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Lexocology its subject and brunches. Word and its meaning.

L. is a branch of linguistic which deals with analysis of words.

Task is a systematic description of the vocabulary in respect to its origin. Development and use.
Platos work: words are names or labels for things.
Aristotle: the smallest significant unit of speech.

Modern linguists: Reference

Symbol Referent

The model is the result of attempts to find relations between words and things.
C.Ogden and I.Richards (this triangle)

Is represented by
meaning: an animal
kept as a pet

Name:dog is named by Referent: a real dog

Symbol- word
Referent- thing
Reference- meaning

Were able to use a word when this triangle is formed in our brain, when we know what object
(concept) this word denotes.
: a word is a microcosm of human conscienceness

Words are different.

H. Sweet distinguished between full words (words with an independent meaning and form words which
are grammatical elements. (the sane Aristotel)

Tree if
Sing if
Blue of
Gently and

The words in 1-st column

Second- has no independent meaning proper. They are of structural function (they contribute to the
meaning of the whole phrase when they are used in conjunction with other words)/ This division is not
strict enough. Sometimes form words can receive full semantic status even if they are used in complete
isolation.

Sometimes its easy to understand the meaning of a words and its parts.
S. Ullman distinguishes between transparent and opaque words.

washable transparent
driver

glove opaque
desk

T.words are always motivated.

O. words are conventional words.

This distinguish goes back to the Greeks.

Motivation is the relationship existing between the phonemes or morphemic composition ans structural
pattern of a word on the one hand and its meaning oh the other hand.

3 types of M.: 1.phonetical

2.morphological
3.semantic

When there us a certain similarity between the sounds of a word and the sounds referred to by the
meaning of a word phonetical.
:
Bang
Whistle
Ding-dong etc.

Morphological- its possible to guess the meaning of a word from its parts.
(in newly coined words)

Semantic motivation is based on the coexistence of direct and figurative meaning of the same word.

Foot- a lower part of smth; part of a body

The foot of the mountain.

Each word has a hard core of meaning which stable, but cant be modified by the context within certain
limits.

2 types of context: linguistic (verbal)

extralinguistic

L. the environment in which the word occurs as for the extra L. It consists of the entire cultural
background against which we said this or that event.
The meaning of a word can change depending on the environment .
Instead of the term word some linguists prefer the terms lexical unit, lexical item or lexeme

Word causes much confusion because its used orthographically, grammatically and lexically.
No agreement between the scholars in terminology.

Lexicology presents a wide area of knowledge.

1. Historical lex-y deals with the historic change of words in the course of lang. development.
2. Comparative l. Studies closely relative languages from the point of view of their identity and
differentiation.
3. Contrastive- both relative and unrelative lang-s. establishes differences and similarity.
4. Applied lex-y- translation, lexicography, pragmatics of speech.

Lexicology investigates various meaning relations existing in the lang., how the lexicon words to
provide and support meaningfull communication.
Each word is a part of entire system land. vocabulary. Every item of a language stands closely with 2
other items. - the sintagmatic level
- the paradygmatic level.

On the sintagmatic level the semantic structure of a word is analysed in its linear relationships with
neighbouring words.
On the paradigmatic level- relationship with other words in the vocabulary system: synonims
polysemantic words
antonyms

THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE.

LINGUISTIC SIGN. SEMIOTICS. (2)

Sapir: Language is a purely human and noninstinctive method of communicating ideas emotions and
desires be means of a system voluntarily produced symbols
Von Frisch: communicating among bees, no real evidence to challenge sapirs ideas, that language is
restricted to human beings.

Language- is a function of our social relationships, language is a system of arbitrary social convention
and social symbols as well as social etiquette, public ceremonies, etc.

Every community even insignificant and primitive has its own set of conventions.

Saussure: language had become into existence by virtue of a contract signed by the members of the
community.

Any language requires a speaker and a receiver (listener). These roles are reversible.
The transmitter- receiver circuit is the basis of all linguistic communication.

Many linguists: language is a system of signs (Sassure- first)

He proposed the term semiology which was to be the science of signs with language as part of it.

There are traffic, mathematics, shop signs.

Non-linguistic and linguistic signs.

A road sign has 2 aspects: 1.arises directly from the visual symbol itself- the signifier.
2.IS what the sign means- signification.
The signifier conveys the meaning of message- signification.

Road signs are conventional (all the symbols are clear enough, it has meaning for a person whos
familiar with this code). They are chosen be some agreement between people (traffic light)

Linguistic signs resemble non- linguistic, because

1.the signifier, signification
2.arbitrary and conventional

In linguistic signs the signifier is represented by the vocal or graphic component.

The signification is what the signifier signifies (an article of furniture)
We can call the signification the semantic content (the difference between linguistic and non-linguistic
signs non-linguistic signs are unambiguous ()
Traffic light red only stop
Linguistic very rare unambiguity.

Wood timber-a trace of land occupied by trees.

Signification timber fibrous tree tract of land

 substance big/small

Engl.: timber wood tree forest/wood

.:

Linguistic signs can tell us a lot about the cultures of various speech communities, language is a special
way of looking at the world and interpreting experience.

The relations signifier- signification are not fixed. This is the well- know law of sign conversion
(semiotic conversion ) by who wrote an article about asymmetrical dualism of the
language sign.

There is no one to one correspondence between signifier and signification.

Some more striking differences between linguistic and non-linguistic signs.

1.) Linguistics signs are often complex.

Disc-jockey (is composed of 2 signs when we add them together the meaning changes)
2.) Ling.signs depend on context .
We cant say what wood mean alone
3.) Ling/signs are creative, flexible and adaptable.
Desk - an article of furniture
- floor for someone.

Sassure:4.)1.Ling.signs are natural, because lang-s are the only natural systems of communication for
ppl, other artificial.
5.)2. The linear character of the linguistic sign can represent themselves in time and space only in the
form of a line (chain)
6.)3. Immutability and mutability at the same time being natural adaptive systems languages change in
time causing changes of linguistic signs, but at the same time they possess certain stability because they
are used for the purposes of communication.

Language is a complex:
House -it can be used in universal sense to cover a range of houses or a particular house.

The elements of language are associated with whole groups of experience and not with a single
experience.

Language is a kind of catalogue, the world is ordered prier to perception by man into perfectly distinct
categories of objects.

Semiotic, semiology- a general science of signs.

It studies signs, sign phenomena, sign using.

Ch.Morris made a contribution in semiotics.

Ch. Pierce

Morris- semiotics consists of 3 parts:

1. Pragmatics sign - user relations.
2. Semantics sign - referent relations. We abstract from the user and analyse only the expression and
their meaning.
5. Syntax sign- sign relations. We abstract from the meaning and analyse only the relations between
expressions.

Pierce- gave his original definition of a sign and classified the signs.

A sign is smth. which stands to somebody for something.

3 main types of signs:
1. Icons (resembles its referent)
The dog on the gate Beware of the dog.
2. Indexes are associated with their referents.
A smoke is an index of fire.
High temperature illness
2. Symbols is related to its referent only by convention.
Mathematical signs
Traffic light signals.
Examples of all types can be found in the natural language.

THE ENGLISH WORD. THE SIZE-OF-UNIT PROBLEM.

Any language is peculiar and semiological system. In the written form of a language the flow of speech
is neatly divided.

