luminance
of picture highlights in foot-lamberts. For B: 10, and F:37, { works out to be
49.6.
ln cinema lms, if still pictures are projected one after the other at 24 films per
sccond, therc would be 24 intemrptions in each second (i.e. darkness would appear
24 times per second). These intemrptions would become visible on the screen in the
tbrm of flicker. The flicker will be removed if the number of projections per second
is doubled, i.e. 48 films are projected every second. However, the solution would be
costly if the length of the reel is doubled. Photographic film is quite costly and the
engineering ingenuity demantls that the solution should be cost-effective (i.e. of as low
cost as possible). \npther solution could be to project each film of still picture tw-ice
on the scren. It means that when a particular film is projected, it stays on and the
same film is projected again when the shutter opens for the next film. The film moves
foward only after its two projections'have been completed. This happens for each lm
in turn. Thus the eye sees 48 intemrptions for 24 films. As the rate of intemrptions has
doubied, the flicker is eliminated, without increasing the length of the lms'reel.
In television, the problem of flicker is solved in a sirnilar way.25 frames per second
(30 in American system) are displayed on the screen of the picture tube. This would
give rise to flicker. If the number of frames is doubled, scanning speed and hence
signal bandwidth will be doubled. This would result in reduction in the number of
transmitting channels and would increase the noise. An increase in bandwidth would
be a costly solution. To solve the problem of flicker without increasing the bandvidth,
each frame is displayed twice (using interlaced technique, explained in Chapter 2).
This results in doubling the intemrptions per second without increasing the bandwidth.
Higher the number of intemrptions per second, brighter can be the picture for the same
level of reduction in flicker as shown in Table I . I .
Table l.l Relationship between brightness and flicker
of whichflicker
Frequency Brightness at i
interruptions will be reduced to a threshold value
30Hz I cdlm2
50 Hz 10 cd/m2
,t 60 Hz 50 cd/m2
\*- J
 E nnWilon Englnculry yd Wdo systcms
Choracterlstlcs of Llght and Sound 9
On account of the f'requency of intemrptions being 60 Hzin American
TV pictures
in theirTV system ar brighterthan in Indian TV system of 50 intemrptions kept low and then the contrast is adjusted to a pleasing value. After adjusting the
per second.
This leads to the conclusion that American TV can be seen from a greater contrast, the brightness level may again be adjusted so that overall brightness anJ
distance and
hence the number of scanning lines in American system are contrast give the best soothing effect to the viewer.
less iZS per frame) than
in Indian system (625 per frame). In Figs 1.3(c) and (d), brightness is the same (oB : oB'), but contrasts are
different, equal to BC in Fig. 1.3(c) and B'C'in Fig. 1.3(d., BCbeing greater than
B'C',
L:e*"j_HsHIYp*
C
Brightness in TVpictures is the average intensity of light. It
determines the background
level of illumination in the reproduced pictur. The eye adapts itself B
to the uu.rug.
prevailing brightness and sees all variations with r"rp..t to this
adapted value.
In TV receivers, brightness (average illumination , the screen)
can be i-rcreased or
decreased by changing the dc bias between the control grirJ
and cathode of the picture
tube' Hence the brightness control of a TV receiver is the potentiometer
located in the (b)
dc voltage line going to the grid orbathode of the picure tube.

L* c'
B'
Tbnal Gradaon While a TV picture may have an overall average level of Brightness
brightness, the illumination of any individual pixels on the screen
may vary from level
o
one pixel to the other. Variation f.o* pixel to pixel is called tonal
gradation. If the (c)
whole picture is of one intensity (say white screen), there is no variation (d)
and hence
rate of variation is zero. If the intensity changes from one pixel
pixel, the rate of variation of intensity is mximum. This maximum
to the next (adjacent) Fig. 1.3 (a) High brightness level, (b) Low brightness level,
rate of change (c) High contrast, and (d) Low conrrasr
of variation is the bandwidth of variation of light, and is about 5 MHz. Thus
tonal
gradation of a picture varies from 0 Hz-5 MHz.
Eyes can accomodate a contrast ratio of l0:1. If the contrast ratio is too high, it
Contrast A TV picture has an overall average level of brightness. Illumination u'ould strain the eyes. With too little contrast, the picture will appear washed out.
value of an individual pixel on the screen will vary above un brlo* Hence contrast control should be set to a position which gives a soothing view of the
this average
value' Thus illumination of a pixel will appear difierently with different picture.
brightness
of the background. For example, a white pirel will appear very white in
contrast with
black background (or low brightness), but will appeai dull whiie in white
The illumination value of a pixbt vis-a-vis backgiound illumination
background. l.l2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COLOUR
is called contrast.
Contrast is therefore dened as the luminance values between white
and black. This Light is a visible form of electromagnetic energy. It has two visible characteristics:
difference will depend on the strength of the video signal responsible
for glowing an intensity and colour.
individual pixel. Thus contrast control is located in ttre video signal
amplifier. (Its Intensity as seen by the eye is represented by luminance and colour by the wave-
function in respect of video signals is similar to the function of volume length. Light of a specific wavelength shows specific colour. Range in wavelength of
controi in
audio amplifiers).
the visible colour varies from about 400 nm (violet) to about 700 nm (red). There can
As contrast is the variation in brightness of individual pixels over the general
aver- be unlimited wavelengths and hence unlirnited colours within this range, but the eye
age brightness of the whole screen, the two phenomena (contrast
and brightness) are cannot distinguish them so closely. In practice, the eye is able to see colours in broad
inter-related. This will be clear from Figs I .l1a, (b), (c) and (d).
bands of wavelengths. For example, white light from the sun consists of innumerable
In Fig. 1.3(a), the brightness level is higher being .qrui to oB than that in colours. but we are able to see distinctly seven colours in the rainbow (violet, indigo,
Fig. 1.3(b) where it is oB'.Butcontrasts BC i;Fig. 1.3(a) and B,c, inFig.
I :1uj, ur. blue, green, yellow, orange and red).
the same as, BC: B'C'.
Colour of light emitted by a source depends on the atomic structure of the source
When general bightness level is increased, grey will appear black and
so general material. For instance, phosphor elements of a fluorescent screen can emit green or
contrast level will also increase. To get the most soothing Lff..t, brightness
level is blue or red light, depending on the compositiorr of phosphor.
 l0 Televlslon Engtneerlng ond Vtdeo Systems Chardcterlstlcs of Ltght and Sound 11

Colour of an objdct is the colour which that object is able to reflect. When white r,:ottccpt of black body is aclopted. A theorct iaal blac'k hod.r,,after being heatecl. radiates
ligtrt is incidcnt on rose petals, they reflect red light only and absorb other colours, and rrut oncrgy in thc fbrnt of'clectromagnetic waves. L'olour temlttt'utu"e is thc terrn used
therefore only red light reaches the eyes and the rose appears red. Similarly grass is to indicate the colour which will be radiated by the black body heatecl to a specified
green. When an object reflects more than one colour, the resultant colour of the object tctnperaturc.
would be the sum of colours reflected or the subtraction of the colours absorbed by the The colour of a source of light can be characterised by the temperature of'a black
object from the incident light. The net colour of the object will be the resultant addition hody in degrees kelvin. The term 'colour temperature'is used to denote the colour of
of the colours reaching the eye. thc source of light in the sense that the source emits the colour w,hich would be radiated
by the black body radiator atthat temperature. The term, in fact" is a misnomer in the
I.I3 RESOLUTION AND BANDIIDTH OF COLOURS cnse that it is not a measure of the temperature of the source. For example, the colour
lcntperature of a candle light is 1800 K, but it does not mean that the tcmperature of
Eyes cannot see colours of very small objects. Such objects are seen by the eye as thc candle's flame is 1800 K. [t only shows that the colour emitted by the candle is the
colourless or black and white. Relatively bigger objects show the colour. Hence slmL' as would be emitted by the black body radiator at a temperature of 1800 K Typical
resolution and bandwidth of colour are much lower than for the monochrome light. colours emitted by different types of sources are represented by colour temperatures
While bandwidth of monochrome light is about 5 MHz, the bandwidth of colour is rs lbllows:
less than 1.5 MHz. This property of the eye is used in interleaving of colour signals Match sticks 1700 K
in between the monochrome brightness signals. Interleaving is explained in detail 100 W Electric lamp 2t00 K
in Chapter 8. Size of a pixel for monochrome and for colour can be calculated as Flood light used in studios 3400 K
illustrated in Eample 1.4. Moon light (full moon) 4200 K
Sunlight on a clear day 6000 K
I Example r.4 I
Standard white light for TV 6s00 K
As the sun crosses the sky, it changes colours from red or orange to white depending
A TV system has 500 pixels on a horizontal line and its bandwidth for monochrome
picture is 5 MHz and for colour picture 1 MHz. Calculate size of the pixel for on its angle from the horizon. The cause is scattering which is unrelated to the black
(i) monochrome TV and (ii) colour TV for 50 cm size screer cf aspect ratio of 4:3. hody radiation. The source is one (the sun), but colours emitted at different times
are different. Such a phenomenon is described by using a term 'co-rclated colour
Soluon (i) For monochrome: width -- 40 cm tcmperature'or CCT. It is the colour temperature of a black body radiator which most
- 500 pixels occupy 40 cm closely matches the human perception of light from the source. CCT for daylight is
6500 K. NTSC and PAL TV systems call for a compliant TV screen to display this
Therefore, I pixel occupies 401500: 0.08 cm
white.
(ii) For colour: width :40 cm In digital photography, colour temperature is sometimes used interchangeably with
:
details for 5 MHz 500 pixels white balance (explained in Section 8.6). Most video cameras can adjust for colour
temperature by zooming into a white picture and setting the white balance (i.e. telling
Therefore, details for I MHz: 500/5 : 100 colour pixels
the camera to see the object as white). The camera then shows the true white as white
100 colour pixels occupy 40 cm and adjusts all orher colours accordingly.
Therefore, I pixe: occupies 401100:0.4 cm

The above example shows that a monochrome pixel would be resolved if its width
is 0.08 cm, while a colour pixel can be resolved only if its width is 5 times bigger.
I.14 COLOUR TEMPERAIURE
*_*- ***_=*__--
It is a common experience that the tungsten filament on being heated emits light.
Colour of this light depends on the temperature of the filament. At lower temperatures,
the light is red and as the temperature increases, other wavelengths are produced and
f,nall;' it emits nearly white light. This shows that there is a relationship between
colour and temperature. To standardise relation between colour and temperature, the
1.15 PRIMARY COLOURS
There are threeprimary colours: red,grezn andblue.They are calledprimarybecause all
other colours can be obtained by mixing these three colours'in appropriate proportions.
An eye also perceives the colours by such a mixing process. There are groups, each of
three cones, behind the retina of the eye. One cone of each group responds to red light.
the other one to green and the third one to blue. The brain integrates these responses
by additive mixing and perceives the resultant colour which was incident on the eye.
When all the three primary colours are incident in equal strengths, we get white colour
or grey shades of white. Also there are rods attached to the retina, which respond to
the brightness present in the incider,t light. Thus the brain interprets colour and its
brightness.
12 Televtslon Englneertng and Vtdeo Systems Chdracterlstlcs of Llght and Sound lB

I.16 COMPLEMENTARY COLOURS I.I8 SUBTRACTIVE MIXING OF COLOURS

.U

Stlbtractive mixing pertains to the subtraotion of the colour by an object from the incident
When any two primary colours of equal intensity are mixed, the resultant colour lighl.'l'he net colour received after subtraction will be the colour of the object.
is called complementary colour. They are also known as ,secondarry colours. There Whon white light is incident on a blue object, it will absorb green and red lights,
are three complementary colours: yellow, cyan and magenta. These are obtained as ttrrtl thcrefore only blue light (white-green-red) r,vill reach the eye. If yellow ght
follows: lr illcident on a rose, it will absorb green light and will reflect red light. So the rose
Red + Green = Yellow rvill appear red. Venn diagram illustrating subtractive mixing is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Green + BIue : Cyan Milrtrs sign indicates the colour absorbed from the incident white. Thus
Blue + Red : -Green means
Magenta Wlritc'- Green, i.e. magenta. The black area in the diagram shows that red, green and
They are known as colnplementary colours because when combined with the hlrrc. all three are absorbed and so the object appears black.
remaining prirnary colours, they give white. Yellow is complementary to blue because
yellow plus blue will give white. Similarly cyan is complementary to red, and magenta
to green..

I.I7 ADDITIVE MIXING OF COLOURS

When light of different colours from independent sources reaches the eye. there is
additive mixing of the colours, resulting in a different colour. Secondary colours result
when two primary colours of equal magnitudc are additively mixed. Colours emitted
by the glowing phosphor elements of the picture tube of a TV receiver give the additive
colour. If red, green and blue phosphors glow with equal iniensity. the resultant colour
as perceived by the eye is white. If only red and green phosphors glow with equal
intensity and blue does not glow at all, the resultant colour will be yellow. Similarly,
green and blue phosphors would give cyan, and red and blue would give magenta.
Additive mixing occurs when we see the light emitted by the sources. Result of Fig. 1.5 Subtractive mixing
additive mixing of the primary colours of equal magnitudes is shown in Fig. 1.4. If the
Scconclary colours of additive mixing are called primary colours of subtractive
primary colours are not of equal magnitude. the resultant colour will differ from those
rrrixing. Result of subtractive mixing is shown below:
shown in Fig. 1.4. For example, if I lumen of red is mixed with 0.5 lumen of green, the
resultant colour will not be pure yellow, but will be reddish green or reddish yellow. White minus Red : Cvan I
.:
White minus Green : Masenta I Primary colours of
I
White minus Blue : -. .: I subtractive mixing
Yellow )

White minus Red minus Green : Bh,e I Primary

White minus Green nrinus Blue : Red f colours of
White. minus Red minus Blue : Green.J additive mixing
I

White minus Red rninus Green minus Blue: Black

'l-he colours of pigments
is due to subtractive mixing. A pigment (colouring matter
ol'dye) absorbs some colour or colours which will not reach the eye and hence these
colours are said to have been subtracted from the incident colour.
'fhere is a clear distlnction between
additive rnixing and subtractive mixing. The
lirrnrcr pertains to the light emitted by the sources, the glowing objects, while the latter
rcrtains to the absorption of light by the objects. The eye adds the colours that reach it.
l'htls at the eye, it is always additive mixing, whether the colours reach the eye direct
Fig. 1.4 Additive mixing of primary colours
lrcnr the active sources, or they reach by reflection of the light not absorbed by the
lrrssive objects.
14 lllevtston Englneerlng and Vtdeo ystems Chorocterlstlcs of Llght, ond Sound 15
lmagc ol'the objects in a scene fbrmed on the plate of a camera tube consists of' tlrc cyc. 'l'his would bc chrorninance signal. To convert'it into luminance signal, this
cglourireflected by the objects aftcr absorbing (or subtracting) some colours. Hence it irrtcnsity has to be reduced as per eye's sensitivity, using a resistive matrix. The eye
is a result of subtrctive mixing. The picture formed on the screen of a picture tube is
is not equally sensitive to all colours. Its sensitivity is 599/ofor green,30%ofor red and
due to the glow of phosphor elements and hence trre resultant colour is a phenomenon
I l'% for blue.
of additive mixing. l{ence the output of the colour camera is to be reduced by the above factors to get
lhc luminance (represented by Y). The luminance is given by Grassman's law which
1.19 HUE, SATURATION AND LUMINANCE * ..-*.ffi .'.,',."*--,.-# is stated as follows:

Coloured light has three components: hue. saturation and luminance. These a:e defined Grassmant Law
as follows: When a colour is produced by adding three primary colours, its luminance is the sum
Hue ol'the luminances of individual primary colours. This algebraic relationship is called
( irassman's Law. It is represented by Eq. (1.3).
lt represents wavelength of the light reaching the eye. As the eye cannot distinguish 'h

between the closely spaced wavelengths, hue is the dominant spectral colour of the r: 0.59 (G) + 0.30 (R) + 0.11 (B) (1.3)
received light, [t is also termed as tint. Rose is red, sky is blue and grass is green.
where G, R and B are the intensities of gree, red and blue lights. (Here )zdoes not
Rose uy b. reflecting 675 nm to 725 nm wavelengths, but the eye will not be able
nlcan yeilow, but it only represents l'-coordinate of an equation and gives luminance
to distinguish between various closely spaced shades of red and will see only one value of a pixel)
dominant colour. According to Eq. (1.3), if G, R and B are I lumen each for the colour camera, then
Hue is independent of brightness. When we say that rose is red. it may be very
thc resultant white (luminance signal) will be I lumen, consisting of 0.59 lumen of
bright or may be quite dull in brightness, but its hue will remain red only. Hue is thus grcen, 0.30 lumen of red and 0.11 lumen of blue (0.59 + 0.30 + 0.11 : 1).
the resultant colour of the light incident on the eye and perceived by the brain with the
help of cones in the eye. Visibility Curve for the Eye

Saturation J lJesides the luminance value of each colour, there is another term designated as
i
'visibility of the colours to the eye'. Infrared light has luminance value as it can activate
lt represents how much white is present rn a colour. White light dilutes a colour. Absence
ir photographic film or can produce charge in the photosensitive target of a camera fube
of white in a colour makes it fully saturated or vivid colour. [f a colour is not fully (as in night-vision tubes) but it is not visible to the eye. Similarly ultraviolet light
present to
saturated, it means white (or the three primary colours in equal proportions) is
lumen and higher frequency radiations (X-rays, etc.) are not visible. Yllowish-gfeen colour
some extent in the colour For example if light consisting of 1 lumen of blue, 0.1
( 550 nm wavelength) is most visible. It is 1 00 times more visible than violet or red. This
of red and 0.1 lumen of green reaches the eye, then the eye will see it as 0.9 lumen of
The unsaturated colour non-unifonn response of the eye is called 'visibilityfunction' or'photopic response' of,
blue and 0.1 lumen of white and its saturation would be 90%.
the eye and is shown in Fig. 1.6.
does not change its hue or tint but produces paleness in the colour. As the saturation
decreases, the paleness of the colour increases. A vivid red with 100% saturation
may
1.0
appear pink with say 50olo'saturation. But hue of vivid red and pale pink are the same.

Saturation also does not depend on brightness. Pink may be as bright as vivid red.

Luminance L
o 0.1
o
It is the measure of visual sensation of the quantity or brightness of light emitted from (

a pixel. It is different from thc average brightness which determines the background .=

level of illumination. Thus while brightnes,s takes into account the illumination of the
Eo
surroundings, luminance is not concerned with the surroundings. It is concerned with
0.01

the pixel from which light is being emitted. The output of a monochrome TV camera
is propotional to the luminance for each pixel. If the pixel h"s a colour (hue), the
ouiprri of the monochrome TV camera will automatically be reduced to the value of its 0.001
brightness as perceived by the eye, because it nearly follows the eye's response due to Ultra 400 550 700 lnfrared
non-linearity inherent in it. If the camera is a colour camera, it is so adjusted that its
violet violet Green
Yellcwish Red

output is according to the full intensity of the pixel. It will not be as per sensitivity of Fig. l. Visbility of the eye

