Language change

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with language shift.
"Linguistic corruption" redirects here. For errors in grammar, see Solecism. For non-
standard words or pronunciation, see Barbarism (linguistics).

Language change is variation over time in

a language's phonological, morphological, semantic,syntactic, and other features. It is studied
by historical linguistics and evolutionary linguistics. Some commentators use the
label corruption to suggest that language change constitutes a degradation in the quality of a
language, especially when the change originates from human error
or prescriptively discouraged usage.[1] Descriptive linguistics typically does not support this
concept, since from a scientific point of view such changes are neither good nor bad.

Causes[edit]

Economy: Speakers tend to make their utterances as efficient and effective as possible
to reach communicative goals. Purposeful speaking therefore involves a trade-off of costs
and benefits.
The principle of least effort tends to result in phonetic reduction of speech
forms. See vowel reduction, cluster reduction, lenition, and elision. After some time a
change may become widely accepted (it becomes a regular sound change) and may
end up treated as a standard. For instance: going
to [o..t] gonna [n] or [n], with examples of both vowel
reduction [] [] and elision [nt] [n], [o.] [].
Analogy: reducing word forms by likening different forms of the word to the root.
Language contact: borrowing of words and constructions from other languages.[2]
Geographic separation: when people move away from each other, their language will
diverge, at least for the vocabulary, due to different experiences.[3]
Cultural environment: Groups of speakers will reflect new places, situations, and
objects in their language, whether they encounter different people there or not.
 Migration/Movement: Speakers will change and create languages, such as pidgins and
creoles.[2]
Imperfect learning: According to one view, children regularly learn the adult forms
imperfectly, and the changed forms then turn into a new standard. Alternatively, imperfect
learning occurs regularly in one part of society, such as an immigrant group, where the
minority language forms a substratum, and the changed forms can ultimately influence
majority usage.[3]
Social prestige: Language may not only change towards a prestigious accent, but also
away from one with negative prestige,[3] as in the case of rhoticity of Received
Pronunciation.[4] Such movements can go back and forward.[5]

According to Guy Deutscher, the tricky question is "Why are changes not brought up short
and stopped in their tracks? At first sight, there seem to be all the reasons in the world why
society should never let the changes through." He sees the reason for tolerating change in the
fact that we already are used to "synchronic variation", to the extent that we are hardly aware
of it. For example, when we hear the word "wicked", we automatically interpret it as either
"evil" or "wonderful", depending on whether it is uttered by an elderly lady or a teenager.
Deutscher speculates that "[i]n a hundred years' time, when the original meaning of 'wicked'
has all but been forgotten, people may wonder how it was ever possible for a word meaning
'evil' to change its sense to 'wonderful' so quickly."[6]

Types[edit]

All languages change continually,[7] and do so in many and varied ways.

Marcel Cohen details various types of language change under the overall headings of
theexternal evolution[8] and internal evolution of languages.[9]

Lexical changes[edit]

The study of lexical changes forms the diachronic portion of the science of onomasiology.

The ongoing influx of new words into the English language (for example) helps make it a
rich field for investigation into language change, despite the difficulty of defining precisely
and accurately the vocabulary available to speakers of English. Throughout its
history English has not only borrowed words from other languages but has re-combined and
recycled them to create new meanings, whilst losing some old words.
Dictionary-writers try to keep track of the changes in languages by recording (and, ideally,
dating) the appearance in a language of new words, or of new usages for existing words. By
the same token, they may tag some words eventually as "archaic" or "obsolete".

Phonetic and phonological changes[edit]

Main articles: Sound change and Phonological change

The concept of sound change covers both phonetic and phonological developments.

The sociolinguist William Labov recorded the change in pronunciation in a relatively short
period in the American resort of Martha's Vineyard and showed how this resulted from social
tensions and processes.[10] Even in the relatively short time that broadcast media have
recorded their work, one can observe the difference between the pronunciation of the
newsreaders of the 1940s and the 1950s and the pronunciation of today. The greater
acceptance and fashionability of regional accents in media may[original research?] also reflect a
more democratic, less formal society compare the widespread adoption of language
policies.

The mapping and recording of small-scale phonological changes poses difficulties, especially
as the practical technology of sound recording dates only from the 19th century. Written texts
provide the main (indirect) evidence of how language sounds have changed over the
centuries. But noteFerdinand de Saussure's work on postulating the existence and
disappearance of laryngeals inProto-Indo-European as an example of other methods of
detecting/reconstructing sound-changes within historical linguistics. Poetic devices such as
rhyme and rhythm may provide clues to previous phonological habits.