In oral speech we do not make pauses after every word words get fused together. Some lexical items
become small and even disappear altogether. The problem is how do we know what the word is (the
boundaries, the separability of a word)- the size- of- unit problem.

This problems the singling out of words in speech.

1. Is the article a word in the some sense as a noun?
2. Hyphes- is a merry-go- round
3. Compounds- classmates?
4. Abbreviations MPs- one word or two?

The segmentation of the flow of speech into words can be achieved if speech is investigated as 3 levels:
1. the feature level
2. semantic level
3. metasemiotic level

The feature level; in every language there are typical combinations of sounds which occur on word
boundaries.
The study of the phoneme clusters is called phonotactic.

Vowels- never clusters

Consonants- clusters
- prevocalic splash
- postvocalic checked, means
- intervocalic

There are some consonants that never cluster:

spw, kf, chm

The rules of phonotactics can be applied to find the word boundaries.

The semantic level; we deal with syntactic prosody which serves to express syntactic relation between
the utterances.

Pauses are used to identity meaningful bits of information.

On the first floor// there is a nursery

The metasemiotic level: speech become rather expressive, separate words give them special emphasise
to make them sound more important.

We are friends. Are we not?

We should analyse the relationship between language units (phonemes, morphemes, words)
All this help to find boundaries.

The division of flow of speech into words is closely connected with syllable division. The singling out
of words depends on syllable stereotype of a given language. Type of word stress is also very
important.
From the point of view of lexicologyst there are 3 types of word stress in English:
1.Unifying: music, future
2 2.Primary (secondary: gravitation, cooperation, melodrama)
3 3.Even (): broad- minded, blue-eyed

These factors help us to find the word boundaries.

English is an analytical language. It tends to bring its units into complexes, rather than use
morphological combination, which is typical of synthetic of flexion languages (Russian, French,
German)

This tendency is obvious in isolating language, where all words are invariable and syntactic
relationships between them are shown by word order.

English in its development goes into direction of isolating lang-s.

At the lexical level there are lots of multistructural units, which functioning as a single word.

MULTISTRUCTURAL UNITS.

1.) Loose compounds (. )

- stone wall
- speech sound

The categorial nature of the first component here is vague ()

If we treat it as an adjective formed by means of conversion from the noun the whole complex- word
combination, both elements are combinated.
If 1-st component is a noun the whole complex- a compound word, because two nouns in common
case by means of prep.of conjunction.

Unstable compounds (sometimes) they may turn into real word combination.
haircut
busdriver
There are usually pronounce with a strong unifying stress.
If we compare: blood pressure with haircut
picture gallery
they carry two stresses they are regarded as word combinations.

Much depends on their nomination as well, when 2 elements of these two compounds express a
complex notion and are rolled into one whole and become a single word.

black board blackboard

green house- greenhouse ()

Being an analytical language English has a number of features:

1.) the word order is fixed, used as means of express of grammatical category.
2.) Prosady becomes an organizing factor in constructing speech.
3.) The number of inflections is reduced, because there is no morphological in case and gender.

Loose compounds manifest these features most clearly.

The nature of loose compounds is motivated by word order and prosady, they are pronounced with
unifying stress and without pauses.
2.) String compounds- complexes of the parts of speech type (.
)
- merry-go-round
- dont- tell- me- where to- put- my- socks look ()
- forget- me- not

They have no direct equivalent in Russian.

lamp-shade ()
highway ()
flower bed ()

Sometimes the translation easy, sometimes difficult

-red-haired () -bald headed ()

They are not distinguished from the traditional words.

Such syntactic words are a powerful stylistic device.

It was dark- ground- freezing- pre- Thanksgiving weather.

At 1-st sight, the word appears to be the easiest thing to define, however it still presents much arguing,
but all the scholars the word is the basic unit of the vocabulary, the highest unit of the morphology,
because it consists of morphemes and the lowest unit of syntax ( it serves building material for word
combinations).

THEORY OF NOMINATION AND REFERENCE.

The word, the phrase and the sentence are the basic nom.units of the lang., it means that they are united
by nominative function, the ability to.
The process of nomination is going names to things, objects, phenomena, qualities, actions.

The process of semiosis- something serves as a sign.

It takes places when we address smb., exchange information, present something to somebody showing
our love and respect, when a painter paints his picture, when we nod or shake our head.

All these processes are different, but they have the same structure from the point of view of semiosis.
It consists of 3 components:
1. sign
2. interpreter or user
3. designatum ( what the sign means)

1. The term semiosis in the broadest sense means the semantic activity, human activity including
the use of signs.
2. The process of endowing () linguistic signs with meaning.
3. The process of sign formation.

For lexicology-2 is important.

Nomination and semiosis are performed simultaneously.

When we give name to an object we ascribe some meaning to it.

Our language reflects the structure of the world, but not directly, it reflects the world through our
conceptual sphere => language reflects our conceptualization of the world. Words are symbols, they
represent objects.

There are 2 steps of conceptualization:

1. The formation of a concept or an image.
 2. Establishing a link between the conception and the linguistic sign.

Nomination always presupposes idealization.

Idealization- the formation of abstractions.

Mental representation of objects, properties and relations- abstractions.

The results of this are reflected with the help of linguistic signs. Words mirror concepts through our
perception of the world.
Reference- the linkage of a linguistic unit with a non-linguistic entity to which it serves a name.

The reference is that non-direct link which connects a name and the entity in the outer world.

The word is a symbolic substitute for a certain referent.

Referent shall function as a m function of the word.

Different words perform this function differently:

1. Pronounce
He, his this, that
She, her

They indicate, point out, but there is no constant referent for them (different objects each time)
Such words- deictic elements of the language, because they can be applied to any referent.

Linguistics consider then to be signs indexes.

2. Proper names.
Their reference is also unique, their content doesnt depend on the conditions of the action
communication, it doesnt characterize an object.

3. Prepositions.
They refer to relationship between objects, but the objects are each time different.

4. Verbs.
They have meaning, but they are devoid of reference.

Conclusion:
1. Languages are semiotic system which operate with signs.
2. Signs are bilateral entities. They have signifier and signified ( the plane of content, the
plane of expression).
3. Signs convey some meaning which is enveloped in a certain form.
4. Linguistic signs differ from each other according to the type of nomination and referential
function which they form.

Lexical meaning.

Lexical meaning are studied by semantics (semasiology).

In English semanticsmeant a science for predicting the future ( the weather)
Modern use: a science relating to lexical meaning.
Meaning is very ambiguous, contradiction.
Ogden and Richards : Meaning of meaning gave 16 definitions of meaning
: the meaning of the word is its use in the language.

was sure that in absolute isolation no sign has any meaning. Language cant be described as
a pure system of signs. Its only with the communicative function of any language we called it external
function that sign system begin to operate.
: meaning of the utterance is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response
which it calls forth in the hearer. Human utterances supposed to be connected with certain situations
and accompanied by certain responses.
Harris: the meaning of an element in each linguistic environment is the difference between the meaning
of it linguistic environment and the whole utterance.

The meaning of blue in blueberry is the meaning of blue minors berry. Blue is not simply a
color, but the difference from other berries.

Sapire and Vygotsky they spoke about the link between speaking and thinking and gave the following
definition: the meaning of a word presents such a close amalgam of thought and language that its hard
to tell whether its a phenomenon of speech or thought. Thought is not just expressed in words, it
comes into existence through them, so the relation of thought to word is not a thing, but a process.