16 Televlslon Englneerlng ond Vldeo Systems
L.zO TRISTIMULUS VALUES
The three primary colours can produce any other colour by mixing in appropriate
proportions. As a result of srtbjective experiments, the component values of the three
colours have been standardised for television. These component values are called
tristimulus values. The neutral white which is used as reference white for TV is a
mixture of:
30% red of wavelength 700 nm
59oA greenof wavelength 546.1 nm
11% blue of wavelength 435.8 nm
If brightness of each colour is reduced by a common factor, the resultant will
represent shades of white, e.g. light grey, grey and dark grey. When brightness of all
the primary colours is zero, the resultant is black.
If 1 lumen of each primary colour gives white, then 0.8 lumen of each may give
light grey,0.5 lumen of each, grey and 0.2 lumen of each, dark grey. Thus componentsl
of the dark grey would be:
0.2x 0.3 (Red) +0.2 x 0.59 (Green) +0.2 x 0.ll (Blue)
: 0.060 + 0.118 + 0.022:0.21umen (Dark grey)
If the magnitudes of the primary colours are not equal, some colour (other th
shades of grey) willbe produced by additive mixing and its saturation'will depend upon
the quantity of white present in the colour. This is further clarified in Example 1.5.
Determine the colour and its saturation if I lumen each of red and green and0.2lumn
of blue are impressed on the eyes.
Solution (1-0.2) (Red) + (1-0.2) (Green) +
0.2 0.3 (Red) + 0.2 x 0.59 (Green) + 0.2 x 0.11 (Blue)
x
: 0.8 (Red) n .g (Green) + O.Z(White)
: 0.8 x 0.3 + 0.8 x 0.59 + 0.2: A.712 Yellow + 0.2 (White)
Colour is unsaturated Yellow.
Percentage saturatio n: Y* x 100 :78oA
0.912
The coefficients 0.59,0.30 and 0.11 are quite inconvenient in view of the fact
while light consists of equal inputs of green, red and blue; the coefficients come
because of difference in sensitivity of the eye for different primary colours. To sol
this difficulty, trichromatic unit (or T unit) was introduced. This has been explai
in Appendix 2 along with other terms pertaining to colours, viz. colour tri
chromaticity diagram, spectral and non-spectral colours and colour circle.
Characterftlcs of Llght and Sound 17
I,2I CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
ound is invariably associated with television programmes. Flence quality of sound is
us important as quality of picture for enjoying a TV programme. Rather it may be more
lntportant because one can imagine or work out a picture from the dialogues, but it is
difficult to work out dialogues from the picture. Good quatity of sound should be free
of noise and distortion and should have comfortable volume.
External to the ear, sound is a longitudinal wave motion, consisting of a train of
cttmpressions and rarefactions travelling in a medium, generally air. Characteristics of
rtlund depend on the source producing sound waves and on the ear responding to these
wnves. The main characteristics are: (l) intensity and (2) frequency.
:
Intensity of Sound
ound waves vary. in intensity, changing from the just audible sound, lower than even
thc rustle of leaves to very loud sound as heard in thunder or loud Rock 'n'Roll bands.
Just audible sound has the intensity of one picowatt per sq. metre (10-', Wm2) and is
tnkcn as reference 0 dB. It is called threshold of hearing. With this reference, sound of
rustlc of leaves is 10 dB, whisper 20 dB, conversation 50 dB, normal speech 74 dB,
thunder 100 dB and a loud Rock 'n'Roll band in a small hall 120 dB. Intensity of 130 dB
cHuses pain.
These intensities are for the ear. The sources of sound produce sounds of much
more intensity than the above values, because the sound reaching the ears is reduced
rubstantially, depending on the distance and the characteristics of the ear. The Peak
Music Power Output (PMPO) of a good domestic TV may be 600 W, but the intensity
;ensed by the ear will be of the order of a few milliwatts per square metre. PMPO
rcpresents the peak power contained in the loud note produced by the musicians for a
lnoment on the musical instrument to give special effect. The average power is about
ll(Zr only of this peak music power. The amplifier to receive instrumental music is so
dcsigned that while it can receive average power continuously, it should be able to
t.
rcccive about 12 times the average power for a moment to reproduce the momentary
'loud note produced by the musicians.
('ttlculate the intensity of sound power at the ear for 600 W PMPO for a person siuing
ut a distance of 2 metres.
olution Power intensity : 600/(4tcR2)
: 6001(4n x 22)
:1l.l9Wm2
Frequency Range of Sound
Another important characteristic of sound is its frequency. It varies from the lowest
licquency of 16 Hzto the highest frequency of 20000H2. It can take any value within
 ' Choractcrltt,ct of Ltghiahd ound +f
18 Televlslon Englneerlng and Vldeo Systems

arranged that they sensed the sound from all directions. The four outputs comprised one
this range. Outside this range our ears will not hear the sound. It is ultrasonic beyond
omniirectional and three bidirectional signals. The bidirectional signals coffesponded
20000 Hz andinfrasonic below 16Hz.
to left-right, front-back and up-dclwn sounds. The control circuit provided not only the
Sound emanating from person(s) or musical instruments consists of a fundamental
surround sound, but also the versatile stereo sound, making the machine compatible
frequency range and its harmonics which give characteristic recognisable sound for
with the two-channel stereo system. Although compatible, this was also a costly
iniviuts. Fundamental frequency range of a rnan's voice may be 110-2000 Hz, but
machine.
it extends to 8000 Hz due to harmonics. Similarly, a violin's fundamental fiequencies
A surround sound effect can be also produced by introducing delay in the audio
range from 180-2500 Hz but they extend to I 5 000 Hz inharmonics. For good quality
gignal produced for two channels of a stereophonic system. The artificial delay so
,o.rrd, fundamental frequencies as well as harmonics of the original sound must be
introduced simulates the natural delay in sounds reflected from walls and the ceiling'
reproduced faithfully. Complete rang of voice frequencies (16 Hz-20 kHr) is called
This can be easily done in digital systems as explained in Chapter 13.
baseband of sound. Different portions of this baseband are used for different purposes
Stereophony and surround sound systems give a pleasing effect to the listeners, as
as mentioned below:
they make him t'eel as if he was sitting in the concert hall itself.
Telephong speech: 300-3400 Hz
100-8000 Hz
Normal radio broadcast:
High fidelity TV broadcast: 40-15 000 Hz
I.24 TRANSDUCERS FOR LIGHT AND SOUND
Output of a comPact disc: 20-20000 Hz Transducer is a device which converts physical phenomenon into electrical signals
and vice versa.
I.22 BASS AID TREBLE Transducer for light is a camera tube, using a semiconductor target, which has
photosensitive property. When light falls on the semiconductor target, eiectrons are
Bass pertains to low frequency notes and treble to high frequency notes. Generally generated in the target. T'he number of electrons produced is proportional to the
the receiver is designed to amplify all the frequencies equally well (from 16 Hz-20000 intensity of light. These electrons are used to develop voltage (called video signal)
Hz). However, some people like depth in sound which is given by boosting the low across a load resistor.
frequencies (bss boost); some people like sharp sound and want trebte more than Transducer for sound is a microphone. When sound strikes a diaphragm, it moves
bass ltreUle boost). Sound systems use RC filter circuits to incorporate bass and troble to and fro in a magnetic field. A coil is afiached to the diaphragm and the emf is
controls, so that sound to individual's taste may be produced. pical circuit diagram induced in the coil as per rules of electromagnetic induction. This voltage is called
showing bass and treble effect is given in Chapter 7. audo sgnal.
Video signal is converted back to light by a cathode ray tube, called picture tube.
1.23 STEREOPHONIC AND SURROUND SOUND Audio signal is converted back to sound by a loudspeaker. Thus the cathode ray tube
and loudspeaker work as reverse transducers or output transducers as they convert
SYSTEMS electrical signals back-to the original physical phenoryenon.
*_*#
Stereophonic sound system allows the listener to judge whether the sound is coming
from the left side of the Stage or from the right side. In real-time concerts, two ears
L.25 BASIC ELEMENTS OF TELEVISION--*-ffi
of a listener naturally allow this effect to occur. In stereophonic amplifier system, this
The following description of TV systems is very basic in form and contents and gives
effect is simulated by using two microphones, two amplifiers and two loudspeakers;
only the outlines of the system. The fundamental concepts of scanning, detailed des-
one set is for the left side sound and the other set is for the right side.
cription of camera tubes, picfure tubes, ampliliers, modulators, demodulators and other
However, the actual scenario is slightly different in a concert hall- The listener
processes are given in subsequent chapters.
receives the sound not only from the stage, but also the sound reflected from walls and
There are two types of TV broadcast systems: (1) Monochrome (or black and white)
ceiling. To create the effect of three dimensions of a live programme in the recorded
TV and (2) Colour TV. Their basic eleinents are described below. Detailed treatment
sound, a system which was called 'quadraphony system'was developed in the 1970s
of monochrome transmitter is given in Chapter 6 and that of receiver in Chapter 7.
in which for microphones were used to pick up sound from left and right of the stage
Colour TV systems have been explained in dotail in Chapters 8, 9 and 10.
and walls. Their outputs were processed in four ampliers, recorded and fed to four
loudspeakers for reproduction as 'surround sound'. However this system could not
Monochrome TV Tharsmitter
become popular because it was not compatible with the then existing two-channel
systern. Moreover, the design involved complexity and high cost. The basic elements of a monochrome TV transmitter are shown in Fig. 1.7. Description
A new system was developed in UK which was called 'ambisonics'. In this system of their functions follows.
a special microphone having four diaphragms was used. The diaphragms were so
20 lolvlslon Engtnoortng and Wdoo Syttrmr
Characterlstlcs of Llght and Sound 21

Camcra Tube Cgnverts intensity of light from a scene into electrical variations, Thansmitting Antenna Video modulated signal and audio modulated signal are
called video signal by using a photosensitive target plate.
fed to the common transmitting antenna which radiates out the modulated signals into
Scanning and $mc Circuix Electrical current is extracted from the photosen- space in the form of electromagnetic waves. The antenna is omnidirectional in the
sitive target of the camera tube with the help of a scanning beam which is produced by horizontal plane.
sawtooth currents through horizontal and vertical deflection coils.
Monocht'o?t e TV Receiaer Basic elements of a m.onochrome TV receiver are
Bknping and Sync Pube Generators The start of sawtooth or sweep current shown in Fig. 1.8.
signal is triggered by pulses called sync pulses. The refrace is blanked by blanking
Receiving
pulses and these pulses are periodic and appear for a specfied time by using a rnono-
antenna Sound Section
stable multivibrator.
lnter carrler
freq.(SlF) amp.

Tuner and
lF stages

Fig. 1.8 Basic elements of aTV receiver

)) Receiaing Antenna The receiving antenna picks up signal from the electromag-
Sound netic waves travelling through space and the desired channel is selected by a tuned
Fig. ! .7 Basic elements of a monochrome TV transmitting system
circuit.
Thner and IF Stages The receiver is a superhetrodyne receiver to achieve high
Video.Amphrters Video signal along rvith blanking and sync pulses, called com- selectivity and high gain. The signal is amplified by a radio frequency amplifier and
posite video signal is amplified by using wideband RC coupled amplifier circuits. then is mixed non-linearly with the oscillations of higher frequency but of fixed
amplitude, generated by a local oscillator. The output of the mixer consists of several
RF C,amer Genqator a.nd Video Modulanr A radio frequency carrier of chan-
intermodulation products (due to non-linear mixing), one of which is a signal having
nel frequency for video is generated and is amplitude modulated by the video signal.
a frequency equal to the difference of frequencies of the two signals. The difference
Modulation is of vestigial sideband (VSB) t1pe AM to save the bandwidth. In this
frequency is called intermediate frequency, which is selected and amplifi ed.
type of modulation, one sideband is vestiged to a srnall fraction of the whole band. In
TV, lower sideband is vestiged and upper sideband and carrier are sent in full. Video Detector and Thap Circuit The amplified IF goes to the video detector
which recovers the video signal from the modulated wave and feeds it to the video
Micropbone It converts sound pressure variations into electrical variations, called
amplifier for amplication through the trap circuit, which prevents the video signal
audio signals.
from entering into the audio channel.
Audio Amplifiers These ampliff weak audio signals.
Vido Aruplifi.ers These are widebancl RC coupled amplifiers. The amplified video
RF Carrier Generator andAudio Modulator Aradio frequency carrier is gener- signal goes to the picture tube.
ated and is frequency modulated by audio signals at low levei. The radio frequency is
then multiplied and amplified to the fuIl level for transmission.
Picture Tube The video signal varies the strength of the electron beam. This beam
strikes the phosphor dots on the fluorescent screen which glow; the intensity of glow
Combining Bridge Video moduiated and audio modulated signals pass through being proportional to the intensity of the video signal.
a combining bridge (also called diplexer circuit) to go to a common transmitting
antenna. The bridge prevents audio modulated signals from going to video sections and
Defucon Stages The phosphor dots glow in quick succession from left to right
and top to bottom with the help of scanning currents in the deflection coils. The
vice versa to avoid overloading.
synchronising pulses, recovered by the detector, trigger the scanning circuits which
22 Tetevtsion Englneerlng and Vtdeo Systems
produce deflection curentso duly synchronised with the scanning currents used in the
transmitter. The deflection currents go to the deflection coils to deflect the electron
beam horizontally and vertically on the fluorescent screen to reproduce the picture.
Sound Sectioru It consists of sound IF (SIF) amplifier, FM detector, audio amplifier
and loudspeaker. Difference of frequency between frequency modulated IF and video
carrier IF is called intercarrier freque.ncy, or second IF or sound IF" It is received
from the video detector and passes to the SIF amplifier through the trap circuit, which
prevents SIF signal from going into the vldeo amplifier. The FM detector detects the
audio signal which is then amplified.by audio amplifiers. The amplified signal goes to
the loudspeaker which converts it into sound.
Thus the original sound is reprodrrced.
Colour Tiransmitter
Transmission and reception of a coloured picture is more complex than amonochrome
picture because of the requirement of compatibility with monochrome system. (A
monochrome receiver should be able to receive colour pictures as black and white
pictures.) The basic features of a compatible colour transmitter are shown in Fig. 1.9.
sound
))
Fig.l.9 Basic blocks of a colour transmitter
For colour transmission, colours from a picture are separated into three primary
colours (red, green and blue) with the help of prisms or dichroic mirrors and colour
filters. The brightness present in each colour is converted by colour camera tubes into
three electrical signals.
The three colour signals are passed through a resistive matrix to obtain resultant
luminance signal (called I signal), using Grassman's law. Colour signals are sent in
the form of colour difference signals.
A colour subcarrier (4.43 MHz in European system and 3.58 MHz in American
system) is modulated by two colour difference signals (B-Y and R-Y), using
Characterlstlcs of Llght and Sound 23
synchronous quadrature modulation. This is called colour encoder. Its output is
called cht'oma signal (or C signal).
Then luminance signal ,Y and chroma signal C are added and modulate the main
video carrier signal, using AMVSB technique. This modulated RF carrier is trans-
mitted along with an audio modulated RF carrier through a coflrmon transmitting
antenna with the help of a diplexer.
Colour Receiver
Basic elements of a colour receiver are shown in Fig. l. 10.
A colour receiver is a notmal superhetrodyne receiver of the monochrome system
up to video detector. The detector detects l-and C signals. In colour decoder section,
the C signal is separated by a bandpass filter circuit, amplified, and then the basic
colour flifference signals, (B-y) and (ft-If, are decoded, using a synchronous quadra-
ture detector. The third signal (G-Y) is obtained with the help of a resistive matrix.
Then I signal is added to each of the colour difference signals to get original camera
signals pertaining to red, green and blue colours. These three colour signals are con-
verted into coloured lights by making phosphor elements of the colour picture tube
glow red, green and blue for every pixel. The eye integrates these primary colours by
additive mixing and sees the resultant original colour. All the pixels on the screen are
made to glow in quick succession with the help of deflection circuits which produce
horizontal and vertical deflection currents for scanning the screen. Thus the coloured
picture is produced on the screen of the picture tube.
Receiving ant.
B-Y r---rEJ
Fig.l.l0 Basic blocks of a colour receiver
Sound is reproduced from the loudspeaker in the same manner as in case of a
monochrome receiver.
24 Televtston Englneertny and Wdeo systems
I.26 COLOUR LABELS
In a book on TV, we often come across the terms like green camera, red electron beam,
blue voltage, green gun, etc. Colour labels applied to the TV terms do not mean that
the items are of the labelld colour. In fact, all camera tubes and electron guns used in
colour TV are identical with each other and so is the case with electron guns. They are
neither red nor green nor blue. Similarly, electric voltage cannot have any colour. Also
an electron beam consisting of a stream of electrons cannot have any colour. Colour
label associated with these items means that the items handle phenomenon pertaining
to the labelled colour. For example, green camera means the camera tube converts
intensity of green light into electrical voltage; the camera itself is not green. Similarly
red electron-beam means the electron beam (which itself is colourless) whose strength
depends on the signal voltage derived by converting intensity of red colour into voltage.
Green gun means the electron gun of the picture tube which produces electron beam
whose strength depends on the voltage pertaining to the intensity of green colour.
Green voltage, red voltage and blue voltage, represented by Vo, V* and V, or simply
by single letters G,4 and B, indicate the electrical voltages pertaining to te intensity
of ligh of green, red and blue colours, respectively.
SUMMARY
Anatural scene consists ofvariations of light (intensity and colour) in three dimensions.
These variations are converted into a two-dimensional picture or image for further
processing for radio transmission. Image captured in one exposure of the camera in
cinema films or in one sequence of scanning in television is called a picture frame. It
has width to height aspect ratio of 4:3 in conventional TV and 16:9 in high definition
wide dimension TV. Every picture frame can be supposed to consist of small dot like
areas, called picture elements or pixels. There are hundreds of thousands of pixels in
a frame and these are responsible for showing the fine details in picture. The number
of pixels depends on the viewing distance which further depends on acuity of the eye
and brightness allowed in the picture. Movie impression for a picture is obtained by
persistence of vision. For movie scenes, flicker occurs if the speed of intemrptions
(vertical blanking) is low. For TV, it is 25 frames per second in lrdia and 30 frames
per second in America. To remove the flicker, the same frame is scanned twice using
interlaced technique of scanning.
Brightness in a picture is defined by the background level of illumination, and
contrast by the illumination of individual pixels over and above the background
level.
Colour of a source of light pertains to the wavelength of the light it emits. There are
three pl:rner! colours, red, green and blue, which can give other colours by additive
mixing in appropriate proportions. An object's colour is the colour ob,tained by
subtacting the colour absorbed by'the object. The colour emitted by a body is related
to its temperature also. The sun at 6000 K emits complete visible spectrum and so its
light is white. A tungsten lamp gives nearly white light at 3200 K. Standard heutral
t$
white for TV pertains to the colour temperature of 6500 K.
Characterlstlcs of Llght and Sound 25
Colour has three characteristics: hue, saturation and luminance. Eye's sensitivity
is different for different colours, 59oA tbr green, 30oA for red and 1106 for blue. Hue,
saturation ancl luminance can be obtained with the help of chromaticity diagram.
Colour circle is another method of showing hue and saturation for various colours.
Sound also has varying intensity from 0 dB ofjust audible sound ta 120 dB of a loud
Rock 'n'Roll band and a frequency range of fi1}000 Hz. Depth and sharpness of
sound are controlled as per an individual's taste by adjustinElbass and treble controls.
'liars are stereophonic and therefore high quality sound systems are also designed to
bc stereophonic and may also incorporate surround sound technique to give a natural
th ree-dimensional effect.
A basic television system converts light and sound into electrical signals, using a
radio frequency carrier, one for each, to carry the baseband signals to distant stations.
At the receiving end, the baseband signals are detected and are reconverted into light
and sound by the picture tube and loudspeaker, respectively. For transmision and
reception of colours, quadrature modulation and clemodulation techniques are used in
colour encoder and decoder, respectively.
EXERCISES
Review Questions
l. Explain the terms: picture frame, pixels and aspect ratio?
2. What do you understand by persistence'of vision arrd flieker. How is flicker
removed in practice'in cinema and in TV?
3. Distinguish between brightness and contrast. Which of these is akin to volume
control of an audio systenr?
4. Write a short note on 'colour temperature'.
5. Compare'additive mixing' and'subtractive mixing', giving examples.
6. Define hue, saturation and luminance. What's the difference between luminance
and brightness, and between luminance and chrominance?
7. Draw eye's visibility curve anl explain its form.
8. What is colour triangle? Draw chromaticity diagram and explain what information
can be obtained frorn it?
9. Distinguish between tristimulus and trichromatic coefficients. Discuss their
importance.
10. What do you understand by 'colour circle'? Show various primary and secon-
dary colours on it.
11. Draw a block diagram of a basic monochrome television system and explain how
it works?
12. Draw a block diagram of a basic colour television system and explain how it
Short-answer Questions
L Why picture frames frequency is 25 per second in India and 30 per second in
USA?
26 Irlcvlslon Englnaerlng and Wdeo Systcms ' Character,t,ca of Ltght and Sound 27

2. Why green, re and blue are called primary colours? Green = 0.3 lumen, Blue: I lumen and Red = I lumen
3. What types of mixing occur (i) in formation of image of an object on the target 5. F'ind out luminance for all secondary colours relative to white.
plate and (ii) in picture being seen at the screen of the colour picture tube.
. Calculate phase angle for green colour for (i) unweighted colours and (ii) weigh-
4. Why are purple colours called non-spectral colours? ted colours. (Hint: See example inAppendix 2)
5. Why is luminance signal transmitted in a colour system? 7. Calculate the absolute power received by each ear ata distance of 2 metres from
6. What do you understand by red gun? un amplifier producing 600 W. Area of each ear may be taken equal to 25 sq crn.
7. What is the difference between tonal gradation anci contrast. ,
8. What is PMPO? ANSWERS
-9. What's the difference between conventional stereo and surround sound?
10. Why is a loudspeaker sometimes called a reverse transducer? thort-answer Questions
Mu ltiple-choice Questions l. 25 is exact submultiple of electric mains frequency in India and 30 is exact
1. In a still picture, intensity of light is constant for the whole picture at any instant subnoultiple of electric rnains frequency in USA.
of time. This statement is (true, false) 2. Red, blue and green are called primary colours because all other colours can be
2. Aspect ratio for width to height for a traditional TV picture frame is formed by additive mixing of these three colours.
(l:1,2:7,4:3,5:4) 3. (i) Subtractive mixing. Image is formed by subtracting sorne colours from the
incident white light.
3. The number of intemrptions in projecting movie pictures on a cinema screen are
(24,48,50, 60) (ii) Additive mixing. Colours from phosphor glows reach the eye directly without
any subtraction and therefore they add.
4. Eyes can accommodate the contrast ratio of with ease.
(10:1, 100:1, 1000:1) 4. Purple colours are the mixtures of red and blue which are atextremes of the visible
spectrum. Due to this reason they are not visible in the rainbow or spectroscope,
5. Gfeen light is incident on a blue object placed in a dark room. The colour of the
and are called non-spectral colours.
object will be (blue, green, red, black),.
5. Luminance signal is transmitted in a colour TV systern to enable a monochrome
6. The wavelength of green for TV standard is nm.
receiver to receive colour transmision as black and white picture.
(438.5, 546.1, 7 00, 7 50)
6. Red gun in TV terminology means the electrons gun in the picture tube, which
7. A 600 W PMPO type audio amplifier wilt give about W average of
produces sharply focussed elctrons beam whose strengttr is proportional to the
continuous output. (600,300, 100, 50)
intensity of re iigtt it the original picture.
8. Ears are not sensitive to phase noise in sound. This statement is
- (true, false)
7. Tonal gradation pertains to variation of brightness from pixel to pixel, while
contrast shows variations of biightness in individual pixels over the background
9. brightness.
(true, false)
8. PMPO is the peak music power output which an amplifier can withstand for
10. is not a transducer. a moment only to reproduce l.oudest tone generated by instrumentalists for a
(Camera fube, Microphone, Transformer, Picture tube) moment.
Numerical Questions 9. A conventional stereo system senses direction of sound originating from two
sides of the stage, left and right. Surround sound system senses the direction of
1.Calculate width and height of a TV screen for 60 cm size TV when aspect ratio is sound reflected from the walls and ceiling in addition to the left and right side of
4:3. the stage.
2. If a 35 cm size TV screen is to be viewed from a distance of 2 m, calculate the 10. Conventionally any device which converts one forrn of energy into another form
maximum number of pixels which can be resolved. The screen's width to height is callel a transduceE but more popularly a device which converts a physical
ratio is 4:3. phenomenon into electrical signal is called a transducer, and one which converts
3. Calculate the viewing distance for 50 cm size TV screen if the screen subtends an electrical energy into physi"uifor- is called a reverse transducer. Hence, a loud-
angle of 12" at the eyes. speaker is sornetimes'called a reverse transducer.
4. Calculate hue, saturation and luminance for the following combination of
colours:
Ib lrvlCltn !|tglcrrl ng and Wdeo yrrcms

Multlple-cholce Questtons
2. 48 4. t0:l
FUNDAMEI{TAt
2
1. false 4:3 3.
50
5. black
9. false
6. 546.1
10. Transformer
6. 8. true
CONCEPTS OF
Numerical Questions
TELEYISION
1. 48 cm,36 cm 2. 174 000 approximately
3. 2.39 m
4. Hue: magenta .