Linguistic approaches to meaning

Sassurre wanted semantics to keep within linguistic boundaries only. His theory of meaning uses the
analogy of a sheet of paper whose 2 sides are parts of a whole.

In language one can neither divide sound from thought nor thought from sound.

Linguistic operate in the border land where the elements of sound and thought combine.

The formal relationship between them is achieved in the sign. We cant do anything to one sign of the
side (signifier) without affecting the other. If a change occurs in signifier in signification.
It was translated by Ulman.

name- signifier

sense- signification

This diagram doesnt restrict the sense- name connection to one-to-one

relationship ( ) 1 -1

On the contrary, several senses can be attached to a single name

head -of a person

-of a company
-of a cabbage

And vice versa,

car mean four- wheeled vehicle (the same)

automobile
motorcar

1. Name sense n (head)

sense1 sense 2

2. Name 1 Name2 Name n

(car)

sense

light The following relationship can be observed:

1. Homonymic relationship
Adj. Light (bright) is a homonym of light (not heavy)
2. Sense association.
The noun light is associated with sunlight, brightness, etc.
3. Formal and semantic relationship.
The noun light has a direct formal and semantic relationship with the adj. light
-the verb light
and -the verb lighten
-the noun lightning
(formal and semantic) (homonymic)
3. Name n Name 1 Name 2 Name 3 Name 4 (light)

Sense n Sense 1 Sense 2 Sense 3 Sense 4

(sense link)
The description doesnt take into account the variety of context.

Meaning and Use

The notion of meaning and use are closely interrelated. It means that the meaning of a word cant be
entirely separated from its use in speech.

What are relations between them:

Leach: the lexical meaning is meaning in abstraction and use is meaning in situation.
The difference between:
Meaning Use
1. Found in dictionaries 1. Found in actual use
2. Denotative 2. Conotative
3. Isolated 3. Deriving from context
4. Conventionalized by authority 4. Creative
5. Regulated by authority 5. Negotiated between users
6. Base meaning 6. Extended meaning ()
7. Predictable 7. Unpredictable
8. Generalized 8. Particular

The nature of meaning is best described with reference to functions of language in human
communications.

R. Jacobson ( formulated these functions)

The process of communication includes:

1. The speaker
2. The Addressee
3. The Code
4. The Message ( is what the speaker says in the code)
5. The Context (the things, qualities, actions that the speaker wants to talk about)
6. The Contact ( the relations between the speaker and the addressee)

6 functions of the language:

1. The Emotive (speaker related)
The speaker tries to express his feelings by using emotive language.

type writer (only referential meaning, it serves as a name of a particular object)

America (besides its referential meaning, emotive meaning it evokes some attitudes with the
name of the country)
fascist

American life, American English, American Dream

Fascist- the emotive meaning matters much more than the referential meaning.
The larger is the emotive component within the words meaning, the smaller is the significance of its
referential meaning.

2. Conative ( )
(addressee related)
a. patterns of speech are chosen with regard to parameters of the situation.
b. We make the message more listener friendly.
3. The Metalinguistic (oriented towards language itself)
Every language is a code used to communicate smth.
Languages presents a set of conventions, it means that in actual speech certain words are not our free
choice.

A flock of birds we can observe the restricting function of lang.code

A herd of cows
A school of fish
A pride of lions
A swarm of flies, bees

4. The Poetic (message related)

Some scholars consider language to be the dress of thought (Quirk)
The Poetic function turns language into a deliberately well- tailored dress of thought.

5. The Referential (context related)

The main function of the language to convey information.

6. The Phatic (contact related-)

The speaker wants to establish a social bond with a listener, he uses a lot of words which do not convey
meaning, but have a purely interactive function.

Nice to see U formula of politeness

How are U?
Talk about the weather

The Identity-Unit_Problem
( )

The size- of-unit ( ) considers words as separate units in the flow of

speech (where one word ends and the other word begins).

The identity-of-unit-problem establishes where one word ends and another begins on the dictionary
level.

Custom () different or one word?

Customs ()

In the Longman dictionary- one word despite various.

In the Cambridge dictionary there are free different entries ( the case of custom is a homonym)
Speaking about different types of relationship between expression and content.
We should bear in mind one to one correspondence between them is very rare in natural human
languages.
For example: polycemy means singleness of form and multiplicity of content.
Its an instance of the violation the law of the sign which prescribes the direct correspondence of
expression of content.
But its not typical of the vocabulary of natural language.
Other examples of the violation of the law of the sign.

Homonymy and Synonymy

Identity of expression singleness of content
Difference of context variability of expression
hair-hare
But the law of the sign is not always violated, there are cases of smaller disagreement between
expression and content.

Variants of one and the same word.(phonetic, morphologic, semantic are discusses under the title of the
identity-of-unit-problem)

The expression plane or content plane of the word may vary. But these variations may not be
significant enough to split the word up into different units.

Phonetic Variations.

3 cases:
1.Modifications of the pronunciation of a word depending on the context or its position of a word
depending on the context or its position of an utterance and now and that
King and Queen

The conjunction is reduced in these combinations.

2. Accentual variation- different coexisting stress patterns of one and the same word.

Br. teritory Am. teritory

dictionary dictionary

3.Emic variation- multiple pronunciation of one and the same word.

[i] [i]
explain begin
[e] [e]

ceramic [si`ramic]
[ki`ramic]

[a:]
drastic
[a]

Morphological variation.

It takes place when different derivational morphemes are used without changing the words meaning.

Academic, academical
Morphologic, morphological

But not: historic are not morphologic variants, but synonyms.

Historical

Historic- memorable in history associated with past time.

A historic event.

Historical- belonging to history (real not imaginative) or dealing with real events in history.
A historical novel
 Historical events ()

This is a historic and historical place.

.:

Lexical Variation.

Is determined by different registers

formal/ informal
spoken/ written

laboratory/ lab
examination/ exam
television/ tele
often/ oft (poetic)

Semantic Variation.

Is the most significant type of variation within the word.

Is the modification of its content plane.
A number of meanings of a given word are called lexical semantic variants.
The majority of words in any language have more than one meaning.

This is how the principle of language economy is manifested.

Vinogradov: the meaning of a word can be:

1. Nominative.
2. Nominative- derivative
3.Collegationally and collocationally conditioned.
4. Phraseologically bound.

1. Nominative is the basic meaning of a word which refers to objects of extra linguistic reality in a
direct way and reflects their actual relations.
2. Nominative-Derivative meaning comes into being when the word is stretched outsemantically to
cover new facts and extra linguistic phenomena.

When the speaker uses the word metaphorically he extends its content.

The metaphorical use is based on certain similarities observed by the speaker.

Sweet not only taste, but pleasant, attractive
Sweet face, voice, little baby.
Here we speak

Different meaning- the identity of the word remains intact, because the difference in meaning is not
great enough to split the word into 2 different units.

When the speaker observes similarities between the objects, the semantic content of a word is made
elastic to be stretched out and cover new bits of reality.

Metaphoric meanings are registered in dictionaries.