Saturation :49oA
Luminance:0.587
5. Taking luminance of white as l, the luminance of secondary colours would be as
2,L SCANNING
follows.
canning is the process of extracting signals pertaining to the individual elements of
For secondary colours: Yllow:0.89, Cyan :0.'10, Magenta :0.41
I picture (pixels) in quicksuccession one after the other. Values of light (intensity and
6. Phase angle for green with respect to * (B-I) axis:
Bolour) in a scene are functions of space. It means that atany instant of time, there are
(i) For unweighted colours :225" thousands of values through width, height and depth of a scene or width and height
(ii) For weighted colours :241" of a picture of image. In contrast with this, amplitude variations in sound are single
7. 0.028 W valued function of time, which means that there is only one amplitude at one time.
uch a variation when converted into electrical variation, is called signal. For light
llso the variations in space have to be converted into signal varying with time for
transmision.
When an image of a scene falis on the surface of a photosensitive target of a semi-
conductor, an image in the form of electrical charge is formed due to generation of
olectrons; more electrons for the brighter pixels and less electrons for the less bright
pixels. These electrons are removed by a positive potential, resulting in a charge image
on the surface of the target. This charge image is the replica of the optical image of the
cene because the charge on every point on the surface of the target is proportional to
the intensity of light in the corresponding pixel. Each point of charge on the surface
of the target may be called a pixel of charge on the analogy of pixels of a picture.
It is this charge image which should be converted into electrical signal: For this,
individual pixels of the charge image are explored in quick succession with the help of
an electronic beam. Scanning of the charge image converts the charges on the surface
of the target into electrical signal varying in time frame, called video signal.
A simplified symbolic illustration of formation of charge image and signal is shown
in Figs 2.1. (a), (b), (c) and (d). Figure 2.1 (a) shows a picture of black and white
shades; white representing high bright light; grey, medium bright light; and black,
absence of light. Electrons will, be generated in the target as per brightness. When
these electrons are removed from the target,by an extemal voltage, positive charge
will be produced at each point, which will'be proportional to the brightness of the
corresponding pixel of the picture. Black does not'produce any.chargo.
30 Telvlston Englnaertng ond Vldeo Systems Fundomentol Concepts of Televtston 31

h
'r+lil
c
o
Fast retrace
(flyback)
+/+ )
L
L

+ o
{r
,+\
\+.
fTqi-L

Picture
xffi Charge image
52 rs 12 rs
Time

(a) (b) Fig.2.2 (a) Sawtooth current for horizontal deflection

Af-----1ffi,,T-ffiIao' |-E ryl e' Vcrtical deflection is slow and takes 20 000 ps (or 20 ms) in deflecting the beam
(c) (d) li'orrr top to bottom, as shown in Fig. 2.2(b).

Fig.2.l (") Original picture, (b) Charge image of the picture, (c) Brightness levels
in the picture along horizontal line AB on the picture, and (d) Positive
charge along the corresponding scanning line A'B' on the charge image

Figure 2.1(c) shows shades of brightness along a horizontal line l,B, passing
through the centre of the picture of Fig. 2.1(a). Figure 2.1(d) presents voltage signal
corresponding to the charge along the horizontal line A'B' onthe charge image shown
in Fig. 2.1(b).
18 720 ps 1290 lrs
Similar scanning is done at the receiver. There, the video signal is used to change
the strength of the scanning electronic beam which glows the phosphor elements on
the surface ofa fluorescent screen.
Fig..2.2 (b) Sawtooth current for vertca deflection

2.2 NEED OF SCANNING
To transmit all the variations of lighf present in the space of a pictur e at asingle instant
of time, thousands of channels would be needed. It is not feasible to use so many
channels to transmit a single prograrnme. Thus the flrst requirement for transmitting
the variations of light in a picture is to convert them into signals varying with time so
that there is only a single variation at arry one instant. Hence the need of scanning.
2.3 SATTOOTH CURRENTS FOR SCANNING
Horizontal and vertical scanning of the charge image in a camera tube (at the trans-
mitter) and of the phosphors on the fluorescent screen of a picture tube (at the receiver)
is accomplished by deflecting a well focussed spot of the electron bearn horizontally
from left to right and vertically from top to bottom. Horizontal deflection is fast. It
takes 64 ps for one scanning line, as shown in Fig. 2.2(a).
For horizontal and vertical deflections, sawtooth currents are made to flow in the
tlcflection coils in the respective camera tube at the transmitter, and in the picture
Iube at the receiver. Sawtooth currents are produced by charging a capacitor linearly
llrrough a resistor of the appropriate value for trace (or ramp) signal and to discharge
it rapidly through a low resistance transistor switch for retrace.
2.4 PROGRESST\M SCANNING
When one cycle of vertical sawtooth current completes scanning of one frame and the
rrcxt cycle starts scanning of a new frame, it is called prbgressive scanning. This is
illustrated in Fig. 2.3.
As shown in the figure, progressive scanning starts from A, proceeds to B, then
llies back to C, again proceeds to D, and so on, until it reaches the bottom line R. On
rcaching ^S, it has completed one sequence of scanning. Then the scanning beam flips
to the top at A and the next sequence of scanning starts. Each sequence of scanning
is called a picture frame (or simply a frame). Thus frames after frames are scanned in
progressive scanning.
32 Tclevlslon Engtnaertng and Wdeo Systcms' Fundomental Concepts of Televtston 33

1280 ps. This rehace of 1280 rs duration is blanked on the screen of the picture
tube and so the screen appears black during this time. When a programme is being
dirplayed, dark intemrptions of blanking between bright pictures o..ur at 25 per
flocond. As persistence of vision is more for dark light, these intemrptions become
visible as.flicker on the screen. If speed ofprogressive scanning is doubled (50 frames
pcr second) flicker would be removed, but bandwidth will increase. Increase in
handwidth is not desirable and hence progressive scanning is not used in TV broad-
cnst systems.
'The
problem of reducing flicker without increasing the bandwidth has been solved
by scanning each frarne twice in the same way as in cinema where each film is projected
twice. The scanning process which allows each frame to be scanned twice is called
lnterlaced scanning, discussed in Section 2.5.

2,5 INTERLACED SCANNING

ln interlaced scanning, there are two sequences of scanning for each frarne. Scanning
lines of one sequence occur in between the lines of the other sequence . It is illustrated
Fig.2.3 Progressivescanning ln Fig. 2.4.The numbers in the figure are for 625 lines per frami and blanking periol
lfir each sequence is equal to 20lines.
Progressive scanning is like reading a book. We start reading from the top ieftmost,
proceed to the right, complete reading of one line and then return to the left on the (s12%)
next lower line. This.process goes on until the whole page is read. Thereafter we go to
1
"I-_ __--_-__--
313
the next page. However, there is a difference between scanning a picture and reading 2
a book. In a book, lines are perfectly horizontal, but in scanning, each scannin line 314
slopes downward. This is because vertical deflection of the beam is taking place simul- 3
taneously with horizontal deflection. Vertical deflection is much slower than horizontal 3r5
deflection. When horizontal deflection is from A to B (52 ps), vertical deflection is 4
slightly less than AC (AC being vertical deflection in 64 ps). By keeping vertical 316
deflection slow, a large area of the frame and hence a large number of pixels of the 5

image will be covered in scanning.

As the scanning proceeds from left to right, signal from each charged element
along the line is extracted. Scanning of an element takes about 0.1 rs, Thus every t\
0.1 ps the signal is extraited. As the signal now varies with time, it is a signal suitable I \
291
I
I
'i. --..-.- V.retrac (20 lines)
for transmission on a single frequency channel. Similar scanning takes place on the I
at the end of even field
605--____=___ --
I

fluorescent screen of the picture tube in a TV receiver. There, the video signal is used
to change the strength of the scanning electronic beam which glows the phosphor 292---
elements on the screen and makes phosphors glow in quick succession one after the ---.---]
{2e2%)
other. Stronger the signal, brighter is the glow. Due to persistence of vision. light from
individual phosphors will not appear discrete or isolated, but will appear continuous Fig.2.4 lnterlaced scanning
with time. Thus the picture is reproduced on the screen by converting'video signal
varying in time into glow of phosphors varying in space. Figure 2.4 shows that in interlaced scanning, the first sequence of scanning starts
fiom point A (lefmost point on the first line), and ends on point B ( midrJl. point of
Disadvantage of Progressive Scanning tlre bottommost line) after completing 2921/z lines (shown by thick solid ns). The
vertical retrace (shown by dotted line) takes the scanning spot from point B topoint C
In progressive scanning,2S frames per second are scanned in European system. When
the scanning beam flips from bottom to the top of the picture frame, it takes about
I4 Iclcvllon Englinbertng ond Vtdcoystcms Fundamental Concepts of Televtslon 35

at the middle of the line above the topmost line of the first scanning. 1280 ps (equal to
20 scanning lines) are lost (blanked) in taking the refface from B to C, The second
sequence of scanning starts from this middle point at the top and ends finally at the
rightmost pointD on the bottom after completing the 605th line. The lines of the second
,.qr.rr". are shownby thin lines in Fig.2.4.This way, the lines of the second sequence
fa|[ in between the iines of the first sequence. The third sequence then starts from
the ieftmost point (,4) on the top coinciding with the scanning of the rst sequence.
Similarly the fourth sequence will coincide with the second sequence, and so on.
From the above it is quite evident that there are two intemrptions of 1280 ts (or
20 lines) each in scanning a frame fuIly. Therefore, the rate of intemrptions becores
50 per second in European system while complete frames are scannedatZ frames per
second. Thus this technique does not increase the scanning speed but removes flicker
by doubling the number of intemrptions. Consequently bahdwidth is conserved while
flicker is removed.
Interlacing error will occur if the lines of even field are not exactty in the middle (a) (b) (c)
of the tines of odd field. This will cause pairing of lines, resulting in a jagged picture
giving fishtail or silky efiflect. Interlacing error and its effect have been explained in Fig.2.5 Glow of picture elements on odd and even fields
detail in Chaptei 19.
2.7 FRAME, FIELD AND I,INE FREQUENCIES
2.6 FIELDS
ln European system, the rate of scanning the f}ames is 25 frames per second. There
are two field.s per frame. Hence the number of fields per second is 50. This number
Each sequence of scanning in the interlaced scanning method is called a field* Odd has been chosen to be equal to the electric mains frequency so that th beat fi'equency
nurnbered sequences (first, thirrl, fifth, etc.) are calied oddfields, and even numbered betwecn electric mains and fields is zero. Variation in the mains frequency would have
sequence (second, fbrth, sixth, etc.) are called evenfields. resulted in a slow moving bar from top to bottom across the picture in the receiver.
All countries in Asia (except Japan and Myanmar), Australia and Africa have Due to the same reason, field's fiequency in American TV system is 60 (the number
adopted the European system of 625 scanning lines per frame or 3L2l/z lines per field. of frames scanned per second being 30). In modern times, this phenomenon has lost
American countries and Japan and Myanmar use 525 lines per frame or 2621A lnes its significance as the mains frequency is quite stable and the hum bar due to static
per field with blanking of 21 lines. (lnterlaced scanning diagram can be drarvn for the beat, if any, would remain stationary and would not move, and. hence would not be
American system on the sarne pattern as drawn in Fig. 2.4 for the European system.) annoying. This is the reason why .Tapan and Myanmar in Asia are using the American
Two adjacent pixels on a vertical line in a picture are scanned, not by adjacent lines, system of 60 fields per second despite the eiectric mains frequency being 50 in these
but by lines separated in time interval of 20 ms in interlaced system of scanning. One countries. India has adopted the European system of 50 fields per second. Electric
may therefore wonder if the picture so formed will not be distorted. It will not, for mains frequency in India is also 50 Hz and so there is no problem of moving hum bars
again the persistence of vision comes to our help. Picture due to odd field will persist due to variations in the mains frequency.
when picture due to even field is being constructed on the screen. Thus the eye will In the.system followed in India, there are 625lines per frame. With 25 frames per
integrate the two pictures to see one continuous picture. This is illustrated in Fig.2.5. second, the number of scanning lines is 15625 lines per second. The scanning time for
a line works out to be 64 ts (1115625 second: 64 rs) out of which 12 ps are used in
Pixels glowing on lines,_of odd field are shown in Fig. 2.5(a). Pixels glowing on lines
horizontal retrace (or flyback), leaving 52 ps for actual trace from left to right. Vertical
of even field are shown in Fig. 2.5(b). Figure 2.5(c) shows all the pixels, 50% glowing
scanning of a fieid takes 20 ms, out of which I .280 ms are used in vertical retrace.
in odd field and the other 50oA n even field, seen integrated as one whole picture by
Horizontal retrace and vertical retrace both are not visible on the screen as the
the eyes. (Presentation in the figure is not to the scale but is just symbolic to make it
picture tube remains cut-offduring the retrace period. Had retrace become visible, the
clear.)
picture would have become distorted as the intensity and colour of the pixels during
retrace period would have become superimposed over the normal intensity and colour
provided by the trace lines.
I6 Tctwtslan EnElnccrlng and Vdsa Systems Fundamental Concepts of Tetvtston 37

2,8 ACTT\M" TINES
All the scanning lines are not visible on the screen due to blanking during the retrace
period. The actual lines which reproduce pixels are called active lines. The number of
active lines ({ ) is equal to the total scanning lines per frame (l/.) minus the lines lost
in vertical blanking ( f.), as expressed by Eq. (2"1).
No: Nr- N, (2.r)
2.9 KELL FACTOR
Pixels are not arranged in an orderly manner in a picture. These are distributed rather
randomly. Hence a spot of the scanning beam may cover partly two pixels. This
situation is shown in Fig. 2.6. Be:am Spot I partially covers black and partially white.
So the resultant luminance of this spot would be grey (white + black : grey). Simi-
larly Spot II would give grey. Thus instead of giving two signal outputs (black and
white), the two spots give only one signal output (grey). The distinction between two
pixels will not be reproduced. It is called Kell effect.
lligh resolution will thus enable us to distinctly see closely spaced small objects. For
cxample, wrinkles on a face, hair of the eyebrows, veins on leaves and similar fine
details in a picture should be clearly and distinctly visible for good resolution"
Vcrtical Resolution
Thc number of pixels on a vertical line on the screen will be equal to the number of
,horizontal lines (as shown in Section 1.6). In a 625lines system, 625 pixels will glow
on a vertical line. For effective resolution, this number will be'reduced by the lines lost
in vertical blanking and multiplied by the Kell factor (K). This will then give vertical
resalution, (Rr) as expressed in Eq. (2.2). Vertical resolution will make vertically
tocatel close freatures of a picture visible distinctly clear.
Ry: (l[. , N.) x K: No K (2.2)
Horizontal Resolution
ll'the aspect ratio is A, the number of pixels on a horizontal line would be equal to R,
multiplied by A.This is called horizontal resolution (Rr) and is given by Eq. (2.3).

Rr: Rnx A (2.3)

Horizontal resolution will make horizontally located close features of a picture

visible distinctly clear. For non-digital systems, A is 413. (for wide dimension digital
TV systems,l is 1619).
Generally, resolution of a TV system is expressed in terms of vertical resolution.
For European system, it is about 400 lines and forAmerican system about 340 lines. In
some cases (say, monitcrrs), resolution is expressed as product ofR, and Rr. Examples 2.1
and 2.2 calculate resolution for a typic al 625lines system and a 525 lines system.
Fig.2.6 Kell effect

Had the Spot I been confined to black area only and Spot II to white area only, two
distinct pixels would have been reproduced. But misalignment results in only one ln TV system used in India, the total number of scanning lines per fiame is 625 and the
intensity making the two piels indistinct. Thus the Kell effect produces degradation lines lost per field is 20. Calculate vertical and horizontal resolutions.
in the resolution of individual pixels. As a result of subjective experiments, it has been Solution N, :625, : N, 2A x2: 40
found that abut 25 to 35Yo pixels are lost due to Kell effect. This means that only
65 to 75oA ofthe active lines are responsible for distinguishing the individual pixels. Hence,. NA : 625 -40 : 585

Hence, effective lines are worked out by multiplying the active lines by a factor of 0.65 Therefore, RV : 585 x0.7 : 409.5,say409
to 0.75 (mean value : 0.7). This factor is called Kell factor and is used in estimating
the actual resolution achieved in TV pictures. Smaller the size of the beam's spot, less
and R, :409.5x413 :546
will be the Kell effect and higher the Kell factor as the smaller spot is more likely to
remain within one pixel only.
In TV system used in USA, Nr: {: 42. Calculate Rrand Rr.
525 and
z.LO RESOLUTION Solution NA:525-42. :483
Resolution means ability to distinguish between closely spaced pixels. Greater the Therefore, Rn : 483x0.7 : 338.1, say 338,
number ofpixels, smaller would be their size and hence higher would he the resolution. R, :338.1 x4l3:450.8, saY451
and
38 Televlston Englneflrtng and Vldeo Systems Fundamentol Conceps of Televlslon 39
\,
2.I.I BANDTNDTH the resolution and bandwidth depend on each other. Higher bandwidth gives better
reuolution.

It is the highest ud.o frequency related to the time taken in scanning two adjacent Big pixels
pixels. Figure 2..7(,a) shows 4 successive pixels, ancl Fig. 2.7(b) shows the corres-
ponding 2 cycles of brightness. Time period T is the time taken in scanning one qtcle or
2 adjacent pixels.