Such meanings are often poetically present in the semantic structure of the word.
Some words (adj-s) are characterized by broad meaningness, it allows them to develop new meanings.

cool, chilly, frozen, hot

eyes were frozen with terror
For parts of the body:

Hand- , face-, (of a clock)

Foot- , leg- ,
Tongue-, eye-, (~of a needle)

If nominative meaning is a direct meaning: Nominative-Derivative meaning is a transfered meaning.

Collegiationally and collocationally conditioned meanings are not free, but bound.

a. Collegationally conditioned meaning is determined by morphosyntactic combinability of words.

Some meanings are realized only without a given morphosyntactic pattern (collegation)
to tell- ,

In passive constructions means to order/to direct

You must do what youre told.

To carry-
In passive construction= to accept

The amendment to the bill was carried.

b. Collocationally conditioned meaning is determined by lexical- phraseological combinality of

words.
There are meaning which depend on the word association with other words (collocation)

A herd of cows, a flock of sheep

Collocation is used here as a typical behaviour of a word in speech.

Firth: U shall know a virt by the company he keeps.

Mccarthy: Collocation is a marriage contract between words, some words are more firmly married to
each other than others.

Certain meanings belong only to a given collocation, q word is habitually associated with another word
to form a natural sounding combinations.

4. Phraseologically bound meaning.

Collocations should be distinguished from idioms and phraseological units.

Idioms and phraseological units are devoid of referential meanings.

The meanings of the individual words cant be summed together to produce the meaning of the
idiomatic expression.

to kick the bucket = to die

This idiom is opaque ()

To pass the buck = to pass the responsibility

This idiom is semiopaque.

To see the light = to understand

This idiom is transparent.

The word combimation is literal in meaning, because its degree of idiomaticity is low its called
phraseological unit.

Adj. burning need

desire = strong, urgent
question

Semantic change.
There are many causes of semantic change:
1) Historical causes.
According to historical principle, everything develops changes, social institutions
change in the course of time, the words also change.
Ex.: car which goes back to Latin carfus which meant a four wheeled (vehicle)
wagon, despite of the lack of resemblance.

2) Psychological causes.
Taboos of various kinds.
Words are replaced by other words, sometimes people do not realize that they use
euphemisms.
Ex.: ladys room instead of the lavatory
3) Linguistic causes
Tendency of a language to borrow a particular metaphorical development of a word
from another language.

The nature of semantic change.

Metaphor accounts for a very considerable proportions of semantic changes.

Language is full of so-called fossilized (trite-, ,

) metaphors, which no longer call up the image of an object from
which they were borrowed.

Ex.: the leaf of a book; hands of a clock; a clock face; hands of a cabbage.

Metonymy is the tendency of certain words to occur in near proximity & mutually
influence one another.

Ex.: He drinks 2 cups (tea, coffee) every morning.

He has eaten 2 plates (porridge) today.

Bureau (French origin)

When it appeared in the language, meant thick green cloth usually tables were
covered with it, it became associated with a writing table. (BrE)
AmE: 2 further stages
- an office furnished with writing tables
- an office

1) The substitution of cause, form effect

- sleeping sickness is diseases which causes sleep & vice versa.

2) Catachresis is a gradual planting of one sense for another for a large or short period
of time.

Ex.: - sermon (early) any conversation

(now) religious conversation

One of the chief consequences of semantic change is the change in the area meaning.
Each word has an area of meaning, it has certain limits.

As a result of semantic change this area of meaning can be restricted (,

) or expended (, ( -. - for, on, in)).
Ex.: 1. Restriction of meaning:
- names for classes of animals
deer earlier included all wild animals
now only deer
fowl earlier - birds in general
now poultry & wild fowl ()
- a number of Anglo-Saxon words shrunk under the influence of Norman
words
pond from Latin pontus (sea or large stretch of water).
Due to its confrontation with word lake pond changed its meaning to
.
2. Expansion of meaning.
It happens as a result of chance situations.
The word came to Russian from English word Vauxhall as the
general name of all main railway stations. Now , / , /
.
The same thing happens very often with loan words ( ).

Semantic structure.
Name-sense relationship.

They can be subdivided into 4 categories:

1. Sense likeness but name difference (synonymic relationships).
Ex.: - bad =evil,=wicked
2. Opposite sense & name difference (antonyms).
Ex.: badgood, falsetrue, etc.
3. Related sense & identical name (polysemy).
- head (part of body)
- head (as a chief)
- head (one side of a coin )
4. Different sense but identical (homonymic)
- bear (animal)
- to bear (to support)

Polysemy.

Most of lex. items in English are polysemantic.

Michael Breat: Polysemy is a semantic universal.
The alternative to it is quite unthinkable: it would mean that we would have to store
in our brains a tremendous stock of words with separate names for any possible
subject we might wish to talk about. It would also mean that there would be no
metaphors & that language would be robbed of much of its expressiveness &
flexibility.
Urban: The double reference of verbal signs is precisely what makes language an
instrument of knowing.
Ex.:
- family She lost both of her parents.
- parent Envy is the parent of all evils.
My family comes from Scotland.
The cat family includes lions & tigers. ( )
A family of languages, etc.

There are monosemantic words:

Ex.: a lorry
a loudspeaker
In case of polysemy, we deal with modification of the content plane.
Different meanings of one & the same word are closely interrelated.

Polysemy is a result of:

1. Shifts in application ( )
Ex.: adj. red red ink (is really red)
red hair
red deer
red cabbage
red Indian
2. Specialization
Ex.: partner
Basic meaning; a type of relationship between 2 or more people.
- business partner
- marriage partner
- partner in crime

3. Metaphorical extension (a fundamental feature of any language)

Ex.: leaf of a tree leaf of a book
hands of a person hands of a clock
 Polysemy has been complicated by the tendency of words to pick up the meanings
from other dialects, languages & slang.
Ex.: executive
BrE one who acts under the direction of somebody
AmE a manager
now: AmE meaning is more widely used.
New & old meanings become interrelated, form a hierarchy.
They have some common semantic features which preserve the integrity of the word.

Homonymy.
Homonyms can be of 3 kinds:
1. Homonyms proper (the sound & the spelling are identical)
2. Homophones (the same sound form but different spelling)
3. Homographs (the same spelling)

Ex.: 1. bat bat - flying animal ( )

- cricket bat ()
2. flower flour
sole soul
rain reign
3. tear [i] tear []
lead [i:] lead [e]

One of the sources is its development from polysemy.

At a certain point, variation within a word may bring to a stage when its semantic core
is no longer elastic. It cant be stretched any further & as a result a new word comes
into being.

Homonymy differs from polysemy because there is no semantic bond () between

homonyms; it has been lost & doesnt exist.

Homonyms appear as a result of:

1. The phonetic convergence of 2 words of different pronunciation & meaning.

Ex.: race a) people derives from Old Norwegian ras

b) running, from French race
2. The semantic divergence or loss of semantic bond between 2 words
polysemantically related before.
Ex.: pupil a) scholar
b) apple of an eye ()

To distinguish between polysemy & homonymy 3 factors should be taken into

account:
1. The semantic proximity of them
2. The derivation capacity
?? 3. The range of collacability

1. The semantic proximity.

The 1st way to establish polysemy or homonymy is to look for a central core meaning.
Its easier when we have examples of metaphor or transfer meanings.
(adj-s are particularly interesting in this respect because they often develop polysemy
by adding new nominative-derivative meanings to their semantic structure).