(a)
<.----:----- - f --------t--r

(b) (a) (b)

Fig.2.8 (a) Big pixels (low resolution) and hence long time period and
(b) Small pixels (high resolution) and hence low time period
Fig.2.7 (a) Four adjacent pixels of black and white shades, and (b) Two cycles
of brightness signal corresponding to pixels of Fig.2.7(a) Frctors on which Bandwidth and Resolution depend

If r is the time in seconds for qcanning one line (excluding retrace time), then R, Expanding Eq. (2.5), in terms of scanning lines (Nr), lines lost (4 ), Kell factor ()
pixels are scanned in / second. Therefore 2 pixels shatrl be scanned in 2tlR, second. tttd aspect ratio (A), Eq. (2.6) is obtained.
Thus time period Iis given by Eq. (2.4). R, _ (Nr-N)xKxA
Bandwidth - 2t
(2.6)
2xt 2t
T:
,{,

(2.4)
RH Equation (2.6) shows the factors on which bandwidth and resolution depend. These
flctors are mentioned below
Video bandwidth will be given by Eg. (2.5).
(l) The resolution and bandwidth both depend upon the number of active scanning

Bandw'idth: I -RH
lines per frame (i... Nr- N.). Greater the number of active lines, greater is the
(2.s)
I', 2t bandwidth and higher is the resolution.
(2) Smaller the time ( r ) taken in horizontaltrac,e, higher is the bandwidth. The time
Example 2.3 shows that the video bandrvidth for 625 lines per frame.system will taken in scanning the trace will depend on the scanning speed. So higher the
be about 5 MHz. 1

scanning speed, higher is the bandwidt[. In European system, the scanning time
is 52 rs (excluding 12 ps of retrace).InAmerican system it is 53.5 ps (Excluding
retrabe of 10 ps). Further N, N, it lower in American system than in European
Calculate bandwidth for a system in which Rrr: 520 and t: 52 ts" system. Both these factors resrilt in lower bandwidth in American system.
(3) The maximum number of scanning lines per frame will depend upon the size
olution Time period: time required to scan 2 pixels : 52x2 of the focussed spot of the scanning beam. Smaflr the size of the spot, greater
tls
520 '
would be the number of lines that can be accommodated on a picture frame
520 --- without overlapping. So, for high resolution systems, the electron beam has to be
Therefore, bandwidth ;
2x52 x l0-"
Hz:SMHz
sharp. The sharp beam will also increase the Kell factor and hence will increase
the bandwidth.
Relationship between Resolution and Bandwidth ,(4) Higher the aspect ratio (A),higher will be the
bandwidth. For high definition TV
systems the aspect ratio is 16/9 or 1.78 which is higher than the aspect ruto of 413
Smaller the size of pixels that can be reproduced, better would be the resolution. At
or 1.33 for ordinary TVs. Hence bandwidth as well as resolution will be higher
the same time, smaller the size of pixels, less would be the time taken in scannirtg ,
for high definition TVs.
two adjacent pixels and hence higher the bandwidth, as shown in Fig. 2.8. Thus'
40 Thtevlslon Englnerlng and Wdeo Systems Fundamentol Concepts of Televlslon 41

In addition to the above, the resolution (not the bandwidth) ,ill also depend on the
viewing distance. If one sees the TV screen from a distance longer than the optimum
distance for a specified rate of scanning lines per frame, the adjacent pixels would be
rnerged and would not appear distinct, resulting in loss of fine details.
Importan ce othe Bandwidth
Bandwidth irr a communication system is of two types :
l. Bandwdth of the baseband signal
2. Bandwidth of the modulated radio frequency spectrum containing the sideband
signals.
These are described below.
Bandutidtb of tbe Baseband Signal It pertains to the frequency through which
information varies. For example, an audio signal's frequency range is 16 Hz to
20 000 Hz. So an ideal audio circuit should have flat response up to 20kHz.If we can
compromise on the quality of audio, this bandwidth can be reduced. For example, for
telephone convors&tion, bandwidth is 4 kHz, for normal radio broadcast, 5 kHz, and
for high fidelity, 15 kklz. Video variation can go up to 5 MHz, so the video circuits
should have flat response up to 5 MHz. :;
Colours have much lower bandwidth due to the limitation of eyes to see colour,
Bandwidth of a circuit should noither be lower nor higher than what is required"
lf'the cirquit bandwidth is less than the bandwidth occupied by the sidebands in the
modulated wave, many components of the baseband signal would be attenuated
ntlecting quality of sound and resolution of the picture. If the bandwidth of th circuit
is too large (larger than required by the sidebands of the baseband signal), more noise
will pass through the circuit, affecting signal to noise ratio adve6ly and also less
number of channeis would be availabte for utilisation. In view of this, the bandwidth
ls considered a costly feature and therefore should not be unneccessarily wasted.
'[his is the reason u'hy interiaced scanning was preferred to progressive
scnning for
rctnoving flicket and this is one of the reasons w'hy AMVSB is used for modulation
irrTV systems.
Thus the optimum condition is that the bandwidth of the video signal should be
ttuflicient to meet the eye's capability of resolving the closely rpu.. objects. This
, ctrndition is satisfied if the video signal's bandwidth is between 4 to 6MHz.In lndia,
' lt is 5 MHz, in USA, 4.2Mlrz, in UK 5.5 MHz and in France, it is 6 MHz. Also,
hrndwidth of the RF circuits used to handle modulated signals should be just sufficient
to pass the sidebands contained in the modulated signal.
2,12 DETERMINATION OF NUMBER OF SCANNING
ffi

The eyes cannot see colour in very small objects which appear to be monochrotn
to the eyes despite their being coloured. The usual bandwidth for colours is less thatt
1.5 MHz against 5 MHz for monochrome pictures. Hence a colour TV does not need']
high resolution. This aspect has helped the designers to interleave colour signals
in between the luminance signals within the overall bandwidth of 5 MHz for the.
luminance signals" Thus colour TV does not need additional bandwidth (this aspect
has been explained in detail in Chapter 8).
1
LINES
..----*.****ffi,
Maximum resolving power of the human eye detemrines the number of scanning lines.
Eye can resolve the two closely spaced but distinct objects if they subtend an angle
of I minute (or 1/60 degree) at the eye. If this angle at the viewing distance is lss
than I minute, the objects will not be resolved, and if the angle is greatr than one
Ittittute, eye'q resolving power will not be fully utilised. flence the space .S between

tltc adjacent scanning lines should be such as to give vertical resolution of I minute
Signal Banduidth This is the bandwidth which is occupied by the baseband signal (or l/60 degree) of angle at viewing disiance D. Blsed on this cnteria,the numberof
in a radio frequency spectrum. A baseband signal is transrnitted by modulating a radio
lincs is determined as follows:
frequency carcier.In the modulated wave, the baseband infonation is contained ip'
sidebands. Sidebands are equally spaced in fiequency frorn the carrier" In amplitude I oegree:
, lxn tadran
modulation, there is one'pair of sidebands, but in frequency modulation there may -60 60x180
many pairs. In FM broadcast, five pairs f sidebands are generally considered if high
Angle in radians :
signal to noise ratio is to be achieved.
Monochrome video signal is 5 MHz wide, hence FM cannot be used for video D
signals as the bandwidth requirement would be r 25 MHz (or 50 MHz). Hence, AM s lxtt
: .--_
Therefre, or J: _ nD
system is used for video and that too vestigial sideband (AMVSB) in which lowei D 60 x 180 60x180
sideband is attenuated beyond A.75 }.lHz below the carrier frequency to consrve the,
bandwidth to 5.75 MHz (5 MHz for the upper sideband and 0.75 MHz for the lower
Ill[. is total number of lines through height h of theTV screen,
sideband). The bandwidth of the radio frequency amplifier circuit should be atleast h
: h
equal to the bandwidth occupied by the sidebands. then
N. or Nr

For audio, frequency modulation is used because even for 5 pairs of sideband,s,
the spectrurrr of FM witl be required to accommodate + 50 kHz (for audio of 10 kHz h 6ox i8o
Hence N^: r
frequency) for which sufficient space remains available in a TV channel's width after 'Dtt
urro**dating AMVSB video signals. FM gives high signal to noise ratio at the h
output and therefore produces high quality sound.
:3437.3 (2.7)
D
42 Televlslon Englne'erlng ond Vldeo Systems
Table 2.1 gives the number of scanning lines per frame for various values of D
relative to h.lt also indicates visual angle subtended at the eye by the width of the
screen (i.e. 4 hl3) at distance D. On an average this angle is l4o in India and l2o in
USA.
Table 2.1 Number of lines per frame for different ratos o Dlh
Ratio (D/h) Wsual angle No" of s*nning
subtended by screen lines NT'perframe
1 77" 3437
2 380 t7t9
J 26', tt46
5 160 687
5.5 14" 625
6 130 573
6.5 12" 529
7 110 491
The viewing distance D depends on the brightness of the picture which may be
acceptable for elimination of flicker to a satisfactory level. Flicker is eliminated if
the dark intemrptions between bright pictures appear 50 times per second. A picture
can be kept brighter if the intemrptions per second are more. In American countries,
intemrptins are at the rate of 60 per secnd, while in European countries and in Asia
they are 50 per second to coincide with the electric mains frequency for stable picture.
Hence in American TV, pictures are brighter and so the viewing distance is more than
what it is in European countries. To maintain resolution at I minute of angle, the space
Sbetween the lines may be kept more inAmerican system and therefore the number of
scanning lines are less in America than in Europe.
In view of the brightness level, the viewing distance in India is about 5.5 times
the height of the screen, and hence the number of scanning lines are equal to 625 per
frame. In Americ4 due to higher brightness level, the viewing distance is about 6.5 times
the height of the screen, and hence the number of lines are near about 529.
Another factor which decides the exact number of lines is the divisibility of the
number by simple factors. 625 is divisible by 5 x 5 x 5 x 5 and 525 by 3 x 5 x 5
x 7. Thus the exact number of lines in India (European system) is 625 and in USA
(American system), 525 (an easily divisible value tear 529lines).
Another consideration is that there should be (n + ll2) lines per field to ensure
interlaced scanning, and as there are two fields per frame, it means there should be
(2n +l) lines per frame. This number (2n + l) is an odd number. Thus the number of
lines per frame should always be odd to ensure correct interlacing. The values of 625
and 525 for European system and American system meet this criterion also.
For high definition TV (HDTV) systems (described in Chapter 13), the viewing
distance is kept at 3 times the height of the screen, that is Dlh : 3, which gives the
total number of scanning lines, N equal to 3437 .313 = 1146. On this basis HDTV uses
1125 lines (an easily factorable quantity) and the active lines are standardised to be
equal to 1080 per frame
Fundamental Concepts of Televtston 43
2,13 SYNCHRONISAIION
Scanning is done at the transmitter as well as at the receiver. Scanning in both trans-
tnitter and receiver should be identical. It should start at the same instant and at the
t{ttme point of the screen at the receiver at which it staits in the transmitter. This is
called synchronisation between the transmitter and the receiver. If the scanning is not
xynchronised, the picture would be totally displaced, and the objects which are on the
top of the original picture may appear on the bottom in the reproduced picture due
ttr lack of vertical synchronisation (called vertical rolling), as shown in Figs 2.9 (a)
ttnd (b). Lack of horizontal synchronisation wiil split the picture diagonally. (Vertical
rolling and diagonal splitting have been explained in detail in Chapter 19 on trouble-
uhooting.)
(a) (b)
Fig.2.9 Effect of lack of synchronisation: (a) Original picture as rransmitted and
(b) Displaced picture in the receiver due to lack of vertical synchronisation
To ensure synchronisation between transmitter and receiver, synchronisation pulses
(called sync pulses) are used to start sawtooth signal. Separate sync pulses are required
fbr horizontal scanning and vertical scanning.
The sync pulse triggers the concerned sawtooth signal generator for every sawtooth
' cycle in the transmitter.
Thus frequencey of the sync pulse is the same as that of the
scanning lines. For,horizontal scanning the sync pulse (called H-sync) appears every
64 ps, i.e. its frequency ofoccurrence is 15 625 pulses per second. For vertical scanning,
sync pulse (called v-sync) appears every 20 ms. Thus its frequency is 50 Hz.
Horizontal as u'ell as vertical sync pulses are transmitted along with the video sig-
nal for being received by the TV receiver. In the receiver these sync pulses are detected
and are then used to trigger the respective sawtooth signals. Thus sawtooth signals in
the receiver start at the same relative instant at which they started in the transmitter.
Scanning at other points in the reproduced picture at the receiver will faithfulty follow
the scanning process at the transmitter.
l
2.I4 BIANKING
Blanking pulses are used to blank (or cut-off the cathode ray tube) during retrace
period of horizontal scanning as well as vertical scanning process in the transmitter
44 Talavlston Englruertng ond Vldeo Systems
and also in the'receiver. In the absence of blanking, retrace will become visible on
the screen and will cause distortion in the picfure. In actual practice, the sync pulse
is placed over the respective blanking pulse by time division multipleximg, using
monostable multivibrators. In India, H-blanking pulse is l2 rs wide and H-sync pulse
mounted on it is 4.7 ts wide. Width of V-blanking pulse is 1280 ps and of V-sync
pulse mounted on it is i60 ps. The widths of these pulses for American system are
given in Chapter 3.
2.I5 COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL
Picture information (video signal) is not transmitted alone. Along with it are transmitted
blanking pulses and sync pulses. The signal containing all these components is called
CVS (composite video signal). It can be represented either with positive polarity or
with negative polarity. These two versions are described in Section 2.16.
2.tG POSITI\E A}{D NEGATI\{E POIARITIES OF *-._"_.l
CVS
Fundamental Concepts of Televislon 45
Advantages of Negative Modulation
When the baseband of negative polarity is used to modulate the RF carrier, the
ntodulation is called negative modulation. It has the following advantages:
I. The noise pulses in the transmitted signal shall increase the amplitude of the
carrier which will move towards the black. Thus noise falling in the dark grey or
black region will not cause irritation. The entertainment value of the picture will
' not be adversely affected. (In positive modulation, white blobs will be caused in
,,
the picture die to random noise signals.)
Carrier amplitude will remain low fbr most of the time as the signal content is
more in white than in black. This will cause saving in transmission power.
l. Unlike audio modulated AM waves, there is no avetage carrier level in video
modulated RF wave. This causes difficul'in getting voltage for automatic
gain control (AGC). In negative modulation the voltage of the blanking pulse
is of fixed level which depends on the carrier strength. Thus this level forms the
refbrence level for deriving AGC voltage dependent on the carrier strength.

The composite video signal can be represented in two forrns, namely positive polarity f)isadvantages
and negative polarity, which are illustrated in Figs 2.10 (a) and 2.10 (b). respectively. l. Impulse pulse may disturb the H-sync and hence H-sychronisation may be
disturbed for a short duration. This effect is reduced by using automatic frequlncy
Blanking
White Video level control in H-sweep circuits in the receiver.
level signal sync top ,
_11 _/ _i--L_
IL-_____ _\"4 ,*{
2. Picture tube neecls positive polarity between control grid and cathode. So nega-
tive polarity of video signal is to be reversed before feeding to the control grid.
ln case of any lapse in this, the picture would appear as a negative picture on the
_V screqn, i.e. white portions appearing black andihe black poJiorr, white.
White Video 'l'he advantages outweigh the
level signal disadvantages and hence negative modulation is used
(a) (b) in almost all TV systems.

Fig. 2.10 Composite video signal (a) of + ve polarity and (b) of - ve polarity
For positive polarity, brighter the scene" higher is the amplitude of the video signal.
Blanking level is zero level. Below zero is the sync pulse. Hence sync top is at the most
negative point. When video signal is produced by photoconduction type camera tubes
(described in Chapter 4), bright white light gives high amplitude of video signal. The
same requirement is at the receiver; for reproducing white on the fluorescent screen,
stronger signal is needed and for reproducing black, zero signal is needed.
F,or negative polarity, brighter the scene, smaller is the amplitude. Here, sync
pulse is positive, that is above the blanking level. Biack is just below the blanking
level. Brighter the scene, lower is its level below the blanking level. White is near the
bottom.
(In both types of potarities, black level is near the blanking level.)
In most of.the TV systems, negative polarity is used to modulate the video carrier.
Such modulation is called negative modulation. Advantages and disadvantages of
negative modulation are discussed below.
Voltage Levels and Voltage Division Multiplexing
. Voltage level for sync pulse, blanking pulse and video signal are ciifferent, so that
lhcse pulses can be separated easily in the receiver. Putting these pulses and signals
ut different levels in CVS is called voltage division muitiplexing. It is achiev by
cmploying monostable multivibrators (timer circuits). There are tw ways of indicatini
lhc levels:
l. IRE scale (for video baseband signal)
2. Percentage of carrier (for modulated signal)
'l'hese are described
below:
IRE Scale The swing of video signal from sync top to peak white level for positive
polarity is indicated by IRE scale, introduced by the then lnstitute of Radio Engineers,
[JSA, presently known as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
ln this scale, srnc top is - 40 IRE, blanking level is 0 IRE, standard *frit. is at abot
I tt6 IRE and peak white at + 100 IRE. Exceecling 86 IRE, it is whiter than white. Total
swing of the signal is tr40 IRE.
(Although IRE scale is usecl for positive polarity CVS (i.e. for output of the camera
tubes and input of the pictr.rre tubes), it can be used for negative plarity CVS
with
sync top at+40IRE, blanking level at 0 IRE and peak white at
-100 IRE.)
46 Televtslon Englnerlng ond Vldeo Systems " ' FundbirtLntdt coiibrs'/ r?iv,ifd;
11,

1?
t\

Percentage of Cariu For modulated signal, the levels of various pulses. are
fepresentJd inierms of percentage of carrier level. For positive polarity, sync top is at
0%, blanking level at21Yo,white level at90o/o and whiter than white level goes up to
lO0%. For negative polaritv, s)mc top is l}Oo/o,blanking level 7sa/o, white level 1070
and below it is whiter than white.
The various voltage levels in CVS are discussed below.
Pedstal Leael In positive polariry the pedestal level is represented by zero IRE.
This is a fixed level and is treated as reference. IRE values of all other levels are
indicated with respect to this reference level. In negative modulation, it is represented
by 75%of the carrier signal. The pedestal level is also called btanking level.
pedostal Video signai pertaining to picture information varies in accordance
Heigltr
Rrtlo of Picture Informetlon to Sync Pulse Amplitude
ync pulses are needed at the end of horizontal and vertical traces to trigger the
respective scanning oscillators. Du'ing the trace (or forward scan), the video signal
ohanges between white and black levels through grey levels, depending on the variation
of brightness in the picture.
With negative polarity of video signal, black occupies the highest amplitude of
rbput 70-72%of the carrier above zero level. The portion above black is called blacker
thon black and is occupied by the sync pulse, and the black set-up. The amplitude of
blncker than black level including sy.nc pulse is about 28oA of the carrier. In terms of
IRE scale, this ratio for baseband signal (without modulation) is 10:4.
If the picture information is increased to increase the above ratio, say to 10:2, the
r

with the variation of intensity oi Ugnt at various picture elements. Its average value
for the whole picture frame (not for one scanning line only) is the dc value which
represents background brightness of the picture. Height of the pedestal level from the',1
level of average value is called pedestal height.
Btaeh Set-up Black set-up represents the difference between the pedestal level and
the black level. It is 4 to 5 IRE scale. In modulated signal it is 3-5Yo of the carrierl
The purpose of this offset is to ensure that the colour subcarrier near black does
interfere with the sync amplitude.
Btacher tban Blarh
Signal beyond the black level (including black set-up and the
synd pulse) is called blackr than black. In India, it extends from 72o/oto rcA% of the
tync pulse amplitude would become inadequate to keep the picture stable. On the
6ther hand if sync pulse amplitude is increased to reduce the ratio say to 10:6, the
\ ontrast of the picture will be degraded. Thus the ratio of L0:4 is optimum and ensures
'ihat ryr. would fail to synchronise or lock the picture only when signal decreases and
llgnal to noise ratio becomes poor, i.e. the picture ceases to be satisfactory
2,17 HORIZONTAL BIAI{KING PULSE
The total width of H-blanking pulse is 12 ps during which H:retrace is complete and
the video signal remains cut-off. It consists of three parts:
l. Front porch

carrier in negative polarity CVS.

2. H-sync pulse

3. Back porch
Vbiter tban lVbite White signal is at l0% of the carrier in negative modulation. These parts are shown in Fig. 2.12 andtheir description follows.
Signal belo-w up to zero is called whiter than white sigrral.
10%o
1ff the above levels are illustrated in Fig.2.I1 in terms of percentage of the
signal as used in India. Besides the video signal, the components of the composite H-sync pulse
si[rd qonsist of the horizontal (or H-) blanking pulse and vertical (or V-) blankin (a.7 ps)
pulse. These are described in Sections 2.L7 andz.l&, respectively. ir

100%
(H - sync top)
Blacker, s@ Pedestal

75o/o
than / t Average brightness
black (dc levelfor 1 frame)
72o/o
Black level /
/ Fig.2.l2 Horizontal blanking pulse
Pedestal
height Whiter
lOo/o
White level Front Porch Its width in terms of time interval is 1.5 ps. Its function is to ensure
0 that the H-sync pulse starts from a fixed level. In the absence of front porch, the start
Blanking pulse (12 Ps) Video signal ( 52 tts) pulse have depended on the end of the video signal as shown in
of H-sync would
Figs 2.13(a) and (b).
Fig. 2.1 I Voltage levels in CVS
# ?l(rvfqfon Engtnemtng and Wdco ystcms
Fundament:a'l Concpts of Tetevtston 49

(a) (b) One line 2nd line

Fig. 2.13 Start of the H-sync pulse'in the absence of the front porch: (a) When Fig.Z. | 4 Composite video signal for 2 horizontal lines
video signal ends in white and (b) When video signal ends in dark grey
i2.18
\l+-*
VERTICAL BIAIKING PULSE
,"-**"*"".-.*X
In Fig. 2"L3(a) video signal ends at P and in Fig. 2.13(b), it ends at Q.Inthe former
case, the sync pulse starts at R. In the latter case,it starts at . The time for the signal When the vertical scanning beam of a field reaches from the bottom-most line to the
to rise to the blanking level is more in the first case and less in the second case. So the top, the next field starts. The retrace of the beam from bottom to top is covered by
sync pulse starts at a later instant in case of (a) than in case of (b). This difference in blanking pulse, called vertical blanking (or V-blanking) pulse. During blanking the
timing will upset the synchronisation and hence will distort the picture. To avoid this video signal remains cut-offmaking the retrace invisible on the screen. The V-blanking
situation, front porch AB of 1.5 rs width (shown by dotted lines in Figs 2.13(a) and pulse carries Vsync pulse which triggers the V-sweep oscillator for synchronisation.
(b)) is incorporated so that irrespective of where the video signal ends, the sync pulse V-blanking pulse along with Vsync pulse is added to the video signal and appears
BCDE would build upon the fixed blanking level, called pedestal level. tt an interval of every 20 ms. It is shown in Fig. 2.15. Widths of pulses as adopted in
lndia are shown in the figure.
H-sync Puke If s 4.7 rs wide. It is used to trigger the scanning circuits to ensure
synchronisation for scannings at the transmitter and at the receiver. It must start 4t the V-sync pulse
same instant of time in the transmitter and in the receiver for correct synchronisation.
Its top is at such a level as to provide 100% modulationto the RF carrier. (2.5 HJines = 160 trs)

Bach Porcb It is 5.8 ps wide. Its function is to absorb the ringing oscillations
(shown in Fig. 2.12) which are caused during sudden fall of the voltage from the sync (2.5 H-lines = 160 ps) (15 H-lines = 960 ps)
top during flyback. In the absence of the back porch these ringing oscillations would
have comrpted the video signal.
The H-blanking pulse provides constant level as reference for the dc component for +--- --:------ (20Hlinesor1280ps) -!--- >
the video signal, and also provides reference for AGC voltage because its level in the
modulated signal is proportional to the carrier, being 75% of the ci,rrier ievel. Fig. 2.15 Vertical blanking pulse
In colour receivers, the back porch accomodates about eiglr-t to ten cycles (called
colour burst signal) of 4.43 I|l4Hz colour subcarrier. The colour burst signal synchro- The front portion of the V-blanking pulse is of 160 ps (: Z%H-lines). V-sync pulse
nises the production of colour subcarrier in the receiver with the one in the trans- lralso of 160 ts (2% H-lines). The back portion is of 960 ps (: 15 H-lines). Vertical
mitter. dcflection is very slow as compared to the horizontal deflection, and therefore the time
Retrace starts at the leading ege of the H-sync pulse. Complete signal for two intervals of the V-blanking pulse and its various components are quite wide. Due to
H-lines is shown in Fig. 2.14 ot to scale). The trace starts a little befoie the end of a wide interval,'serrations or slots are infi'oduced in the V-sync pulse and to ensure
the back,,.rch. Hence there would be a black edge on the left-hand side of the screen. comect interlacing, equalising pulses are introduced in the front and back portions.
As the retrace starts after the front porch, there wuld be a black edge in the right-hahd These are explai"..l ur follows.
side too for the time-width of the front porch.
errations
The V-sync pulse being 160 rs wirJe, H-synchronisation conlrrot occur for this long
time because of the non-availability of rising edges. It is the rising edge which triggers
m lwlrlon EnglnurtnE and Vdeo yrtrmr
,, Frrndffirrrtul'Ccncryfi'of ?llarlon,, tf t'

the H-sweep gerlerators. The H-sweep may therefore get upset, which would split the
picture diagonally. To avoid this sitration, slots are made in the V-sync pulse every
32 ts interval so that rising edges become available. The slots, called serations, are
shown in Fig. 2.16.
32 ps
ts
27.3 Slot
Fig.2.l Serradons inV-sync pulse
The width of each slot is equal to 4.7 rs. The slot is made after every 27 .3 ts,allowing
an interval of 32 ps between the rising edges. The serrations allow synchonisation oi
H-sweep periodically, so that when the receiver comes out of the V-blanking pulse,
it finds itself in correct H-synchronisation. (Here the question arises, as to why
serrations have been kept at 32 ps instead of 64 ps, the normal period of a H-line.
Once the sweep generator is triggered, it will complete its oscillation cycle in 64 ps
and will not be triggered by additional edges available. The additional edges are
necessary because of the half line offset effect of interlaced scanning, described below
for equalising pulses.)
ln ooparating ut V- sync pulses from the previous H-sync pulses, use of integrating
eirouit (Fig. 2.18(a) is made. For the case of Fie.2.l7(a), capacitor of the integrating
eirouit disoharges to a level P, while for the case of Fig.2.l7(b), it discharges to a level
Q only. The capacitor C of the,integrating RC circuit of Fig. 2.18(a) is charged to the
lovol specified to trigger the V-sweep oscillator. In the absence of equalising pulses,
oharging for even field (at the end of odd field) will start from level P and reach the
triggering level at time rr. For odd field (at the end of even field), it will start from level
Q andreach the triggering level at time /,. Thus the timing instants are not the same for
odd and even fields (relative to the previous H-sync pulse). This upsets the furterlacing
of lines and causes lack of synchonisation and hence distortion.
The above problem is overcome by adding five pre-equalising pulses of 32 ps dur-
ation each in the front portion of 160 rs width of the V-blanking pulse. In Figs 2.17(a)
and (b), the pulses at the place cf normal H-lines have been shown by solid lines
end additional pulses by dashed lines between the normal H-sync pulses. This
will equalise the discharging, os time available for discharge even after the end of
odd field (Fig. 2.17(a)) would be 32 ps only, and not 64 ps. Due to this equalising
offect, charging of the capacitor for V-synchronisation would occur correctly at Q
for both the fields, which is shown by a solid line for even field and by a dotted
line for odd field in Fig. 2.18(b). Consequently the triggering level for both fields
reaches after time interval /, from the time the charging starts for the respective fields.
Hence these five pulses are called pre-equaiising pulses, pre, because they occur
before the V-sync pulse and equalisingbecause they equalise the time of triggering.
Triggering level

Pre-equalising Pulses ii

Due to interlaced scarrning, the V-sync pulse is not in an identical position at the end
of two fields. At the end of the odd field, V-blanking starts in the middle of the 292th
line, while at the end of even field it starts from the 606 line. The situation is shown in 6

I
Figs 2.17(a) and (b). o
o
C')
G
2g+ 295 2W5
+.-:.H
297 =o

297112to
Odd field
3121l2lines
(1 to 2921/2 lines) Time
end shere
Pre-equalising
-----+
V-sync pulses (a) (b)
pulses
G) Fig. 2.18 (a) lntegrating circuit and (b) Triggering level forV-sweep at the end of
606 608 609 two fields
+.<#.<;"+
607 610

Post-equalis in g Pulses

These pulses pre inserted in the back portion of the blanking pulse just after the V;sync
Pre-equalising V-sync pulse
(b) puises
pulse to offset the half line effect of interlaced scanning, shown in Figs 2.17(a) and
(b). At the end of the odd field, there is a gap of half line (32 ps) between the end of
Fig.2.l7 Pre-equalising pulses andV-sync pulse: (q) at the end of odd field and thr Vsync pulse (at297%) and the next H-sync pulse (start of 298ft pulse) as shown in
(b) at the end of even field Fig. 2.19(a). At the end of the even field, the interval between the end of the V-sync
 !I u{ Tlhtfrfuh Entrrl ondi vfroi Syrrm Fundamlrrrtql Cuuntof llhrtslrcln 53
pulse (at the end of 6lOth line) and the next H-sync pulse (after 6l l line when 6l2th rignals use this type of modulation. In angle modulation, either frequency or phase
line starts) is 64 rs,,as shown in Fig. 2,19(b). To maintain the hatf.lino rhythm, post. ot'the radio frequency carier is changed in accordance with the amplitude of the
equalising pulses are placed in the back portion of V-blanking pulse for both fields, brsaband signal, resulting in frequency or phase modulation. In TV, audio signals use
After five post-equalising pulses, normal H-pulses appear for the rest of the back ftoquency modulation, shown in Fig. 2.20(b).
portion of tho V-blanking pulse and thereafter. At the receiver, baseband signals (video and audio) are recovered by a process
aalled demodulation or detection. For AM, detection is achieved by using a diode

ffi
295 296 297
f3etifier with filter circuit to filter out RF components and give output of video signal
300 to 3121t2 fgr further amplification and conversion into light by the picture tube. For FM,
lines dotcction is achieved by using phase-shift discriminator diodes or phase comparison
Hing phase locked loop technique. Modulation and demodulation circuits used in TV
(a) V-sync pulse Post-equalising
hnve been described in Chapters 6 and 7, respectively.
pulses

(a) V-sync pulse Post-equalising

pulses

Fig.2.l9 V-sync pulse and post-equalising: (a) At the end of odd field and
(b) At the end of even field

2.t9 MODUIATION REQUIREMENTS FOR TV

Composite video signal cannot be transmitted as such to long distances for the
following reasons: 1.

l. Video signal's frequency starts from as low as a few Hz. A signal of such low
frequency will need a transmitting antenna hundreds of kilometers long, lvhich is
not feasible. Min.
Max. freq.
2. Different video programmes being in the same frequency range will clash with amp.
each other. (a) (b)

The above difcultic's are solved if we use a radio frequency carrier to carry the
video signals, The radio fiequency carrier is in very high frequency range or ultra
high frequency range for TV for which antenna length is of the order of a metre for
VHF and much less for UHF. Also a radio frequency carrier can accommodate several
progralnmes, each separated in frequency to avoid any clash. For example, a radio
frequency carrier in VHF band accommodates 12 channels for TV programmes and
also makes spare channels available for FM broadcast and for two-way communication
to other services, like police patrol cars, fire service stations, army fonnations, etc.
The process ofplacing a baseband signal (be it video or audio) on a radio frequency
carrier is called tnodulation. The placing is done by modifying some parameter
(amplitude or frequency or phase) in accoidance with it. u*piime of the baseband
signal. This gives rise to two tvpcs of modulations: amptitudi modulation and angle
modulation.
ln amptlitude modulation, arnplitude of the radio frequency carrier is changed in
accordance with the amplitude of the taseband signal, .t o*" in Fig. 2.20(a). Video
Fig.2.20 (a) Amplitude modulation (b) F,requency modulation
Suitability of AM for Video and FM for Audio Signals
Amplitude modulation is suitable for video signals for the following reasons:
I . In AM, detection of baseband signal from the modulated wave is very easy using
a single diode rectifier and a simple low pass filter circuit. Its low price makes it
popular.
2. AM detector does not detect random changes in phase but detects the changes
in amplitude. Hence output of the detetor is free of phase noise. As eyes are
sensitive to phase noise, its absence in the output trrakes AM.suitable for picture.
FM can detect changes fn phase and hence,is unsuitable for video.
3. Baseband signal is accomodated in two sidebands only and therefore bandwidth
requirement is low. Maximum bandwidth for video signal could be * 5 }r/.Hz,
which is further reduced by using vestigial sideband type AM. FM system requires
 lT Tiltrlruri Eryrnilrr,rg an ylb,trCrcms
about ten times the width of baseband for good quality output. Hence FM is not
suitable for video whose baseband width itself is 5 MHz and so batrdwidth of the
modulated signal would have been * 25 MHz (i.e.50 MHz) in FM. This high
bandwidth would have consumed most of the band in a single channel only.
Due to the aboye mentioned advantages ofAM and disadvantages of FM for video,
AM is used and FM is not used for transmitting video signals. Hwever to retain th
advantages ofAM detection but to reduce the bandwidth iequirement further, vestigial
sidebanl system ofAM is used. In this system as used for television, the *" rf.lliJ.
are trnsmiued brrt while USB is transmitted fully (5 MHz), the LSB is attennuated
after 0.75 MHz width. The net bandwidth is reducld from 10 MHz," s.is 1il. ilit
makes more channels available for transmission while retaining the advantage of low
cost of detector design. (Single sideband could have given further saving in bandwith,
but it is not used because its complex detector ciriuit, requiring generation in the
receiver of a carrier, fully synchronised in frequency and phase ,ritfr tnr carrier used
at the transmitter, would have very substantially increased the cost of the TV receiver,
which is used en-masse by people. Cost of such items is always kept as low as possible
and hence ssB is not used for TV despite its low bandwidth.)
Frequency modulation is used fortransmission of audio signals due to the following
advantages:
l. Signal to noise ratio is high in FM systems. Random changes in amplitude are
greatly suppressed in FM.
2. R"andom changes in phase can be detected, but ears are not sensitive to phase
changes and therefore this type of noise present in the audio output of tn.
receiving system is harmless.
3. Signal in the FM is mainly in sidebands which carry the information. Frower in
the carrier is negligibly small. Hence the system, powerwise, is more.efficienf
and we can use only t0 b 2AoA of power for audio transmission as compared to
video transmission. For example, a video transmitter may need 10 kW power, but
the audio transmitter would nied only l-2 kW of powei.
4. As the transmitted power in FM is always constant, class C amplifiers can be
used in the transmitter even after frequency modulation has been achieved.
Radio frequency carrier can therefore be modulated.at a low level which does not
require high audio power.
5. Due to capture effect in FM system, weak interfering statios are fully suppressed.
Thus in TV systems used in India and USA and most of the other countries; the
modulations used are as follows :
For video : AM VSB
For audio : FM
(The French system described in Chapter l0 uses different modulations.)
Modulation of Colour Signals
Production of colour signals has been described in detail in Chapter 8. To maintain
continuity of the topic, a basic idea of modulating colour signals is being given here.
' Fundatnentdl Coicepts of Tetlevtstoi 53
Crlour signals first modulate a subcarrier, using amplitude modulation suppressed
cunier (AMSC). The value of the subcarrier is 4.43 MHz in India. Colour signals
occupy smaller bandwidth of about 1.3 MHz (as our eyes are unable to see colour in
very small objects). Bandwidth of different colour TV systems haVe been given in
(lhapter 8. To save bandwidth funher, upper side band is vestiged. AMSC is used for
NTSC and PAL colour systems described in detail in Chapter 9. The reasons for using
AMSC are given below:
' l. It will not be detected by the normal video demodulator of a monochrome
receiver.'Had it been DSB with carrier, it could have been detected by the video
detector and would have distorted the picture in monochrome receivers.
2. By not using carrier, a saving in power up to 67% is being made.at the trans-
. mitter.
However, detection of AMSC signal will require generation of colour subcarrier
. locally in the receiver. This subcarrier in the receiver must be fully synchronised
' with the colour subcarrier produced in the transmitter. To ensure the
synchronisation,
tl.l0 cycles of the colour subcarrier (called colour burst signal) are sent aiong with the
video signal by placing these cycles on the back porch of the H-blanking pulse.
In SECAM colour system, developed in France, and described in detail in Chapter 10,
AMSC is not used for modulating the subcarrier; instead, frequency modulation is
used. Unlike AMSC, FM does not require synchronous detection. Also, it provides
high signal to noise ratio at the output in the receiver.
The colour subcarrier duly modulated by colour signals is used as a baseband signal
to modulate the main video carrier alongwith the luminance or brightness signal, using
AMVSB method of modulation. Hence as far as the receiver is concerned, it will not
ffnd any difference in AMVSB signal of colour transmissions and AMVSB signal of
monochrome transmissions up to the detector stage. It is only after the detecter stage
that colour modulated signal is separated from the luminance signal and is decoded to
get the original colour information.
2.2O TV CHANNELS USED IN INDIA
The TV channels allotted to India in vHF bands are shown inTable 2.2.
Thble 2.2 TV Channels used in lndia inVHF bands
Channel no. Channel width
,.1,,",,
4147 MHz ot used for broadcast)
2 47-54 MHz
3 54141l|;/.Hz
4 61-68 MHz
t rtrvlilon Engtntgrlng and Wdooyrrms
Fundomenal' eoncepts of Televtslon 57
Name of bnd Channel no. Channel width h attenuated beyond 67,25 MI{2. Thus total bandwidth is 5.75 MHz (from 61.50 to
67,25 MHz). Colour subcarrier of 4.43 MHz duly modulated by colour signals is
II (68-174 MHz) Used for other services. Not used for broadcast.
placed at 66.68 MHz in the spectrum of the morlated signal. Its lower sideband is
I\I (174-230 MHz) 5 174-l8l MHz l'3 MHz below, and upper sideband is 0.57 MHz above thscolour subcarrier in India.
6 181-188 MHz Audio modulated signal is also accomodated within the same channel width, the audio
7 188-195 MHz arrier being at 67.75 MI{z with sideband within * 50 kHz. The remaining portion
of the spectrum up to 68 MHz acts as a guard band for the next channel. In UHF
8 19502 MHz
hannels, rvhere the overall channel width is 8 MHz, the actual channel utilisation is
9 202-209 MHz for 7 MHz and I MHz is used as extra guard band, keeping the sound carrier 1.25 tHz
10 209-216 MHz boklw the end of the channel.
11 216-223 ilyd}Iz The difference between video carrier and audio carrier frequencies remains constant.
In India, it is 5.5 MHz.If video carrier is, say 62.25 MHi (4 channel of TV), the
12 223-23rJ MHz
utlio carrier would be 67 .75 MHz. (In USA, it is 4.5 MHz). This constant frequency
l called intercarrier frequency.It is used as second IF for sound section (popularly
Frequencies in UHF band IV are also available from 470-598 MHz, and in UHF
pclle.d_sound IF or SIF ) in superhetrodyne TV receivers" I"ts importance in siabitising
band V, from 606-870 NlHz (with 8 MHz channel width for each channel). When 8
tmplification of audio is explained in Chapter 7.
MHz channel width is used instead of 7 MHz, the extra 1 MHz acts as a guard band After studying the fundamantal concepts, the reader might become conversant with
between the adjacent channels. It means that the audio carrier is 1.25 l0lf.}{z before the the hasic phenomena and processes involved in the television systems and therefore,
end of the channel instead of 0.25 MHz. Width of ali the signals in UHF bands is the lr in a position to understand the terms used in TV standards. The detailed description
same as in VHF bands. 0f 'fV standards is given in Chapter 3.

2.2I RF SPECTRUM SUM,IAARY

Rartio frequency spectrum gives the fiequency-wise amplitudes ofvarious components
Trunsmission of a picture with the help of a radio frequerrcy carrier requires its scan-
of the baseband signal in the allotted channel width, relative to the radio freqlency
ning to convert variations of light through space (width and height) into variations
carrier. Atypical RF spectrum is illustrated in Fig. 2.21for the 4e channel (61-68 MHz)
with time alone. Interlaced scanning is used to remove flicker and at the same time to
of TV transmission in India.
eonserve bandwidth. In interlaced scanning, a picture frame is scanned twice. Each
loquence of scanning is called field. Odd sequences (first, third, fifth, otc.) are called
odcl fields and even sequences (second, fourth, sixth, etc.) are called even fields. There
rrc 625 scanning lines per frame antl25 frames or 50 fields per second in European
'tytem and 525 lines per frame and 30 frames or 60
fields p.. r..ord in Ameii.un
0.57 tystem. India has adopted 625lines system.
All the scanning lines are not visible on the screen due to vertical blanking and due
Lower trt Kell factor. The effective lines which are actually visible determine the reslution in
side Upper side band
band lhc reproduced picttre and bandwidth of the vicleo baseband signal. Higher bandwidth
Chroma gives higher resolution. Bandwidth of the baseband amplifier should be sufficient to
prtss the baseband signals, but the bandwidth of the radio frequency circuit has
to be
nlore to pass the sidebands of modulated waves.

tl*
MHz
i 61.5 62.25 65.38
Channel width (61.68 Ml-lz)
66.68 67.25 67.75
Scanning is done with the help of sarvtooth curents flowing through the deflection
soils of a special cathode raytube (picture tube).As identical scanning is required at
thc transmitter and receiver, sync pulses are transmitted along with thl video signal.
Fig.2.Zl RF spectrqm for the #h channel ofTV as used in lndia lilanking pulses are also required to blank the retrace. Horizontal blanking pulse is of
xhort duration (12 ps) while vertical blanking pulse is of long duration (12&0 ps).
Figure 2.21 shows the RF carrier frequency to be 62.25 MHz. The lower sideband Signal containing video infbrmation, blanking pulses ancl sync pulses is called
is attenuated below 61.50 MHz. The upper sideband has full width of 5 MHz and composite video signal (CVS). It can have positive polarity at the camera rube antl
!i',, lrv, ton Engtnnrtng and Wdro yrrm , Fundamcntal Concepts of Televtslon 50

negative polarity,for transmission. Picture to sync ratio is kept around 2.5 for stability
of picture
The CVS modulates a radio frequency carrier, using AMVSB technique. Negative
modulation is used to make noise appear in the dark region and to save power by , porches needed in the blanking pulse?
sending white contents of the picture at low level. Colour signals modulate a subcarrier ,
of 4.43 MHz, usingAMSC modulation with quadrature phase techniques. The coloup ,
modulated subcarrier and luminance signals are added to form colour composite video,,
signal (CCVS) which modulates the main video carrier for transmission. Brightness ,
signal is detected by a simple diode detector, while colour signals are decoded byl
inserting a locally generated colour subcarrier and then detecting AMSC signal. i
AM is used for transmission of video signals because AM detector does not detect
phase noise to which our eyes are sensitive. FM is used for audio as it will not detect 1,r
AM noise . Although it will detect phase changes but our ears are not sensitive to phase u,
noise. ,i
RF channels used for TV are in VHF and UHF bands. Complete radio frequencr,,,
spectrum, including video carrier, audio carrier, colour subcarrier sidebands lies within
the channet width of 7 }/.I1rzfor VHF and 8 MHz for UHF bands in India. Intercarrier
frequency (5.5 MHz) is the difference of two carrier frequencies (audio carrier minus
video carrier). It always remains constant and hence is used as second IF for audio
,
signal. Mark width (in rs) of various components of this CVS (not to the scale)
and amplitude of sync top, pedestal level, black set-up, pedestal height, and white
level in terms of percentage modulation obtained in the video carrier. Why are
12. What is blanking ? Draw H-blanking pulse showing width of various sections of
this pulse. Explain formation of black edges on the left-hand side and the right-
hand side of the picture tube screen.
'13. Draw CVS at the end of odd field as well as at the end of even field. Show widths
of various sections of V-blanking pulse.
14. Explain the need of pre-equalising pulses, post-equalising pulses and serrations
during vertical blanking.
15. Discuss advantages of usingAM for video signals, AMSC for colour signals and
FM for audio signals in TV systems.
16. Draw radio frequency spectrum for the channel starting from 195 MHz, showing
all cariers and sidebands. Discuss the significance of each portion of the
spectrum.
17. Prove that the total number of H-lines for the best resolution angle of one minute
is 3437 .3 x hld, where ft is the height of the screen and d, the viewing distance.

section. ,i ll. Discuss the advantages of negative modulation for TV systems.

thort-answer Questions
EXERCISES
l. Why flicker is not removed by progressive scanning?
Review Questions 2. How does a picture appear one whole while it is actually presented trunkated in
two halves alternately in odd and even fields?
1. What do you understand by scanning? Why is it needed? t
3. What would happen if the circuit bandwidth is much higher than required by the
2. What is flicker? How is it etiminated by interlaced scanning? sidebands?
3. Define resolution. Derive general formula forhorizontal resolution andbandwidth 4. Why is the number of scanning lines per frame always odd?
for TV systems. 5. Why is vertical scanning very slow in comparison to horizontal scanning?
4. What are the factors on which resolution and bandwidth depend? 6. Why are sync pulses needed in TV systems?
5. Discuss importance of the bandwidth in radio communication of video signals. 7. Why is retrace blanked? ,
Write down the values of bandwidth for baseband signals of sound and light and 8. What type of polarity of video signal is needed at the picture tube and how is it
for modulated waves related to these signals. achieved?
6. What do you understand by Kell factor? How has its value been estimated? g. What is the importance of front porch?
Explain how does it affect resolution. 10. What is the importance of back porch?
7. Discuss the factors which determine the number of scanning lines in a TV I 1. Why are pre-equalising pulses used in vertical blanking?
system.
12. Why.are post-equalising pulses used in vertieal blanking?
8. Discuss the importance of synchronisation in TVbroadcast. How are the sawtooth
13. Why is AMVSB preferred to SSB and FM for video signals?
signal generators triggered for starting H-sweep and V-sweep?
g. 14. Why is AMSC chosen for colour transmission?
Define IRE scale. What do you understand by picture to sync ratio? Explain its
15. Mention the factors on which the resolution of details in a picture depends.
effect on stability of picture.
16. Write down the factors on which the bandwidth of video signals depends.
10. What do you understand by time division multiplexing and voltage division
17. Why are pictures in American TVs brighter than pictures in TVs in European
multiplexing of various signals in CVS?
countries?
11. Draw the composite video signal of negative polarity for a horizontal line,
18. Although the number of scanning lines is 625 per frame, vertical resolution is
showing H-blanking pulse, H-sync pulse, colour burst signal and variable video
niuch less than 625 and is nearly equal to 400 only. What are the causes?
6b'- rotivlron Ens theeil! ahd vldoiisyiiems
Fundamintal Concopts of Tetevtston 6l
19. What is the ignificance of Kell factor?
20, The frequency of a video signal would be equal to when a grass lawn is
displayed for one second in a movie. (25 Hz,4.2MHz,5 MHz, 0)
20. Dray CVS for three scanning lines?
Numertcal Questions
Multiple-choice Questions
l. Calculate vertical resolution, horizontal resolution and bandwidth of the TV
1. Fields frequency is Hz n India. (25,50,625,15 625)
system of UK with the following specifications.
2. Horizontaltrace in scanning takes microseconds in India. Scanning lines per frame :625
,-,'