Ex.: sour
- disagreeable (new meaning)
juicy
- scandalous
The media were delighted to have a juicy news story.

Board a piece of wool

- a company or council ()
- meals ()
Whether it is a case of polysemy or homonymy?
Set up to establish (basic meaning)
It has a number of nominative & nom.-derivative meanings.
a) the derivative meaning
- to arrange
We need to set up emergency procedures to deal with this problem.
- to equip
The next band was already setting up on the other stage.
- to build
The army has set up roads round the city.

They are related to the core meaning.

b) the nominative meanings.
- to cause, to begin
The reactor car set up a chain reaction.
- to make smb seem guilty, to deceive smb
We sent our money but it turned out that the company didnt exist and we
were just set up.
- to make smb healthy, full of energy
Full breakfast will set you up for the day.
Nominative meanings are more isolated & may give rise to homonyms.

2. Derivation capacity

Potential homonyms typically develop their own sets of derivatives.

Ex.: custom 1. , 2. , 3. (..) .
1. custom customary
It is customary for the most important person to sit at the end of the table.
2. We dont want to lose our customers.
3. Customs officer, customs shed
custom 1,2,3 are potential homonyms because they have different derivatives.
3. The range of collacability.

The words collacability is the functioning of the word in speech & the company it
keeps with other items.

Potential homonyms have quite different range of phraseology.

Ex.: charge 1. price
free of charge
of no extra charge
2. (when smb is guilty)
responsibility
to bring charges
to press charges
to drop the charges
charge 1,2 are potential homonyms.

Enantiosemy.

We should not mix homonymy & enantiosemy.

It includes cases of the specific use of the word when the meaning of it depends on
the intonation with which it is pronounced.
Ex.: You are a beauty! !
A pretty business indeed! !

Awfully good
An awfully jolly place
Awfully nice

Synonymy.

A synonym a word of similar or identical meaning to one or more words in the same
language. All languages contain synonyms but in English they exist in
superabundance.
There no two absolutely identical words because connotations, ways of usage,
frequency of an occurence are different.
Senses of synonyms are identical in respect of central semantic trades but differ
in respect of minor semantic trades.

Classification:
1. Total synonyms
an extremely rare occurence
Ulman: a luxury that language can hardly afford.
M. Breal spoke about a law of distribution in the language (words should be
synonyms, were synonyms in the past usually acquire different meanings and are no
longer interchangeable).
Ex.:

2. Ideographic synonyms.
They bear the same idea but not identical in their referential content.
Ex.: to ascent to mount to climb
To happen to occur to befall to chance
Look appearance complexion countenance

3. Dialectical synonyms.
Ex.: lift elevator
Queue line
Autumn fall
4. Contextual synonyms.
Context can emphasize some certain semantic trades & suppress other semantic
trades; words with different meaning can become synonyms in a certain context.
Ex.: tasteless dull
Active curious
Curious responsive

Synonyms can reflect social conventions.

Ex.:
clever bright brainy intelligent Dever-clever
neutral Only speaking Is not used by Positive Stylistically
about younger the higher connotation remarked
people by educated
older people people

5. Stylistic synonyms.
Belong to different styles.
child Infant Kid
neutral elevated colloquial
To die To kick the bucket
Synonymic condensation is typical of the English language.
It refers to situations when writers or speakers bring together several words with one
& the same meaning to add more conviction, to description more vivid.
Ex.: save & sound
Lord & master
First & foremost
Safe & secure
Stress & strain
By force & violence

It is deeply rooted in the history of English language

It was customary to use French borrowings together with their native synonyms.
They are very often characterized by alliteration, rhymes, idioms, etc.

Antonymy.

Antonyms words of opposite meaning.

In an antonym pair only one member is marked (the use of marked member is more
restricted)
Ex.: big small
We may ask: how big is it?
Not: how small is it?
May: this bed is too big for my room
Not: this bed is sufficiently small for my room
Small is marked.

Nikitin: Antonymy is based on the opposition of features ().

It is a kind of a way of word structuring. Three conditions for two features to be
opposite:
1. (incompatible in things)
Ex.:
(underage unmarried)
they are not antonyms
2. (similar, homogeneous features)
Ex.:
(red green)
not antonyms
antonyms

3. 2
(2 features must cover associative area)
Ex.: = - antonyms
- not antonyms

(alive half dead dead)

-

(cold chilly cool warm hot)

. (Associative area must be

regulated and put in order)
.(Opposite features-
symmetrical to each other)

Nikitin:
- qualitative & quantitative ( )

apprehensive brave light heavy

Quantitative antonyms

( )
feature increase

Qualitative antonyms

( )
no feature increase

- one-root & different roots (according to their morphological structure)

- logical classification
 contrary contradictory
There is a middle term between them There is no middle term between them

- Intentional & extensional

intentional Extensional
;

..
,
, , .
.

Ex.: mother
- stable, invariable features intension
(, )
a female parent - intension
Intension is some notion formed by class distinctions, always stable & invariable.
Extensions in this case are: biological mother
step-mother
mother-in-law
motherland
surrogate mother
godmother

It is the range of applicability (), always variable & individual.

ship
- intension: a vehicle used for moving on water
- extension: passenger ship
sailing ship
battle ship ( ) man of war
cargo ship

Antonyms are words which have in their meaning a qualitative feature & can,
therefore, be regarded as semantically opposite.

Unlike synonyms, antonyms do not differ stylistically. some scholars

- moot (, ) question, controversial
Conversives (or conversive pairs), which are not antonyms but are semantically
opposed.
Conversives denote one & the same situation, but viewed from different points of
view.
In most cases, conversives are verbs.





.
1.-
2.

1. .. ,
2. , .. (
).

Exciting excited conversives

Amusing amused conversives
, .

:
4 :
1). ,

Ex.: darkness light dark light

hatred love often seldom
cry laughter to cry to laugh
male female

2). ,
static dynamic
Ex.: man woman arrival - departure
evil good increase decrease

3). ,
privacy equipollency

.
Ex.: poverty wealth ( )
lie truth
,
, .
Ex.: man woman ( )
cry laughter
hatred love

4). ,
binary gradual

2
2

Ex.:
 lie truth (contradictory )
arrive depart
male female

to hate not to hate to be indifferent to love

Gradual opposition is characterized by the gradability of some qualitative feature.

Binary opposition is characterized by lack of any gradability, because the words
express contradictory notions.

Privative is based on the idea of markedness, the unmarked member more widely
used.
Ex.: old young How old are you?
marked unmarked Not: How young are you?
Not all antonyms show this marked/unmarked distinction.
Equipollent (equal) both members are logically equal, each of them has a feature
opposite to the feature of the other member of the opposition.
: one-root derivational antonyms
different roots absolute antonyms.

Phraseology.

Alongside with separate words speakers use larger blocks functioning as

whole (consisting 1 word).
In any language there are certain restrictions imposed upon co-occurence of words.
They can be connected with linguistic factors or the ties in the extra-linguistic reality.

3 types of lexical combinability of words:

1). Free combination

Grammatical properties of words are the main factor of their combinability.
Ex.: Im talking to you. You are writing.

Free combinations permit substitution of any of its elements without semantic change
of the other element.

2). Collocations.
Ex.: to commit a murder
Bread & butter
Dark night
Blue sky
Bright day

They are the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words.
Speakers become accustomed to such collocations.

Very often they are related to the referential & situational meaning of words.
Sometimes there are collocations, which are removed from the reference to extra-
linguistic reality.
 (collocations involving
colour words)
Ex.: to be green with jealousy
Red revolution

3). Idioms
Idioms are also collocations, because they consist of several words that tend to be
used together, but the difference we cant guess the meaning of the whole idiom
from the meanings of its parts.

This criterion is called the degree of semantic isolation.

In different types of idioms it is different.
Ex.: to cry a blue murder = to complain loudly

This classification of idioms according to their structure:

1. Fixed idioms
a) fixed regular idioms
Its a 60-thousand dollar question = difficult question
b) fixed irregular (can be varied on the grammatical level)
to have a bee in ones bonnet (She has.., I have...)
2. Variable (varied on the lexical level)
Ex.: to add fuel to the fire/flame
to mind ones own business /to mind one business
to nap a cats nap / to have a short nap ()
dialectal: BrE: to have a skeleton in the cupboard
AmE: to have a skeleton on the closet

Semantic classification:
2 criteria:
1). The degree of semantic isolation
2). The degree of disinformation

1. Opaque in meaning ( )
the meaning of the individual words cant be summed together to produce the
meaning of the whole.
Ex.: to kick the bucket = to die
It contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression
The degree of semantic isolation is the highest.
phraseological fusions

2. Semi-opaque
one component preserves its direct meaning
Ex.: to pass the buck = to pass responsibility

phraseological unities
3. Transparent
both components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires figurative
sense
Ex.: to see the light = to understand
phraseological combinations
There are lots of idioms (proverbs, saying).
Ex.: Curiosity killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back
Idioms institutionalized formulas of politeness:
How do you do?
Good-bye (God be with you)
How about a drink?

Lots of clichs, quotations.

Clichs form a notable part of he public speaking style. They use clichs because of
the intellectual laziness or in the hope of appealing to emotions of smb.

A talk based on clichs is easier to produce.

Ex.: to see the light this expressions are store in
Its high time to do smth our mind, ready-made
Quotations:

To support our arguments, to add some prominence

Ex.: I have a dream M.L.King
To be or not to be Shakespeare
They may be clipped or shortened.
Ex.: To beer or not to beer (creates humorist effect)
To bomb or not to bomb
It was the last straw that broke the camels back.

Sources of idioms:

1. from our everyday life

Ex.: to be born with a silver spoon in ones mouth
to sail under false colour ( )
to loose track of smb ( - , )
a leopard can(t) change its spots
2. from the Bible
Ex.: black sheep, lost sheep ( )
To cast pearls before swine ( )
3. World literature
Ex.: to fight against Windmills
an ugly duckling (Danish)
4. different languages
Ex.: to loose face (Chinese)

The course of true love has never run smooth Shakespeare The 12th night
The course of true reforms has never run smooth in Russia the Times

5. from history
Ex.: to cross the Rubicon
Labours of Hercules
To bell the cat

Classification:
1. (with one peak)
one peak phraseological units
one form word
one notional
Ex.: to leave for good
By heart
At bay

2. Phrasemes with the structure of subordinate or coordinate word combination.

Ex.: a bitter pill to swallow
All the world & his wife
3. Partly predicative
a word + subordinate clause
Ex.: It was the last straw that broke the camels back

4. Verbal with (infinitive, passive)

Ex.: to eat like a wolf
The Rubicon is crossed

5. Phrasal units with a simple or complex sentence structure

Ex.: There is a black sheep in every flock.
It was the last straw that broke the camels back

Koonin: Structural-semantic classification.

1. Nominative
A hard nut to crack
2. Nominative communicative
The ice is broken
3. Interjectional & modal
(emotions, feelings)
Oh, my eye! (= Oh, my God!)
As sure as eggs is eggs (, 22)
4. Communicative (proverbs, sayings)
There is no smoke without fire.

Nominative:
Substantive: crocodile tears
Adjective: as mad as a hatter, as cool as a cucumber
Adverbial: by & by, to & fro
Verbal: to live like a lord

Word formation ()

Is a branch of science of the language which studies the patterns on which a language
forms new lexical items (new unities, new words)

Its a process of forming words by combining root & affixal morphemes.

According to certain patterns specific for the language or without any outward means.
(conversion)

2 major groups of word formation:

1) words, formed as grammatical syntagmas, combinations of full linguistic signs

(types: compounding(), prefixation, suffixation, conversion, back
derivation)
2) words, which are not grammatical syntagmas, which are not made up of full
linguistic signs.

Ex.: expressive symbolism, blending, clipping, rhyme & some others.

Common for both groups is that a new word is based on synchronic relationship
between morphemes.

Different types of word formation:

COMPOUNDING

Is joining together 2 or more stems.

Types:
1) without a connecting element
headache, heartbreak
2) with a vowel or consonant as a linking element
speedometer, craftsman
3) with a preposition or conjunction as a linking element
down-and-out ( , )
son-in-law

Compounds can be classified according to their structure:

- consisting of simple stem

heartbreak
- compounds where at least one stem is a derived one
football player
- where one stem is clipped
Xmas
H-bag (handbag)
- where one of the elements is also a compound
wastepaper basket

compound nouns, adjectives, verbs.

There are also the so called reduplicative compounds:
Tick-tick, chow-chow

PREFIXATION

Prefixes are such particles that can be prefixed to full words. But are themselves not
with independent existence.
Native prefixes have developed out of independent words, there is a small number of
them.
a-
be-
mid-
fore-
mis-
Prefixes of foreign origin have come into the language ready-made

Some scholars: the system of English word formation was entirely upset by the
Norman Conquest.
Normans have paved the way for the non-Germanic trend the language has taken
since that time.

From French English borrowed many words with suffixes & prefixes, they became
assimilated in the language & started to be used in word building. It led to enormous
cutdown of the traditional word formation out of native material. Old prefixes (some
of them) disappeared forever (too weak phonetically)
t-
Ed-
Nowadays English has no prefixed equivalents for some German prefixes
Er-
Ver-
Zer-
A lot of borrowed prefixes in English:
Auto-
Demi-
Mono-
Multi-
Semi-
Post-

SUFFIXATION

A suffix is a derivative final element which is or was productive in forming new

words.
It has semantic value, but doesnt occur as an independent speech use.
The contact of English with foreign languages has led to the adoption of countless
foreign words which started to be used in word building.
we have many hybrid types of derivatives.

A hybrid is a word different elements of which are of etymologically different origin.

2 groups:

1) A foreign word is combined with a native affix

- full
- less
- ness
clearness, faithless, faithful
2) Foreign affixes are added to native words
- ance
- al
- ity
- able

As for the first 3 they have never become productive in English; - able was
assimilated in English very early and has became productive in many words.
Eatable
Loveable
Semi suffixes are elements which stand midway between full words & suffixes
- like
- worthy
- way
- wise

a Godlike creature
trustworthy
clockwise
midway

6 ways of suffixing in English:

1) Derivation by native suffixes without changes in stress, vowels, consonants

Godlike
2) Derivation by borrowed suffix without changes in stress, vowels, consonants
loveable
3) Derivation by imported suffixes, which involves the change in
Japan Japanese
4) The suffix is added to a Latin stem which closely related to an English word
science scientist
5) The suffix is added to a Latin stem, which has no English equivalent
lingua lingual
6) Words borrowed separately but have the same patterns of word building
candidate candidacy
president presidency
This is called correlative derivation.