(52, ffi,63.5,64) , Lines lost per field:25

3. The value of Kell factor is about (0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9)
Kell factor: 0.75
4. Bandwidth of video baseband signal in India is MHz.
Trace time: 52 ps
(4.5, 5, 5.5,6)
Aspect ratio:4:3
5. Bandwidth ofAMVSB for video carrier is MHz.
2. Calculate bandwidth of American TV which uses 525 lines per frame, 21 lines
(4,5.75,7.95, 10)
loss in V-blanking in each field, kell factor of 0.7 and trace time equal to
6. Deflection current for H-deflection is sawtooth signal, but for V-deflection, it is 53.5 ps.
sine wave. This statement is -. (true, false) ;J. Calculate the interval betw'een slots in V-sync pulse, if the slots are of 4.7 ps
7. Composite video signal is of negative polarity for modulation in Indian TV. This
width and there are 5 serrations in the V-sync pulse of'160 ps duration.
statement is (true, false)
4. Calculate the pedestal height of a TV signal whose blanking pulse is 0 IRE,
8. The term 'pedestal'is used for level.
average brightness for a single scanning line is 100 IRE and for the whole picture
(sync top, blanking, black, white) frame is 60 IRE.
9. The term black set-up is used for difference between levels. 5. If a picture is to be seen from a distance equal to three times the height of the
(white and black, white and blanking, black screen, calculate the number of scanning lines to allow the adjacent pixels to
and sync top, black and blanking) subtend an angle of 1/60 degree at the eye.
10. DifIerence between the average dc level of the picture and blanking level is
called : (pedestal height, pedestal set-up,
ANSWERS
black set-up, sync pulse hdtght)
11. Average brightness of the picture information (dc level) is considered for the
whole picture frame and not for one scanning line. This statement is
(true, false) l. F'licker can be removed by doubling the speed of progressive scanning, but
12. Video signals below l0o/, of the carrier in negative modulation are known as doubling the speed will double the bandwidth, which is not desirable.
(blacker than black, black, white, whiter than white) ) As the scanning lines bf even field do not appear with the lines of odd field, the
13. Eyes are not sensitive to random changes in phase of the video signal. This picture does not glow as one whoie in the two fields. Parts which do not glow in
statement is .. ' (true, false) odd field glow in even field and vice versa. However, the two fields appear so
14. Ears are not sensitive to changes in phase in the same sound. This statement
quickly one after the other that the two parts of the picflire are integrated by the
rs __.
eyes and hence appear as one whole picture due to persistence of vision.
(true, false)
15. Fast flyback gives rise to ringing oscillations. This statement is 3. Noise will increase and number of channels available for transmission will
decrease.
(true, false)
16" The IRE value for blanking is (0, 12.52,63.5)
4. To assist interlacing. Each field should have n + ll2lines, where n is a fositive
integer, and therefore two fields cir a frame should have 2n + 1 lines, which is
t7. If the lines of even field coincide with the lines of odd field, what wiil be
always an odd number.
affected?
(Flicker, Bandwidth, Brightness, Resol uti on)
5. To cover larger number of pixels in scanning.

18. The number ofhorizontal blankings per second is equal to _---.

6. Sync pulses are needed to ensure that scanning in the receiver is identical with
the scanning in the transmitter.
(30,50, 625,15625)
7. If the retrace is visible on the screen, it will cause distortion in the picture.
19. Noise appears in the uite region ofl a video image in negative modulation
8. fhe picture tube requires positive polarity signal so that the stronger signal
system. This statement is (true, false)
p^'oduces brighter glow. After demolulation of the negative moclulation signal,
6I tUhl,ltro,i Engfirbririd int'ifiil yltcms Fundamental Concepts of Thtevlston 3

the flnal pdlarity of the video signal may be positive or negative depending on 64 ps
the nutnber of amplification stages. If it is positive, it is appliecl to the control
grid of the picture, keeping cathode grounded. If it is negative, it is applied to th6
cathode ancl the control grid is kept grourrded. Thus in both cases grid remains
positive with respect to cathode for the increasing video signal.
9. Front porch provides a fixed pedestal from which the sync pulse builds up. Thus
sync starts correctly in each cycle. Fig.2.22 Diagram showing video signal for three scanning line
10. Back porch absorbs ringing oscillations due to flyback. In the absence of the back ,
porch, these oscillations would have distorted the video signal. Multlple-choice Questions
11. To assist correct interlacing of lines in scanning. 50 2. 52 3. 0.7
12. Post-equalising pulses are needed to maintain half-line rhythm in the backportion 5 5. 5.75 6. false
of the V-blanking pulse. true 8. blanking 9. black and blanking
13. AMVSB is preferred for video signals because on one hand it saves bandwidth, pedestal height 11. true 12. whiter than white
and on the other, its detection is simple, keeping the receiver's cost low. Although ' false 14. true 15. true
SSts provides more saving in bandwidth, it requires a costly receiver because of 18. t5625
0 17. Resolution
the complex detector circuits. Receivers should be of low cost as they are items
false 20. 0
of mass consumption. FM is not used because it can detect random changes in
phase which cause noise in the picture. Further, FM requires very high bandwidth Numerical Questions
for modulated waves.
14. AMSC is chosen for colour so that baseband colours may not be detected in the
l. 431,575,5.5 MHz 2. 4.2MHz 3. 27.3 ts

video detector. They will distort the luminance signal.

4. 60 IRE 5. 1146

15. Resolution depends on the following factors:

1. Number of active H-scanning lines
2. Aspect ratio
3. Kell factor i
4. Distance from which the display is viewed
16. Bandwidth of video signals depends on the following factors:
l. Size of the pixels (or the number of pixels or resolution). Smaller the size (or
greater the number of pixels or higher the resolution), greater would be the
bandwidth.
2. Scanning speed (That is, H-lines per second). This, in turn, will depend on the
number of lines per frame and number of frames per second.
17. InAmerica, the freq-uency of mains power supply is 60 Hz, while in Europe, it is
, 50 Hz. Hence the number of vertical blankings inAmerica is 60 as against 50 in
Europe. Hence, the pictures inAmerican TVs are brighter than those in European
TVs.
18. First, there is a loss of 40 lines during the vertical blankings. Second, there is a
further loss of about 30oA due to Kell factor.
19. The pixels are distributed randomly in a picture. So, the spot of the scanning
beam, at some places, may eover two pixels partty. This will reduce resolution.
Subjective tests made on several people showed that reduction in general is from
29yoto 32o/o (average value :3}yo). Hence, while calculating practical resolution,
the theoretical resolution should be multiplied by a factor of 0.7.
20. Diagram (not to scale) illustrating video signal for three scanning lines is given
below in Fig. 2.22'.
r 230 Tltvtston Englneertng an! Wdeo System

signal along with the colour signals for the sake of compatibility
monochrome and colour systems.
2. Out of the three colour signals, one has to choose two signals so that they
be used to modulate a single carrier by using quadrature modulation techr
(modulation of a single carrier by three signals would have become complc
G-IZ signal was not used to modulate the color subcarrier because it could
I{TSC AI{D PAt
easily generated in the receiver by a simple resistive matrix" It was not
to generate either B-Y ar R-l'signals by a resistive matrix. COLOUR SYSTEMS
J. A monochrome camera is so acljusted that it gives the video signal as per
brig
sensed by the eye and not the absolute brightness. It gives I v fo; white
Colour camera gives the vidco signal as per absolute brightness of each pri
colour. Luminance signal is obtained by Grassman,s law (Eq. (g.l.
4. A separate colour subcarrier is necessary for the sake of compatibility.
signals cannot be detected in a monochrorne receiver because of the n
to generate these locally the colour subcarrier. Also colour signals have to t,l
=.- -...
INTRODUCTION
accommodated in the overall bandwidth of a monochrome receiver. Sui
chosen colour subcarrier makes this possible. The USA Government constituted a committee of experts, called National Television
,t

5. AMSC will not be detected by the monochrome receiver, and hence E,l',\lcms Cornmittee (NTSC). This commiffee drew experts from the Radio Corporation
colours
not affect the luminance signal's reproduction in the black and white receiver. El'America, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, New York, Electronic
hdustries Associations of USA and Japan, Federal Communications Commission and
6. Quadrafure modulation technique allows two colour signals to modulate a si
subcarrier. Universities. They first designed a monochrome TV system using 525 lines per frame
7. Colour signals do not require higher frequency as the eye cannot resolve co
lntl 30 frames (or 60 fields) per second. This system came in commercial use in 1939
ln t,lSe. When it became krown that transmission and reception of colours was also
in small objects. Also vestiged IJSB gives more maryin between video sir
ible, the same committee was given the responsibility to design such a TV system
and audio signals.
transmission and reception of colour signals that could be compatible with the then
8. Colour encoder uses AMSC rnodulation. This can be detected by generat
tlisting monochrome system. The system designed by the committee was tested by
the colour subearrier locally in the receiver. The receiver's subcarri must
identical in all respects with. the subcarrier used in the transmiffer. To ensure
l('A in 1954 and finally came into commercial operatidn in the year 1957 in USA.
PAl, system which was developed later in Germany by Telefunkenlaboratory owes its
Brigin to the NTSC system. The fascinating ideas used by the scientists in developing the
llt'SC system were virtually copied in the PJ.L system with only minor modifications
t0 solve the problem of phase elror in NTSC. The NTSC system has been described
l cctions 9.2 through 9.8 and the PAL system, in Sections 9.9 through 9.19. Another
9. Bandwidth of the colour signals is lorver than the luminance signal because
Boltrur system called SECAM system, was developed in France. This French system,
cannot see colour in too small objects.
despite some features of it being common with NTSC, uses a different approach for
10. The intercarrier frequency in a colour system has to be an integer multiple of{ mcoding colour signals and has therefore been described in Chapter 10.
and should be exactly the same as for monochrome systems. Alsof so"ld i
nearly the same as for monochrome systems. This can be obtained iiy dividin
the fixed intercarrier frequency of 4.5 MHz by an integer equal to 2g6. The lin 9,2 BASIC ELEMENTS OF NTSC SYSTEM
frequency for NTSC system works out to be equal to 15 734.27 Hz. i
NTSC system uses weighted colour difference signals, called I and p. These signals
Multiple-choice Questions modulate a subcarrier of 3.58 MHz,usingAMSC modulation. At this stage, modulation
l called encoding.Bandwidths of sidebands are so designed that the rpr.tror available
1. (i) 1.5 MHz, (ii) 5 MHz Z. true 3. false fbr colour is best utilised to get the required resolution. The colours (incoded as colour
4. balanced 5. Y 6. false dltl'erence signals, modulating a subcarrier) along with the luminance I signal is
7. false 8. 30 9. false Ucd as a baseband signal for the main video carrier which is then modulated as in a
10. (i) 4.43, (ii) 3.s8 onochrome system.
The production of l and Q signalg, production of desired bandwidth and complete
NTSC tra.nsmitter have been explained in detail in Sections 9.3, 9.4 and,9.5.
F 232 Televlslon Egtneertngand Vtdeo Systems
NISC dnd AL Colour Systems 233

+ (R-Y)
NTSC receiver is a superhetrodyne receiver which processes the modulated s
and demodulates using an envelope detector, recovering the luminance signal and
encoded colour subcarrier. The encoded signal is decoded to get original colour si
which are fed to a colour picture tube to reproduce the coloured picture on the
\
The NTSC recive, has been described in Sections 9.6 and 9.7.

9.3 VTUCHTED COLOUR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS

- ( B-v) + (B-Y)

/ A},[D Q OF NTSC SYSTEM.-*#_

- found neoessary to transmit colour diffi
For the sake of compatibility, it was
signals (B-Y) and (l?-f instead of pure colors,R, G and B. These difference si -o
(Greonish yellow)
are weighted to prevent overmodulation. The weighted signals are designated ./ -l
and Q signals or phasors in NTSC system. 1 stands for 'in-phase' signal and Q (Greenish blue)
'quadrature phase' signal. 'Ilrus / and Qhave a mutual phase difference of 90o. (R-n
-
The weighted l and p phasors are reduced parts of colour difference signals.
phasor is given by Eq. t9"1(a)1. This equation is funher simplified to give the / Fig.9.l Colour phasors
in terms of R, G and B, as shown in Eq. t9.1(b)1.
I :0.74 (R-n -0.27 (B-Y) [9:l ln receivers, after detection, land Q signals are deweighted and converted into
riginal colour difference signals, B-Y and R-I. The third colour difference signal
:0.74 R- 0.74 Y -0.27 B + 0.27 Y
Y is obtained by a resistive matrix.
I

:0.74R*0.278-0.47Y
c)

B -- 0.47 x 0.3 R - 0.47 x 0.1 I B - 0.47 x.0.59 9,4 RESOLUTION OF COLOURS AND BANDIIDTHS
il
= 0.74 R*0.27
:0.5990 R-0.3217 B *0.2773 G
'l ! NTSC SYSTEM
= 0.60 R-0.32 B -0.28 G LY,
Eyus can resolve cotour in relatively large size objects. Hence maximum bandwidth
phasor Q which is at 90o phase difference with / is given by Eq. 19.2(a)1. fequired for colour is 1.5 MHz which is quite low as ag;rinst about 5 MFIz tbr mono-
:0.48(R- D Y) hrome picture. Very small objects (of the size of a millitnetre or so) do not shorv colout'.
Q + 0.41 (B - t9
As the size increases, orange colour becomes first visible. As the size further increases,
Sirnplifiiing in the.same manner as was lone to get Eq. [ 9.1(b)], we get Eq. [9. gthcr colours become visible. Purple colour is visible only in larger objects. Thus, eye's
for Q in terms of R, B and G. lesolution for orange colour is maximum and hence, it requires the highest bandwidth
Q:0.21fl+0.318-0.52G ol' 1.5 MHz. Purple colour needs much smallerbandwirlth. Abandwidth of 0.5 MHz is
rullicient for purple colour. I and p signals modulate a subcarrier of 3.58 MHz, using
In this system, - (B - I) is taken as reference, 0o phase. Phase angle
+
of ,I is
amplitude modulation with canier supresse,i, but both sidebands present. As colour is
clockwise from - (B *Y) axis. The phase angle of Q is 147" (i.e.57 90) cl
+ (B visible in large objects, LSB can take care of the high resolution, USB need rrot be kept
from - (B -y) or 90o clockwise from /, or 33o anticlockwise from -Y)-
wide and is therefore lirnited to a low vaiue of 0.5 MHz only for both / and Q signais.
phase angles are shown in Fig. 9.1.
As Q lies in the low resolution region, even LSB for Q neednot be high and is kept at
Due to / being at 57o angle clockwise from - (B - Y), it lies in the orange
0,5 MHz. As 1lies in the high resolution region, its LSts should have the maximum
This region has the highest colour sensitivity as per resolution of the eye and
brrndwidth of 1.5 MHz. Thus the bandwidths of 1a nd Q signals in NTSC system before
show even small details of colour. Hence lower side bandwidth is relatively hi
(1.5 MHz) than upper side bandwidth (0.5 MHz) for 1signal. Q signal being 90' frt modulation are as follows. (These are called band limited signals and are obtained by
/ in the clockwise direction lies in the purple region. For this, the eye's sensitivity low pass filters.).
low and hence its bandwidth need not be high. It is kept limited to 0.5 MHz for
sidebands. l cos 123o gives + (B - I) signal and Q cos 57o ives (n - n signalr
illustrated in.Fig. 9. 1.
 2I4 hlovtston Engtnoorlng and Wdoo Systems
NISC ond PAL Colour Systems 235
For / signal, 1.5 MHz
For Q signal, 0.5 MHz Matrix

AfteTAMSC modulation, the bandwidths obtained are as follows:

signal modulation, 1.5 MHz for LSB and 0.5 MHz for
^I usB
Q signal modulation, 0.5 }dz for LSB. and USB both
The above discussion shows that the bandwidth is utilised in the
best Colour
laryer in NTSC to have high bandwidth where resolution required is high Camera
bandwidth where resolution is low

It consists of three main sections:

l. Production of weighted colour signals, I and
e. Fig.9.3 Block diagram of stages showing production of I and Q signats
2. colour encoder giving colour composite video signal.
3- video and audio modulators and transmitting antenna. Functions of these stages are discussed below.
These are shown in Fig. 9.2.
Colour Camera After breaking the original colour of a picture into three primay
colours with the help of dichroic mirrors and colour filters, it produces a charge
image on the three photosensitive targets one for each colour, which are scanned. The
I-Y. th scanning beams neutralise the charges and produce three voltages for each pixel of
.;-0) the image in quick succession. These voltages (R, G and B) at any instant of time are
.a o)=
.b trrF
(EEn proportional to the intensity of three primary colours constituting the colour of the
=ts=
'6 o concerned pixel.
=
Matrix There are three resistive networks, each called a matrix. Network I produces
I/ signal as follows :

al,
o
f:0.30R+0.59G+0.llB
t)
:,
o. Isignal is the luminance signal as perceived by the eyes. Blanking and sync pulses
NTSC coburencoder o
c are added to this signal as in monochrome transmitter.
a Network II produces weighted l signal as follows.

1: 0.60 R - 0.28 G - 0.32 B:0.74(R-n - 0.27 (B-y)

Network III produces Q signal as follows.

Q:0.21R - 0.52 G + 0.3t B:0.48 (R_r) + 0.41 (B_y)

Fig.9.2 Block diagram of NTSC transmiter
Fibers I and Q signals pass through low pass filters to make them band limited.1is
Detailed description of these sections follows. Iimited to 1.5 MHz and Q to 0.5 MHz.

Production of'leighted Colour Signals in NTSC NTSC Colour Encoder

The stages responsible for producing I andQ signals and also luminance
I signal
shown in the form of block diagram in Fig. g.3.-
Block diagram of the colour encoder of NTSC system is given in Fig. 9.4.
The colour encoder consists of a subcarrier generator (shown as shaded stage),
phase shifters, balanced modulators and adders. Functions of these stages are described
as follows.
 NISC ond AL Colour Sysfims 7rT
236 Televlslon Eiglneertng nd Vtdeo Systems
lddcr {or CCW Luminancc signal )'and chroma signal C are added (C is super-
lfnpgsc{ ovei I). The blanking and sync pulses and colour burst (CB) signal are time
Itiplexed. The resultant output is colour composite video signal (CCVS).

Y+ sync and Audio Modulators and Thansmitting Antenna

pulseq
is section of the transmitter is similar to that of the rnonochrome transmitter

Band timited _J BM u
esisnat
ru

Fig.9.4 NTSC colour encoder

Subcaruier Generator NTSC system uses a subcarrier of 3.58 MHz for

modulated by the colour signals I and Q. Reference phase of this subcarrier is
Fig.9"5 Video and audio modulators

at 57o for the l signal to place the I signal in orange region. Another stage rotates
CCVS amplitude modulates the main video carrier. It is followed by a sharp VSB
subcarrier further by 90" (total phase 57 + 90: 147"), which is then modulated by
flltcr to attenuate the lower sideband to give AMVSB signal for transmission.
Q signal.
Audio signal modulates a separate carrier (4.5 l|i/.Ir{z above the video carrier in
Generation o fuot Pubes These are produced by dividing the subcarrier N'ISC system). This modulation is of FM type.
quency and are added to the I signal. AMVSB video signal along with the sound modulated FM signal passes to the
Bala.ncedModulatorfor I Signal trnnsmitting antenna through a diplexer bridge, which is a Whatstone bridge used to
Subcarrier of reference phase (57'from - (B- prcvent audio modulated carrier from going to the video modulator and vice versa.
and I
signal (band limited to 1.5 MHz) are fed to a balanced rnodulator (BM-l ) to 'Iransmitting antenna is common to both video modulated AMVSB signal and
AMSC signal. Vestigial filter allows width of LSB to 1.5 MHz, but vestiges USB
lioquency modulated audio signal. It is generally a turnstile antenna.u'hich radiates out
0.5 MHz.
the RF modulated signal into space. It is omnidirectional in a horizontal plane to give
Balanced Modulatorfo, QSignal Another balanced modulator (BM-ll) of good coverage, and has some gain over dipole by cutting energy in the vertical plane.
same type as for l signal
receives the subcamier with quadrature phase difference w
respect to the subcarrier for 1signal. This modulator also receives the p signal 9,6 NTSC RECETVER
limited to 0.5 MHz). The output of this stage is also AMSC signal. Both USB and
for Q signal are limited to 0.5 MHz by a f,lter. The modulated signals are desi 'Ihe NTSC receiver consists of five sections:
as I^ and Q, signals, which have a mutual phase diflerence of 90". 1. Superhetrodyne section (pick-trp antenna, RF amplifier, local oscillator, mixer
I*and QAdder The l^and Q*modulated signals go to the adder which gives and lF stages).
vector resultant, called chroma or the C signal. 2. Video section (video detectoE video pre-amplifier, video power amplifier and
delay line).
Colour Burst Gate The subcarrier signal is passed through a logic gate whi
opens for 8 to 10 cycles of the subcarrier frequency. The output of the logic gate
3. Colour decoder (bandpass amplifiers, subcarrier generator, balanced demodu-
lators, deweighting circuits, adders and colour drivers)'
called colour burst signal, which is time-multiplexed (placed on the back porch
.F/-blanking pulse with I and C signals) for being used later in the receiver to s
4. f)eflection circuits and picture tube (sync separator, sawtooth current generators
chronise the frequency of the local subcarrier generated there.
for V-adIl-deflections and picture tube).
 Z3 llltvlslon Englnocrtng and Vldeo Systcms

5. sound section (intercarrier frequency amplifier, FM demodulator,

NISC and PAL Colour Systems 239
audio
and louspeaker).
N"[SC Colour Decoder
These sections are shown in block diagram given in Fig. 9.6,
and their
follows. Datailed block cliagram of the NTSC colour decoder is given in Fig. 9.7. Chroma signal
{(') is sep'arated from the Isignal by bandpass filters and amplifiers shown in two
blucks BPA I and BPA II. Colour burst signal is also separated from the CCVS signal
Dtl amplified. The colour burst signal is used to synchronise the locally geneed
:arrier with the help of an automatic frequency and phase control circuit.