CONVERSION
(zero derivation)

A certain stem is used for the formation of a categorically different word

without a derivative element being added.
Bag to bag
Back to back
Bottle to bottle

This specific pattern is very productive in English

The most popular types are noun verb or verbnoun
 To take off a take off
Conversion can be total or partial
Partial: the then president ()
An adverb is used as an adjective, only in this particular context.
Total: work to work

BACK DERIVATION

Is deraving a new word, which is morphologically simpler from a more complex

word.
A babysitter to babysit
Television to televise
Sometimes back derivation is defined as the singling out of a stem from a word which
is wrong regarded as a derivative.
Cases of back derivation are rather rare in English

PHONETIC SYMBOLISM

Is using characteristic speech sounds for name giving.

Very often we imitate by the speech sounds what we hear:
- tinkle
- splash
- tap
Sounds can be emotionally expressive.

[f],[p] in initial position very often express scorn, disapproval, contempt, disgust.
Ex.: fie (disapproval)
Fidle (dishonest practice)
Fidling (silly)
Poof (male, homosexual)
But not all the sounds are expressive.
[k],[g],[d]
[l] is often used in diminutive & pet suffixes
Ex.: darling, little, ugly duckling

CLIPPING

Consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts.

Mathematics maths
Laboratory lab
Captain cap
Gymnastics gym

3 types:
1) The first part is left (the commonest type)
advertisement ad
2) The second part is left
telephone phone
airplane plane
3) A middle part is left
influenza flu
refrigerator fridge
Accepted by the speakers of the language clipping can acquire grammatical categories
(used in plural forms)

BLENDING

Is blending part of two words to form one word (merging into one word)
Smoke + fog = smog
Breakfast + lunch = brunch
Smoke + haze = smaze ()
- addictive type: they are transformable into a phrase consisting of two words
combined by a conjunction and
smog smoke & fog
- blending of restrictive type: transformable into an attributive phrase, where the first
element serves as modifier of a second.
Positron positive electron
Medicare medical care

WORD MANUFACTURING

A word or word combination that appears or especially coined by some author. But it
doesnt name a new object or doesnt express a new concept
Sentence sentenceness
I am English & my Englishness is in my vision (Lawrence)
Word manufacturing by children:

COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS

Is linguistic analysis of the semantic structure of a word. It can be a monosemantic

word or lexico-semantic variant of polysemantic word.

The meaning of any word can be represented in a form of a structure, semantic

components of the words meaning form a hierarchy.

Is an investigation of the structural organization & interrelations of the semantic

components of the words meaning.

Lexical meaning is a complicated dynamic whole & its constituency are semes.
A seme is a minimal unit of sense, an atom of lexical semantics distinguished on the
basis of oppositions by method of componential analysis.
A seme is not expressed in a word in any material unit but its revealed & singled out
through interrelations of the word with other words on a paradigmatic & syntagmatic
levels.
The sem. structure of a word can be represented graphically:
Father = human
Adult
 Male semes
Parent
+
1) Componential analysis is very popular in linguistics, it shows a heterogeneity,
complexity of lexical meaning.
2) Componential analysis helps to differentiate between words (especially between
synonyms)
the difference between small & little lies in the presence of an additional seme
(pleasant, nice) in the word little not absolute synonyms.
3) Componential analysis helps to explain semantic derivation
(metaphor, metonymy, etc.)
4) Componential analysis to create the so called language of semantic primitives
minimal units of sense.
-
as soon we start to describe the semantic structure of a word we start to describe the
referent dog=animal

TYPOLOGY OF SEMES.

Semes differ in many aspects:

- the role they play & the place they occupy in their structure.
- Interrelations between each other
- Dependence of all the context
- Participation in formation an actual meaning
- The role they play in secondary nomination or in semantic

1) Cognitive & pragmatic semes

dog cognitive semes living being
- animal
- domestic
- carnivorous ()
pragmatic semes friend
- devoted
- understanding
- silent
2) Extralinguistically bound & linguistically bound
(appear as a result of pragmatic (mostly cognitive,
factors, show the attitude of part & parcel of
language users towards word lexical meaning)
reference)
fascist negative connotations, extralinguistic bound

among extralinguistically semes can be cultural bound.

The English notion of freedom is negatively oriented
Freedom non-imposition, the possibility of choice
(if you are free you can be sure that you will be left alone,
wont be imposed anybodys wills)
Russian conception of freedom the idea of absence of outer restrictions.

3) Central & peripheral

Central belonging to the core of the word meaning (belong to the intention)
Father male, parent, human
- adult (peripheral)
4) Categorial & non-categorial
(hypersemes) (hyposemes)
bathe swim for pleasure or for the medical reasons
swim through water
float to stay on a surface without sinking
sail in a ship or boat
1 hyperseme to move in the water
but hyposemes are different
they show type of movement, use of transport means, type of agent
5) Actual & potential
potential can be generated in some particular content

THE STRUCTURE OF LEXICAL MEANING

According professor Nikitin

Meaning

Implicational Semiotic

Pragmatic Cognitive

Extension Cognitive

denotative significative

Semiotic meaning is arbitrary and conventional, especially established for the sake of
communication. No link between the sign and the referent existing in reality
Ex.: winter (December - February); dog

Implicational meaning is based on natural linkage of objects in reality.

Winter cold, snow, frost (implicational meaning) associations connected with a
name.
Implicational meaning is culture bound, territory bound

4 types of implicational meaning:

1) Rigid implication ( )
highly probable features of winter (for Russia , )
2) Strong implication
probable features of winter
3) Weak implication
these are unlikely features of winter rain, warm weather
4) Negative implication
features that can never be applied to this referent
green grass, hot weather not winter
in stylistic it is called oxymoron

Cognitive meaning represents the information about the world (the referent)
Pragmatic component presents our subjunctive attitude towards the world and its
elements (depends on our life experience)

Both of them or only one of them is represented in the structure of lexical meaning.
1) Most words are pragmatically neutral (only cognitive component in the structure of
their meaning)
chair, desk, pen they are free from expressing subjunctive attitude to the
referent.
2) fascist cognitive and pragmatic components
3) sometimes cognitive components are switched off & pragmatic component plays
the leading role
()
mother

extension
cognitive
contention

The difference between extension & contention lies in the difference between the
contents & the volume of the notion.

Contentional meaning reflects the structure of essential features of the notion.

Mother female + main intention, the core part of lexical meaning

Con- parent + obligatory features to the reference of this class
ten- adult +
tion human +
previous generation +

Extension: a number of denotater to which its name refers: godmother, biological

mother, mother-in-law.

Both components are variable.

1) They have got a parrot. This parrot has been with them for a long time. This parrot
is a funny creature.
2) How long can a parrot live?
In this two examples the word PARROT changes its extensional.
1 a representative of a class (denotative )
2 a name of a class (significative )
the contentional is also different:
2) A bird living in some tropical countries, exotic bird, is able to speak
1) 2 + a concrete bird living with them
(more features of contentional meaning)
Not all the words have extensional meaning.