Saturation

h-o6)
rFtt6n. J-
o
6o
o=
P CL

ol"* drivers
Y
^C,

V-deflection current Fig.9.7 Block diagram of NTSC colour decoder

H-deflection current
Output of the bandpass amplifiers (C signal) goes to the synchronous BM detectors
and II. BM detector I also receives the synchronised subcarrier. The subcarrier going
j h BM detector I has a phase of 57o with -(B-Il) axis. The subcarrier's phse is
Fig.9. Block diagram of NTSC receiver flrther changed to *90o, and this then goes to BM detector II.
Thus, subcarrier is in phase with signal lat the first BM detector (synchronous) and "
Superhetrodyr" Section
ihcrefore it detects the / phasor (and not Q). The subcarrier is in phase with p signal
It is similar to the superhetrodyn" section in a monochrome receiver except that It the second BM de{ector and therefore it detects Q phasor only (and not l phasor).
intercarrier frequency signat is taken out (for sound section) from the last Thus, the tw decoders detect I and Q phasors *ti.h are then eweighted to obtain
IF sl
instead of, from the output of the detector or video preamplifier. The bnsic colour difference signals, B-Y and,R-f. Aresistive matrix gives -f rignul. The
reason for this
to save the picture from the beat signal produced by mixing chroma signal (3.5g I signal is added to the three colour difference signals in an adder and we get R, G and,
Mfl
with intercarrier frequency (4.5 MHz). Beat of the two signals woul U" bZO mu signals as follows:
NTSC system, which falls within the video bandwidth and would cause interferer
known as sound in picture. G_N * T:R
(G-Y)*Y:G
Video Section
(B-Y)+Y:B
video detector recovers ccvs signar. Luminance signal (I) is amplified and
layed by a delay line so that it reaches the adder simultaneously with These three signals are amplified by respective colour drivers and then fed to the
the c
signal. (Chroma signal propagates slowly in the colour decoder circuit due to
lower 0ontrol grids of the colour picture tube. They change the strength of the respective
bandwidth, and hence Isignal has to be delayed.) Slcctron beams, and finally produce the original picture on the screen with the help of
thc scanning process identical to the scanning that was done at the transmitter.
 NISS Ond frAL LOloUr )ysr?rn' f'l r,''

Fr 240 Televlston Englneerlng and Vtdeo Systems ),, Vcrtical rcsolution is doublo of that in PAL and SECAM systems'
.1. gigher banrjwidth in the colour region for which eye has high resolution and
Deflection Circuits lower bandwidth in the other "sgion provides optimum utilisation of 2 M.Hz
Deflection circuits for colour receiver are similar to that in a rnonochrome bandwidth. Saving in bandwidth facilitates interleaving without colour cross
except that additional currents for removing the pincushion effect are made a interference.
for the deflection yoko. The colour picture tube (required for this section) is 4. Studio mixing is easY.
different from the monochromepicture tube and has been described in detail in 5. Less costly than PAL sYstem.
5. In review, it may be repea.ted here that it consists of three guns which receivo
respective colour signals (.1?, G and B) and three beams strike the three [)isadvant"g*i
phosphor dots (in delta gun picture tube) or stripes (in PIL picture tube) to repn
the original colours on the screen.
l. Cost is higher than SECAM.
2. Synchronisation of the phase of colour subcarrier with 1 and Q signals does not
remain a sirnple process when phase of the subcarrier has to be adjusted to correct
?:7 99NI9* IN NI9 9919-[B *F--CJIYP** error in colours.
are required for LSB and USB in AMSC modulator. This
3. Different bandwidths
Controls in sound section (bass, treble and volume), controls in tuner (channel causes complication in fllter design.
tion and fine tuning), AGC control, contrast and brightness controls are the
NTSC system is compared with PAL and SECAM systems in Appendix 9.
described in Chapter 7 for monochrome receivers.
The two front panel controls located in the colour decoder of the NTSC
are as follows: 9.9 PAL COLOUR SYSTEM
L Hue or tint control
pAL system was developed in Telefunken laboratory of Germany to solve the problem
2. Colour saturation control
of phase error of NTSC system. It is similar to the NTSC system except for the
lf phase of the resultant phasor changes during transmission, the change w lbllowing points of difference:
reproduced in the receiver. The error cannot be corrected automatically. For co
1. In the pAL system, the weighted colour diffFrance signals are called U and V
an additional control, called hue cctntrol or tint control is used in the NTSC l
signals, whil in NTSC, they are called I and p signals. In NTSC, the signal
by which phase of the subcarrier is adjusted. It is located in the subcarner (B-Y) but in PAL, the U signal coincides with
circuit. Due to this error, grass may appear brown, or sky, magenta. For ex
lies 57" clockwise from - axis,
-(B-y) axis. Weighting factors for U and V are different from those fot I arrd Q.
frequent changes in colour, Americans jokingly call the NTSC system as 'Ne it is
2. In pAL, frequency of the subcarrier signal is 4.43 MHz, while in NTSC,
Same Colour'. (This diffrcultly is rernoved automtically in the PAL and S
3.58 MHz.
systems.) a
_1. A subcarrier signal of 4.43 MHz is modulated by U artd tr/ signals (bqnd limited
Saturation Con*ol It is used to increase the gain of the bandpass amplifi to 1.3 MHz). ihe modulation is AMSC VSB type. For both u and v signals'
thus to adjust the saturation level of colqur. the bandwidth of LSB is 1.3 MHz and of IISB, 0.57 MHz. In contrast to this,
. There are some'other controls which are not on the front panel but are in NTSC, p signal's bandwidth is 0.5 MHz for usB as well as for LSl,while 1
the chassis for adjustment. These are listed below: signal is ofAusc VSB type in which USB bandwidth is 0.5 MHz, while LSB
1. Colour killer bandwidth is 1.5 MHz. As LSB uses full colour bandwidth for both U and V
2. Automatic colour control (like automatic gain control) sgnals in PAL system, full resolving power is utilisedfor all colours. Hence there
3. Controls for colour drivers is-no need to shift the phase of colour phasor U.from - (B-Y) axis' ln NTSC,
These controls work in the same way as in PAL receivers and have been phasor 1 is shiftd by iz" clockwise from - (B-D axis so that full bandwidth
resolution requirement is maximum'
in Section 9.17. 1t.S UHr) of LSB is fully utilised where
4. The V signal changes its phase by 180' on every alternate line of the same
field.
It rneans that if oo orr" line V (weighted R-f) is *90o from U(weighted B-Y),
9.8 ADVAITAGES AND DISADVAI{TAGES OF NTSC
then on the next line it would be -90o from U. Thrts, while V and U are always
SYSTEM perpendicular to each other. V changes its phase every alternate line by 180"
,*----"**-*--**ffi
inr +90o to -90o), as shown in Fig. 9.{. This is known as Phase Alternation ffSC
by
ine (pALin short). T'he line pertainmg io *90o phase dift'erence is called
Advantages
line (asir is similar to NTSC system). The line pertaining to -90o phase difference
1. Phase switching is not required and hence identification pulses also are
rreeded. Thus the circuits are simpl.:r than PAL and SECAM systems.
 .-t5 trt;vtuon gnilnlfilng ancl Wdto systrms
NISC and ML Colour Systems 243
is called PAL tinebecause iit
u, different phase compared to the NTSC line and
is responsible for PAL characteristics.. This a:rangrr.rt
solves the probrem of
i, deweightinE(B* I) and (R- D signals, further
lrt the receiver, after detecting and
comrption of colour which is present in the NTSC
system. rrtrccssing (i.e. obtaining G- Y and8, R and G signals, using colour drivers and
picture tube) are identical in both systems.
(R-v) PA[, transmitter is described in detail in Sections 9.10 through 9.12 and receivers
Bactions 9.3 through 9.18.
Vsignal on one line
IO PAL TRANSMITTER
(B_Y)
c NTSC, a PAL transmitter consists of the following three main,sections.
Vsignalon the next line (I)
l, Production of luminance and chrominance (U and Z) signals
1, PAL encoder

Fig' 9'8 Position of U and

t, Video and audio modulafors and transmitting antenna
v signats on two adjactnt lines of the same field
Thcse are shown in Fig. 9.9 and their description follows in Sections 9.1 l, 9.12 and
5. ctrange of phase on alternate rines requires identffication 13,
(or ident) pulses to
identiff PAL line in the pAL system. No such identification
is needed in the
NTSC system.
6' For identification of PAL line, the colour burst I-9. O
signal changes its phase by * 45ol
around -(B*r) axis at78l2.5Hz(i.e.half the li frequency). Hence it is called; *9
swinging colour burst. Timing for the change lj ET
of phase is accurately controlled 3
lr :l::r::,_ il
lA I, y * :r,i,,*ii.h s operate witrr,n. r,iJ, '6 o
of a::control :yl,:1 :?tt:1Hz i
signal of 7812.5 derived from
the swinging colour burst signal. =
(In NTSC, the colour burst signal does not swing
because indentification is not
required in that system.)

Similarities between pAL system and NTSC

rystem
similarities between pAL and NTSC systems are
mentioned below.
l' f signal is produced in the same way in both the systems.
2' Basic colour signals (R, G *9 **eighted colour
f).-un9 difference signals
(R-D and (B- y) areproducerJ similarly in bot the systems.
3. G-Iis not transmitted in both the systems.
4. Phase of the subcarrier modulated by weighted (R-y)
perpendicular to the reference phase. / signar
--o'^- is arways

5' Colour burst (CB) signal is produced and transmitted

Fig.9.9 Block diagram of PAL transmitter
along with the video
signal.
6. After AMSC modulation, the modulated chroma t.l1PRODUCTION OF LUMTNANCE (r) Ar{D
signar,
blanking and sync pulses and cB sii;r;^ul"u"
r signar along with

cor rsite video signal (CCVS), which modulates the

to form the corour CHROMINAT.ICE (U ANID I/) SIGNALS
main video carrier in both
the systems.
llgure 9.10 shows tlre production of the weighted colour difference signals, U and Y.
7. Audio modulated signal is obtained similary in both
the systems, and this along Colour camera tube produces .R, G and B voltages pertaining to the intensity of red,
with the video modulated carrier go to the common
a diplexer.
transmitting antenna through lreen and blue colours, respectively, in pixels. The luminance signal Iis obtained by
I cristive matrix, using Grassman's law:
 NTIC and ilL Golour Ylt'ml rn'
214 Tbfcvlslon Englnc'crlng ond Wdeo Systems
Fr f = 0.3 n +-0.59 G-f 0.1I B
C luminance signal Ialong
ver<torially to give ohroma signal (C). Then chroma signal
burst signal are all added to give a colour
with blanking and sync pulses and colour
The )'signal goes to the luminance section for producing amplified oomposite video signal.
composite video signal.
Y

Sync
Y=03R+0.59G+0.11 B
pulses
Y+ sync
pulses
ln ve rter

LSB = 1.3 Bistable

pulses
(7812s Hz)
R

Fig. 9.10 Productlon of band limited U and V signals

For colour section, Iis inverted. Colours R and B obtained from the colour
tubes are added to it to get R-Y and B-Y colour difference signals. These si
weighted by two resistive networks which give (I and V signais as follows. i
Fig. 9.1 I PAL encoder

u:0.493 (B * Y)
g.L3 VIDEO AND AUDIO MODULATORS
v:0.877 (R - r)
for PAL system is exactly
The weighted signals pass through the low pass filters to confine their bandwi The section consisting of main video and a,dio modulators
for the NTSC system'
the same as described in Section 9.5 and shown in Fig'
1.3 }r{Hz and then they are known as band limited signals, (J and v. 9'5

g.L4 PAL RECETVER

2J3* Hli_cg?*** -
"..-***ffi

superhetrodyne sec-
Complete block diagram of PAL encoder is'shown in F'ig.9.ll. The mai4 di PAL receiver consists of five sections, shown in Fig' 9'12'The
are the same as in an NTSC
guishing featrre of this section is PAL switch, shown shaded in the figure. It tion, video section, deflection section and sound section
electronically at 7812.5 Hz with the help of a bistable multivibrator and feeds receiver, but the colour decoders different'
subcarrier to balanced modulator II with phase difference of +90o on one line A CCVS signal is available at the video detector's output.
It goes to the video pre-
bandwidth of r signal for
-90o on the next line. Thus the Y signals on two adjacent scanning lines of amplifier which amplifies the ccvs signal. The effective
lower than 4'43 MHz)' The )'signal is
same field have a phase difference of 180o, but at the same time they.always colour receivers is about 3.13 MHz (1.3 MHz
filter, or preferably by a simple
perpendicular to the U signal. This technique eliminates phase enor automatical separated from the C signal either by using a comb
explained in Section 9.16. BMI receives the U signal in phase with the subcarrier, bandpass filter to pass bndwidth of 3.13 MHz. The
I signal goes to the video power
types of colour rtecoders:
The PAL encoder consists of a subcarier generator and two balanced modu amplifier and C goes to the colour decoder. There are two
(2) Delay type (or D-PAL). These are describcd in sec-
(AMSC tfpe) with f,lters, to produce modulated subcarrier signals (I*.and,Vo,of (1) Simple (or s-per) and
priate bandwidths (l,sB : 1.3 MHz, IJSB vestiged : 0.57 MHz). These are ti.ns 9.15 an'; 9.6,resPectivelY'
 r-,e rtrv,'lsn'Enltruarjnl an wdoo Systrms
NISC and HL Co,lour Systcms 247
Plck-up
ant,. + (l'57 = 1.87 MHz around 4.43 MHz. Chroma signal C is duly amptified by bandpass
Itttplifiers and is fed to two detectors (BM I and BM II) of the balanced modulator
'['he subcarrier generator generates a 4.43 }r'd}irz signal which is correctly
synchro-
to the one used in the transmitter with the help of a colour burst (CB) signal and
tmatic frequency and phase control circuit (AFPC). The CB signal is separated
n the CCVS signal by a CB separator which uses a class-C amplifier. The subcarrier
I also is fed to two balanced modulators (BM I and BM II). To BM I, it goes with
ftro phase, but to BM II, its phase changes by 90" for one line and -90o for the next
Video Video (of the same field) with the help of an automatic electronic switch, controlled by
ne
pfBamp. poweramp. produced by a bistable multivibrator. Triggering of the multivibrator is done by
Y Colour drivers ripple signal of 7812.5 Hz available at the output of the AFPC stage and isolated
PAL trmplified by a tuned stage.
Cobur '['he detection is synchronous or coherent. Hence BM I detector detects U signal as
decoder of Uas well as of the subcarrier is zero. It does not detect the Zsignal because Z
l's phase is 90'. The Zsignal is detected by the BM II detector because the phase ,l
lf I as well as of the subcarrier is 90". Thus the BM I detector gives U andBM II gives
V-deflection current 7 nt their respective outputs.
'l'hese signals are deweighted to the original colour difference signals, (B-y)
and,
H-deflection current )') by using amplifiers. The third colour difference signal G-Iis obtained by the
inlive matrix, using the following relation.

Fig. 9.12 Block diagram of pAL receiver

0.5e (G-r) + 0.3 (4-D + 0.1 I (B-r) :0
The three colour difference signals are fed to the adders along with I signal from
9.I5 SIMPLE PAL (ON S-PAI,) COLOUR DECODER So clclay He of video section. (The necessity of delay line is tat the chrominance
llnals being of low bandwidth have to pass through low pass filters and hence take
Block diagram of s-pAL corour decoder is shown in time in reaching the adder than the Isignal ofhigh bandwidth. Delay line enables
Fig. g.r3.
h luminance and chrominance signals to reach together.) Addition of I to colour
flbrence signals givesrR, G and B signals.
BM Colour drivers are amplifiers which ampliff the colour signals (R, B and G) so that
demod. I $oy become powerful enough to make phosphor elements of the colour picture tube
flow with the desired intensity of light.
'['he three colour signals duly amplified are fed to the input
of the three electron
fUns of the colour picture tube. The three beams coming out of the electron guns get
lntensity modulated by the three colour signals and glow the three phosphor dots (in
tu gun picture tube) or three stripes (in PILpicture tube). The eye perfonns additive
illxing of the three colours, and therefore, sees the original colour of the picture which
been transmitted.

of S-PAL Decoder
t. The coherent detection is not perfect and therefore there is some Z signal in the
U signal output of BM I and vice versa for BM II. This results in distortion in the
Fig.9.l3 Simple pAL (S-PAL) colour decoders
picfure.
Chroma signal (C) is extracted from the CCVS signal For automatic correction ofphase error, averaging by the eye is required. The eye
with the help of bandpass is not a good averager ofcolours.
filters and amplifiers in stages, BpA I and BpA II.
Bandwiclth of C signal is -1.3 to 3, The saturation is reduced as the phase errors increase.
248 Televlston Engtneertng and Vldeo Systcms NTSC and HL Colour SYstem ?49

4. The averaging relies on the adjacent lines having the same colours, which i Adding the two oxpressions, we get 2 U signal at the alder's output. Subtracting
always true. (Adjacent line of a field is actually every alternate line of tho thc tvr.o eipressions, we get2 jV at the subtractor's output. (If direct signal is U-.iV
because of the interlaced scanning, hence it is not really adjacent in the rrnd delayed signal is ll + jW then also we shall get 2 U signal at the adder and - 2
jV
frame). The adjacent line of the picture frame would be the corresponding signal at the subtractor.)
the next field. Thus the first balanced deryodulator gets only t/ signal. V has been automaticlly
The only advantage of S-PAL decoder is its simple design and hence low cost, oliminated. Similarly the second balanced tlemodulator gets only tho Zsignal as U has
disadvantages of S-PAL outweigh its only advantage of low cost, hence it has hcen automatically eliminated. Although coherent detection is not required, but still it
been superseded by D-PAL decoder in which all the disadvantages of S-PAL is preferred to allow cliscount for any fault in the delay line circuit.
been eliminated. The D-PAL decoder is descried in Section 9.16. Orrce the U and V signals have been detected. the rest of the circuit to get R, G and
/J colour signals is the sarng as in S-PAL system.
9,16 D-PAL DECODER
9.17 AUTOMATIC CORRECTION OF COLOUR ERROR
The problem of cross-interference between U and Zsignals in the coherent
output is solved by using a delay circuit (causing delay of 64 ps) before IN PAL RECENrERS
detectors, as shown in the circuit given in Fig. 9.14. This circuit is called
decoder circuit and is used in all modern PAL receivers. D stands for delay line S-pAL and D-PAL systems correct the colour effor differently as explained belorn':
to delay the signal by 64 ts. Correction of Colour Error in S-PAL system
'fhe phasors in error in the S-PAL receiver are symmetrical about the main phasor in
the receiver, and therefore the eye averages the two phasors and perceives the resultant
at the angle of the main Phasor.
U+J V
The phasors as transmitted are shown in Fig. 9.15(a). Let OA be the correct colour
9'.= phasor on NTSC line and OB onPAL line. Let phase angle change by 6 in effor in the
'E (
-C-
g2. transmitter or the transmission path. Hence the phasor in error would be OA' . The PAL
tine will always be perpendicular to the NTSC line. So while the original phasor is OB,
+{
otr the phasor in error would be OB'.
oE
A'
Modified l- - -
phasor
on
NTSC
7812.5 Hz line Original
tuner phasor
on
NTSC
Line
2jv
On
PAL
Flg.9.14 D-PAL decoder line

U and Z signals go to an adder stage and a subtractor stage direct as well as Original phasor
delay line. TheT operator with Zsignal indicates that V is at 90o phase Cifference phasor t on PAL Phasor
At adder and subtractor, u'e get on PAL 1 line
',- .8, as averaged
line by the eye
U + jV (direct signal)
(b)
U- jV (through delay line)
Fig. 9.15 (a)Transmitted signal at receiver input with phase error 6 and
(minus sign appears because the delay circuit sends Zsignal of the previous (b) Received signal at the outPut of PAL detectors
 2t0 Tltovtston Englnoqtng and Wdcosystems NISC and AL Golaur ystems 251

of the signal in pAL systems woutd again rever3

the phase. tlence the correct chroma phasor (resultant) woulcl be
ljjl.^:r,.:]fr, _z
:Ll?:_;:11y:
position
the.position of plfo!
wourd u,
of the phasors in error would be oA, and" oB,
,r,"*,
^ ffi.;.i;d;. [(2R cos 0F + (2R sin $)2]% = 2
being the phasor without error, oB willcoincide with
,,;;;;'f,,:";;i;i
oAin the receiver). As the Lot an error equal to angle 6 be introduced in the resultant phasor as shown by angle
elror angles AoA' and AoB'are 5 each and are generally '. Then phase angle for (n + 1)* line would be Q + 6 and for nth line, - (0 - 6).
small, the eye averages
elrors and perceives the phasor as oA and thusutomatically Thc adder would get the following [/ signals. (It will also get Z signals but they
corrects the error.
As the eye is not a good average'. the error is not accurately be cancelled in the adder's output.)
corrected. M
the averaging relies on the fact tha-t phasors oA
and, oB onadjacent lines are the
(i.e. there is no change in colour). rtris is not always : R cos (0+6)
true.
Un: R cos -($-6): cos (0-6)
Automatic correction of phase Error in D-pAL system ^R

Aclding,
In D-PAL system averaging is done electronically as
explained below.
Figure 9.16(a) represents phasors on (n+r)th-line and * Un:.R {cos $ cos 5- sin $ sin 6 + cos $ cos 6 + sin Qsin6}
Fig. 9.r7(b) on z,h line
2 Rcos $ cos 6 : (2 Rcos 6) cos $
transmitted. Let oAbe equar to R (in both figures), and
makei un ungt Q with u. - (e.3)

imilarly, the subtractor would get,

o V,*t:n sini6+
V, : R sin -(Q-6) : - R sin (g-6)
fi-n I
I
(R_Y)
I
ubtracting,

Vn+l _V - (-sin (0-6)} :

I

I
n {sin(Q+6) R {sin(Q + 6) + sin(Q-5)}
I

I
I
: R (sin Q cos6 + cosQsin6 + sin $ cos6-cos$sin6)
I
:2 R sin$ cos 6 : (2 R cos6) sinQ (e.4)
@-n (B_Y)
'l'hs two expressions (Eqs 9.3 and 9.4) show that cos6 is only a coefficient of U
(a) (b) I composed of cosQ and V signal of sin Q, and therefore the phase efror 6 results
Fig' e' I ,ine and
n change in amplitude and hence saturation, and no change in hue. Small changes

[;i [',:,'fi::'rll'fl x;H il::
Then the phasors, as transmitted on (n+1) line would
be:
B- Y: Un*t: R cos S
, R-y:Vr+l:Rsin{
On (r) line V phasor was in reversed phase and hence
B - Y : U,:R cos (- 0) :R cos f,
R - Y: Vn:'R sin (-$) :
-rR sin $
In D-PAL system, the two signals, one for (z+l) line
and the other for n line for
udemodulator will be added to give usignai (v signalwould
,2
demodulator, these will be subtracted to give 2 v sigaL The result would
Un*t* cos 0 + n cos $ : 2 Rcos
U,: *R
V*, - Vn : Rsin { - (-R sin d) : 2R sin
:B :: $;,?" ruturation are not troublesome as the eye is not sensitive to them. Thus hue error is
ically corrected due to the processing of the colour signals through 64 ps delay
before the detector stage. The error correction does not depend on the averaging
rty of the eye but depends on the availability of adding and subtracting circuits.
18 CONTROLS IN PAL RECET\{ER
ls in the luminance section (contrast and brightness) and in the sound section
ume and tone) of a PAL receiver are the same as in a monochrome TV receiver.
or tint control used in an NTSC receiver, is not required in a PAL receiver because
effor is automatically eliminated as explained in Section o 1"
The controls used in the colour decoder section of a PAI '"'er are shown in
,9.17 and their description follows.
be eliminated). For z
be:
ing Control for Ident Pulses (for Controlling PAL S-witching)
Q
colour burst signal is made swinging by = 45o around - (B -Y) axis. The frequency
rwingrng is 7812.5 Hz, just equal to half rhe line frequency. It means the burst signal
$
r Zr7, Tolcvlslon Englnaulng ond Vtdeo Sysems

is + 45u irr phase with rospcct to - (B-Y ) axis fbr one linc and .- 45' tbr
line, and s on. These swings are geared to the phase reversal of Z signal to
identification of + V and - Zlines (called NTSC line and PAL line, respectivel
Irrission is being received).
Thus during the receptign
NISC and PAL Colour SYstems

of monochrome transmission'
and s'itractor and AMSC detectors)
remain inaclt'"
153

tlro colour circuits (BPA II, adder to produce mno-

ensures correct synchronisation of the PAL switch.
End only the luminance
signal reaches the colour picture tube
gp II given some outpyt (noise or interference) it wssl
ehrome display. ffu tt. killer circuit saves the
Thus the colour
Irvc comrpted the monochrome display'
comrpt'
nt,,nochrome display from becoming
-J is eirg received, colour burst signal is prss.rl
when u .oto,r. tansmissio, _the
+* which is detected by the colour kiler
clcuit. The detected output of the colour killer
3o colour detector stages .16
ci rrrrns om the BpA II which then passes the chroma signal to
the colour picfure
signals are produc.d for activating
ACC control 5_,
o< rlrr*lry red, green and blue colour
Eo_ Ittrc.
ach .rhe of Tg 12.5 Hz from the phase discrimiu1o,
corour killer receives the ripple signar
and smoothed by the colour killer circuit
Gain (AFpc circuit). These rippres are rectied si*rral to
controls I0 produce the bias uottag. that
swiiches on the BPA II to permit the chroma
7812.5 Hz
finally produce the colour display on the scfeen of the
in colour puss to the colour detects and
driver
stages picture tube.

Automatic and l\{anual Saturation

Controls
(ACC) is nrwided at BPA I. It is like autou1i.
Fig.9.ll Automatic colour saturation control provi6"t u
Locations of controls in PAL colour decoder I

receivers' The colour burst signal

gain control (AGC) useci in '.rp.rt ei
rcference level. This is picked rrp
no* the cB amplifier in the receiver and is reetified
The AFPC circuit provides dc voltage to control the frequency of the acts as csnlsl
to produce the Acc signal. The
potential of the ACC signal so produced
and also a ripple signal" In modern TV receivers, the AFPC circuit consists of a
biasing of BPA I and hence its gain'
to give fairlr constant
locked loop (PLL) system. The phase detector gets two signals at the input, one sigrral anrJ regulates tte
level fluctuations in chroma signals'
colour saturation, ironing out any
the CB signal (whose mean value coincides w,ith the - (B-Y) axis despite its
The manual colour saturation control
(csc) is a potentlomet:r which controlt 1"
swinging) and the other from the subcarrier generator. When the frequencies sectiqn
of the luminance 6
gain of tt. ,frro,,,u amplifier. It .is like contrast control
mean CB signal and subcarrier are equal, the output of the phase detector is,
In case of difference between the two frequencies, the output is a dc error vo iolorne control of the sound section'
positive or negative, depending on the difference. This dc voltage changes the
bias of a varicap diode in such a m&nner that the frequency of the subcarrier geni
Gain Controls in Colour Drivers
one each for
the finar stages of the colour decocler),
remains'equal to the frequency of the colour burst signal (i.e. 4.43 MHz). There are three corour drivers (as (in the erniffer
driver has a gain control potentiometer
Besides the dc voltage, the AFPC provides ripple of 78 12.5 Hz because R, G andr ,igrrutr. Each colour B colours'
the mplitrtdes of R' G and so that
fsr't that the colour burst signal swings between +45o and -45"between two li circuit or in the collector load) to adjust for the electron beqms in
may become availabie
the frequency of 7812.5 FIz (i.e. half the line frequency). This ripple signal is the corour signars of proper st ength
fied and conditioned to produce short pulses, called ident pulses which are the Picture tube.
the PAL sw'itch circuit (a bistable multivibrator circuit). When the bistable ci
g.Lg OF PAL
correctly synchronised at the outset, the ident pulses will have no effect, But if it i ADVANTAGES AI9 DISADVANTAGES
synchronised, the iclent pulse will inhibit its operation for one count. T
bistable operation will be correct. The need of ident signal appears when a cha SYSTEM
changed or when the set is switchedon. -.--*-***-ffi

Advantages
Colour Killer 'LaticallY ehmin-
l.Phasenoisecausingefforinthereproductionofcoloursis.
The last BPA (u"sually BPA II) is deliberately designed to be non-conductirrg by
ated.HenceaSeparatehueortintcontrolisnotrequired.
colour killer circuit when colour burst signal is absent (i.e. only monochrorne MFIz for Lgg urr
2.Bandwidthsforbotht]andZsignalsarethesame(1.3
0.5 MHz for USB)' This simplifies
filtering action'
 254 hlevtston Engt.neerlng -and VtdeoSystems NISC and PAL Colour Srsems 255
Fr 3' As the LSB for both u and vsignals caters U :0.493 (B-y)
to the maximum bandwidth
for coloured picture, it was not necessary
to locate the (Jsignal in the V: 0.877 (R-f)
rhis makesrhe design simple. (rn NrSC, /signal
::iff.:^?_T,I3]l':
",tr
.i1^ +L^ L^-- - ' r,r
md its ilililil
*",
was
r.'.p,"i3ilr;;
'l'he U and V signals modulate the colour subcarrier of 4.43 MHz, producing
AMSC VSB modulation with bandwidths equal to 1.3 MHz for LSB and 0.57 MHz
fhr LJSB for both U and Zsignals.
'l'he PAL system automatically corrects the change in colour
4. due to random change
Y:1:19:1y ll* before.demodulators isorates u and,,;; d;;;:; ln phase occurring during transmission. This is the most important advantage of the
This results in somewhat better picture quality. PAl, system over the NTSC system. Except phee alternation and same bandwidth for
5. Studio mixing is easy as compared to SECAM. l/ uncl Zsignals, PAL is similar to NTSC in terms of encoding and decoding.
PAL receivers are of two types: S-PAL and D-PAL. In S-PAL decoding isitraight as
Disadvantages ln NTSC receivers. It is synchronous and the locally generated subcarrier changes its
pltuse in accordancewith the phase of the chroma componetrts in the modulated signal.
l ' j:i:11,s and ident. signars are necess ary in the pAL system wh ln I)-PAL, U and, Zsignals are first isolated by using one-line (6a ps) delay circuit and
l'::x
makes the design complex and heice pef
,ecrirro;;i;ffi edding the direct and delayed signals to get the Usignal, and subtracting the two to get
2. In magnetic recording of pAL transmisions, thc lz signal. This gives less cross interference between U and V andalso gives belter
complete corour codiing needs e
fields, wile NTSC needs only four. clinrination of random change in hue than the S-PAL system.
IAL receivers do not need hue control. The control and adjustments in its decoder
elrcuit are for automatic colour saturation (ACC), manual colour saturation (CSC),
Su,lrl {ARy
% olour killer diode (for BPA II), ident tuning control (for PAL switch) and gain controls
%
The NTSG system was-developed in.us,t llt colour drivers.
by the National Television systems cor
l?.1:1**,::1:ldlt*dsignals,.,B
_ r.rn _ r*.
weighted to prevent e
sive overmodulation and are .o,ribinra to
rand O ;;:"#ffiJiil:::"#f; EXERCISES
,':::f:::,j-1tl_.b:l*i:. t"+ - (B _ -give rj
,.ir. ir,r=zsignal modulates rne
the subcarril
suDcam(
in reference phase, while the signai modulates Review Questions
Q itin quuoruturephase relative to the
.li"tl,f;";,ii;:"iiz;;j::jy.f::!T:
anced modulators.
q:il:s1,ii
Bandwidths are such rhat rsrorTsignal
nr"oyration isAMSC using ba; I .What do you understand by land p signals ? Indicate their weighting factors and
is 1.5 MH;;;Hfl!;
'I bandwidths.
l;r.#*,;::ig::ry1,T:
added to get chroma T1
y
yp b;q;+- i i,u,-*i. aro 2. Draw a block diagram of an NTSC colour TV transmitter and describe each
c signal. ,yr, ,ig"rl,^ld.'ssignars
andc signals alonfwith ;."J;il;i:,.H
mourut.r-ir,.'*uir ri.o cnier. ihe modurat. i block.
i1"*,""i*::-*^"^'^::n:!'h {1.n
video carrier goes to the transmitting ]
3. Explain the working of a colour encoder of an NTSC transmitter.
e antenna arong with the sound uf,f,}Tr"":T}i;
signal through a diplexer bridge. 4. Draw a block diagram of aq NTSC colour receiver and describe how does it
At the receiver, the rtnodulated signal is processed produce R, G and B signals.
Modu-lated colour subcarrier is separated
in a superhetrodyne receiver.
by filters ampiified. colour decoder, 5. Explain the working of a colour decoder for the NTSC system.
using synchronous demodulation recovers .ana
I
and e signals *rri.t u.. .*righted 6. Describe various controls used in NTSC colour receiver.
get B -Y and R *r signals' G to
-r signal is obtainJ f,, a resistive matrix. r signal is then
added to the colour difference sigials 7. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of the NTSC colour TV system.
to get a, C iria"avoltages which produce
picture on the screen of a colouipi.tur, colour ti. write down pointi of difference between PAL and NTSC systems.
rU..'
The PAL colour TV system was developed 9. write down points of similarities between PAL and NTSC systems.
in Germany. phase of the subcarrier
signal for (R - r) colour is changed on alternate I 0. Draw a block diagram of a PAL transmitter and describe function of each block.
lines by lg0o. on one line it is + lgo
and on the next line of the same net it is
.rtutiu, to 0o reference phase pertaining I l. How do you produce weighted u and zsignals in a pAL transmitter?
to (B*r) signal. This-is done by using -90"
.r..rir^.irirrt irrg. Hence the system was 12. Explain the working of a PAL encoder with the help of a block diagram.
designated as Phase Alternation-by Liie(or pe.
is of 4.43
\-- --^4)'' in. .otorr LrurJorrl
L\Lv vvrLrur subcarrier used in pAL 13. Draw a block diagram of a PAL receiver and explain the function of each block.
MHz frequency.
14. Explain the working of an S-PAL decoder with the help of a block diagram. What
differece signals (B-y)and (R-Iu) are weighted
to give uand zsignars
",
ff;|;J:ur are the disadvantages of an S-PAL system.
15. Explain the working of a D-PAL decoder with the help of a block diagram.

."--
Z! Tllrvlrlon Englnxrlnt ayd Wdoo Sysrrms
NISC and PAL Colour Ystems 257
l. Discuss advantages of a D-PAL receiver.
17. Explain how change in colour due to phase noise is corrected in an S-PAL | =, 0.74 (rt-n - 0.27 (B-Y), (Y-B), (G--Y), (r-R)
What is the limitation? clockwise from -(B-Y).
Reference phase of the subcarrier in NTSC is
18. Explain with the help of mathematical anaiysis how change in colour duo (0o, 45o, 57o, 90o)
phase noise is automatically corrected in a D-PAL system before detection in
l, About / and Q terms used in NTSC, Q stands for
recelver. (quality, quadrature, Quanfiry Quantum)
19. Discuss the function of the following:
1. AFPC
t, Colour burst is used to
(a) boom intensity of colours in the picture tube
2. Manual colour saturation control (CSC)
(b) dilute the vivid colours
3. Colour killer (c) synchronise generation of subcarrier in the receiver
20. Discuss the function of the following: (d) ensure the correct modulation of colours in colour encoder
. 1. Ident signal in PAL receiver (r, Vertical resolution is in NTSC system as compared to other systems.
2. Electronic PAL Switch (highest, lowest, missing, not required)
3. Swinging burst The sy-nc pulses are obtained bY
4. Subcarrier (dividing colour subcarrier, using a separate oscillator,
21. Describe various controls used in PAL receiver. using CB signal, using sweep signal)
Weighting factor for t/is (0,0.493,0.877 , l)
Short-answer Questions
R- Y signal changs phase in PAL on alternate lines by
1. Why is LSB f.Isignal kept 1.5 MHz wide while USB is crnly 0:5 MHzwide? (45o,90o, L80o,27oo)
2. Why is - (B-I') signal rotared clockwise by 57"? i
lo. B -Y signal changes phase in PAL on alternate lines by
3. What is the function of delay line in a colour receiver? -' (0",45o,90", 18oo)

4. What is the function of synchronous detectiorr? I l, When colour subcarrier is modulated by U and tr/ signals, the resultant,is called
(C, I, 8,, Y)
5. Why does the colour of the picture change in the NTSC system?
6. what is done to correct the change in colour in the NTSC system? 12, Sound system uses in PAL transmitter.
(AM, FM, AMSC, AMVSB)
7. why is the term encoder used instead of modulator in colour TV?
8. How is colour saturation controlled? ln an S-PAL system, S stands for
(simple, selective, standard, special)
9. What is the rnain advantage of PAL switching?
lr4. In D-PAL, D stands for (deeP, data, delaY, dual)
10. Why is colour burst signal made swinging in the pAL system?
15. Change in colour due ---. to phase noise is automatically corrected in the most
11. Why is it not necessary to put U signal on the most sensitive orange-c (D-PAL, NTSC, SECAM, S-PAL)
effective manner in
regions? --_-.
16. Colour killer kills the colour when .
12. why LSB for u as well as for I/ is kept at fuIl width in chrorna signal?
(cB i s Pre sent' tt
13. Why USB is kept only 0.57 MHz wide for U as well as for V? :'.:Hll;:,'il:""#;Til;
14. How are (J and Zisolated in D-PAL?
17. Saturation control is related to
15. When U and(havebeen isolated in D-PAI., even then synchronous demodulati (Colour killer circuit, video amplifier,
is used for detection of colour signals. Why? intercarrier frequency, gain of BPA)
16. What are the advantages of using AM for colour encoding as well as main vi
modulation?
ANSWERS
17. Why does noise of bandpass amplifiers in colour decoder circuit not affect t
monochrome picture on the screen of a colour picture tube.
Short-answer Questions
Multiple-choice Questions
I . Colour is not visible in very smali objects. Eyes are most sensitive to orange colour
1. In the term NTSC TV, C stands for and hence the l signal which lies in the orange region uses highest bandwidth
of
1.5 MHz in LSB. It is not necessary to keep high bandwidth in USB because of
(co[our, code, committee, camera)
the eye's property of not resolving colours of smaller objects.
 25E hlevtslonEnglneerlng ond Wdeo systems NfC ond ilL Colour Systems 259

2. Phase fthe subcarrier is kept at 5zo from the ret'erence 16. The advantage of ueing amplitude modulation for both colour encoding as well
- (B* y) signalto as main video modulation is that studio mixing becomes feasible.
I colour signal in the orange region, for which sensitivityof the ele is
rn
This results in greater efficiency for perception of colours by the eyes. 17, The last bandpass amplifier is kept cut off in the absence of the colour burst
3. Bandpass filters reduce the speed ofpropagation of signals. signal.
Hence if delay
not used, the rsignal will arrive earlier than the .orr.rponding Multlple-cholce Questions
colour di
signals. This will cause severe colour distortion.
4. subcarrier modulated by the l signal and the p signal at different phase
l. committee 2. B_Y 3. 57"
is present at the input of the two demodulators. se of synchronous 4. Quadrature 5. (c) 6. Highest
dr
technique detects only the / signal in one demodulato, ur only the
e si
7. dividing colour subcarrier 8. 0.493 9. 1800
the second demodulator. 10. 00 11. C 12. FM
5. Hue of the colour is given by the phase angle of the resultant
of phasors.Ial lll. simple 14. delay 15. D-PAL
If there is a random phase tt ift u. to phase noise, the resultant phasor will 16. CB is absent 17. gain of BPA
a wrong colour.
6. The error in colour is rectified by a hue control which adjusts the phase
subcarrier manually.
7. Modification of the primary colours (obtained from the colour camera
is done before transmission. The primary colours are converted into
difference signals which are weighted and re rnade to modulate a
The so modulated subcarrier forms the baseband chroma signal for the
video carrier. Thus production of chroma signal from the basii primary
is called encoding to distinguish it from the main video modulation.
The
which performs this function is called colour encoder.
8. Colour saturation is controlled by adjusting gain of the bandpass amplifiers.
9. The main advantage of PAL switching is that the change in colour
due to p
noise is automatically corrected.
10. The colour burst signal swings by * 45o around (B-r) phaser to enable
-
identi$ the NTSC line from pAL line.

11. u and z signals both have full bandwidth of 1.3 MHz for its lower si
Hence it is immaterial where does the u signal lie. The two signals
will
produce highest colour resolution wherevei they lie. Hence it
is not ne
to put the u signal specially on the most sensitive orange-cyan region.
Also
the (I signal been on the most sensitive orange-cyan region on one line,
reversal of phase it would have been on the least sensitive region
on the
line. .)'

12. LSB for uas well as for zis kept at full width of 1.3 MHz, so that
maximum resolution wherever it lies in the phasor diagram.
13. Maximum resolution for colours has been taken care of by 1.3 MHz
widtlil
LSB signal for all colours. Hence it is not necessary to keep bandwidth
of Ui
high. It is therefore limited to 0.57 MHz to save the overall bandwidth.
14. U and' V ate isolated in D-PAL by using a delay line and feeding
the direct si
and delayed signal to an adder circuit to get the u signal urt to
u
circuit fo get the zsignal. Thus u and y ari isolated in a D-pAL system.
15. Although u and v are isolated in a D-pAL system, and theoretically sync
demodulation is not required, but as an extra safeguard, syrchrorous
ation is used, lest delay circuit may become faulty and may not isolate
U and
signals.