Names of properties ( )
Verbs, adjectives, adverbs dont have the extensional meaning, because they are
non-referential.
(
, ()

A name has a denotative meaning if it represents a representative of a class.

When it represents the class in general it has significative meaning.

1. This is the house that Jack built.
2. A good laugh is sunshine in the house
general idea of the house
1 denotative
2 significative meaning
All common nouns can represent both a representative of a class & some class in
general.
They can have either denotative or significative meanings.
Proper names can represent only a representative of a class. They cant represent a the
class in general. They have no intentional. They have only denotative meaning.

Some linguists use the term connotational meaning instead of the term pragmatic
meaning

dog
semiotic (sign) dog
cognitive an animal kept as a pet
used for hunting and guarding
pragmatic devoted, friend positive
wicked, bites, evil negative
intentional animal +
pet +
mammal +
used for hunting and guarding +
carnivorous +
extensional different kinds of dogs (breeds)
significative a dog is a mans friend
How long can a dog live?
Denotative I have a dog. This dog lives with me for a long time.
Implicational 1. rigid implication: 4 paws, a tail, barks
2. strong implication: runs fast. Bites
3. weak implication: can swim
4. negative implication: a speaking dog

BORROWINGS
Contemporary English is an unique mixture of Germanic & Romanic elements. This
mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary. In the comparison
with other languages English possesses great richness of vocabulary.

All languages are mixtures to a greater or lesser extent, but the present day English
vocabulary is unique in this respect.
A brief look on various historical strata of the English vocabulary:
1) through cultural contacts with Romans partly already on the continent and all
through the influence of Christianity a very early stratum of Latin-Greek words
entered the language.
Their origin is no longer felt by the normal speaker today in such word: pound, mint,
mustard, school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, pepper, street, gospel, bishop.

The same can be said about some Scandinavian words (from about the 10th century)
that today belong to the central core of the vocabulary.
It means that their frequency is very high.
They, their, them, sky, skin, skill, skirt, ill, dies, take...
They partly supersede the number of OE words
OE heofon heaven (sky)
Niman take
Steorfan die
A more radical change & profound influence on the English vocabulary occurred on
1066 (Norman Conquest). Until the 15th cent., a great number of French words were
adopted. They belong to the areas of court, church, law, state.
Virtue, religion, parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour...
The influx of the words was the strongest up to the 15th cent., but continued up to the
17th cent.
Many French borrowings retained their original pronunciation & stress
Champagne, ballet, machine, garage...
Separate, attitude, constitute, introduce...
Adjectives in English arrogant, important, patient
Sometimes with their derivatives:
Demonstrative demonstration
Separate separation
17-18 cc. due to the establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were
borrowed from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French.

Italian: libretto, violin, opera

Spanish: hurricane, tomato, tobacco
Dutch: yacht, dog, landscape
French: bouquet, buffet

From the point of view of their etymology formal words are normally of classical
Romanic origin, informal Anglo-Saxon.
Nowadays many Americanisms become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic
travel & the influence of broadcast media.
Even in London (Heathrow airport) baggage instead of luggage
The present day English vocabulary is from being homogeneous.

Semiosis
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Etymology.

The reason of borrowings:

1. to fill a gap in vocabulary

Potato,tomato from Spanish when appeared in English (these vegetables)

2. It represents the same concept but in some aspect: a new shade of meaning.
Ex.: friendly-cordial (Latin)
Desire(French)-wish
Admire(Latin)-adore( French)
1. When borrowed words become assimilated in the language and the process of
assimilation develops to the point when its practically impossible to recognize the
origin of a word.
Ex.: cat, dinner, cup

2. Other words bear trace of their background.

Ex.: distance, development (French suffixes)

Skin, sky (Scandinavian)
Police, garage, cafe (French) Stress on the last syllable.

Some Norman borrowings have become fully adopted, no phonetic traces of their
French origin: table.

Big in size as first it retained a trace of its former meaning wide because it was
applied to object with vast horizontal dimension.
Nowadays it has approached very closely to the word big.

International words.

Borrowed by several languages.

Philosophy, mathematics, theatre, drama.
Terms of art, political terms, names of science, technological terms (telephone), sports
(football), fruits and food stuff (coffee, banana).

Etymological doublets.

shirt-skirt from the same root etymologically, although shirt- native, skirt-
(Scandinavian).
Resemblance-common origin. Both-articles of clothes.

Etymological doublets-words originated from the same etymological origin, but

different in phonemic shape and meaning.

Canal (Latin)
Chanel (French)

From the same root

Senior (Latin)
Sir (French)

Etymological triplets as well:

Hospital (Latin)
Hostel (French)
 Hotel (French)

to capture (Latin)
to catch
to chase

A doublet can be shortened: history-story

shadow-shade
defence-fence
fantasy-fancy
fanatic-fan

Loan Words
(translation loans)

Borrowings of a special kindcoz they are not taken into the vocabulary of another
language in the same phonemic shape they have functioned in their own language, but
undergo the process of translation.

-wonder child
German
-masterpiece

Russian: - a five-year plan

k- collective farm

Sometimes in two different forms:

--
Lightning war
Blitzkrieg

Borrowed words are mostly learned words and terminology (foreign words dominate
the native).
All short common words are native, but there are also a layer words which have
become fully adopted, their origin- unrecognizable.

Ex.: air face poor

our dress very
- native appearance and common use
French words are more formal and more emotional:
To begin-to commence
To wish-to desire
 Motherly love-maternal love
Childish-infantile
Sunny-solar
(day) (system)
nosy-nasal
(parker) (sound,voice)
,
handy-manual (therapy)
Neologisms

Different points of view:

1. if we feel that its neologism-it is.
2. 25 years ago- its neologism.

Classification:
by Haham:
1. Words in which the form and the meaning is new.
Ex.: audiotyping
2. the former-new, the meaning has already been expressed by some other word.
Ex.: big C-cancer
3. the meaning new, but the form existed.
Ex.: bread in the meaning of money
green=$

by Rosen:
1. these are words which can occur in isolation, but at the same time they can be
parts of new words.
Ex.: Euro(money)-Euro market
Anything burger
2. new morphemes which have appeared in the language recently
ex.: -nik peacenik
beatnik
-teria washateria
bookateria
3. these are words which consist of already existing morphemes, but in new
combination
ex.: greenback=$
skinhead

by Zabotkina:
1. phonological neologisms these are new words formed from morphemes.
Ex.: Z-z-z a short nap (onomotopoeic words)
2. semantic neologisms- they are semantically motivated
ex.: bread= money
green=$
3. syntactic neologism

phraseological morphological
(word combinations) (formed by the meaning of affixation,
ex.: big C conversion, clipping, lexicalization, compounding)
ex.: audiotyping
4. borrowings
ex.: Pizza Hut

Formation of neologisms:
1. affixation- is the most productive
ex.: beatnik, washateria

2. word over lapping ( )

ex.: swellegant (swell+elegant)

3. abbreviation (blending)
4. compounding
ex.: skinhead, greenback
5. forming new words from word combination and sentences
ex.: boldheadish, 6 oclockish
how-do-you-doers
6. forming new words according already existing productive pattern.
Ex.: fingersmith ()
tunesmith
7. lexicolazation
ex.: dont talk about izms with me.
Teens
8. wordplays
ex.: ?
9. quazilexems- words formed from phonemes.
Ex.: Z-z-z