Spelling changes[edit]

Standardisation of spelling originated relatively recently.[vague][citation needed] Differences in

spelling often catch the eye of a reader of a text from a previous century. The pre-print era
had fewerliterate people: languages lacked fixed systems of orthography, and the handwritten
manuscripts that survive often show words spelled according to regional pronunciation and to
personal preference.

Semantic changes[edit]
Main article: Semantic change

Semantic changes are shifts in the meanings of existing words. Basic types of semantic
change include:
 pejoration, in which a term's connotations become more negative
amelioration, in which a term's connotations become more positive
broadening, in which a term acquires additional potential uses
narrowing, in which a term's potential uses are restricted

After a word enters a language, its meaning can change as through a shift in the valence of its
connotations. As an example, when "villain" entered English it meant 'peasant' or 'farmhand',
but acquired the connotation 'low-born' or 'scoundrel', and today only the negative use
survives. Thus 'villain' has undergone pejoration. Conversely, the word "wicked" is
undergoing amelioration in colloquial contexts, shifting from its original sense of 'evil', to the
much more positive one as of 2009 of 'brilliant'.

Words' meanings may also change in terms of the breadth of their semantic domain.
Narrowing a word limits its alternative meanings, whereas broadening associates new
meanings with it. For example, "hound" (Old English hund) once referred to any dog,
whereas in modern English it denotes only a particular type of canid. On the other hand, the
word "dog" has been broadened from its Old English root 'dogge', the name of a particular
breed, to become the general term for all canines.[11]

Syntactic change[edit]
Main article: Syntactic change

Syntactic change is the evolution of the syntactic structure of a natural language.

Over time, syntactic change is the greatest modifier of a particular language.[citation

needed]
Massive changes attributable either to creolization or to relexification may occur
both in syntax and in vocabulary. Syntactic change can also be purely language-internal,
whether independent within the syntactic component or the eventual result of phonological or
morphological change.[citation needed]

Sociolinguistics[edit]

The sociolinguist Jennifer Coates, following William Labov, describes linguistic change as
occurring in the context of linguistic heterogeneity. She explains that "[l]inguistic change can
be said to have taken place when a new linguistic form, used by some sub-group within a
speech community, is adopted by other members of that community and accepted as the
norm."[12]
Can and Patton (2010) provide a quantitative analysis of twentieth century Turkish literature
using forty novels of forty authors. Using weighted least squares regression and a sliding
window approach, they show that, as time passes, words, in terms of both tokens (in text) and
types (in vocabulary), have become longer. They indicate that the increase in word lengths
with time can be attributed to the government-initiated language "reform" of the 20th century.
This reform aimed at replacing foreign words used in Turkish, especially Arabic- and Persian-
based words (since they were in majority when the reform was initiated in early 1930s), with
newly coined pure Turkish neologisms created by adding suffixes to Turkish word stems
(Lewis, 1999).

Can and Patton (2010), based on their observations of the change of a specific word use
(more specifically in newer works the preference of ama over fakat, both borrowed from
Arabic and meaning 'but', and their inverse usage correlation is statistically significant), also
speculate that the word length increase can influence the common word choice preferences of
authors.

Quantification[edit]

Altintas, Can, and Patton (2007) introduce a systematic approach to language change
quantification by studying unconsciously-used language features in time-separated parallel
translations. For this purpose, they use objective style markers such as vocabulary richness
and lengths of words, word stems and suffixes, and employ statistical methods to measure
their changes over time.

Language shift and social status[edit]

Main article: Language shift

Languages perceived to be "higher status" stabilise or spread at the expense of other

languages perceived by their own speakers to be "lower-status".

Historical examples are the early Welsh and Lutheran bible translations, leading to the
liturgical languages Welsh and High German thriving today, unlike other Celtic or German
variants.[13]

For prehistory, Forster and Renfrew (2011)[14] argue that in some cases there is a correlation
of language change with intrusive male Y chromosomes but not with female mtDNA. They
then speculate that technological innovation (transition from hunting-gathering to agriculture,
or from stone to metal tools) or military prowess (as in the abduction of British women by
Vikings to Iceland) causes immigration of at least some males, and perceived status change.
Then, in mixed-language marriages with these males, prehistoric women would often have
chosen to transmit the "higher-status" spouse's language to their children, yielding the
language/Y-chromosome correlation seen today.

Notes[edit]

1. Jump up^ Lyons, John (1 June 1968). Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics.

Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-521-09510-5. The traditional
grammarian tended to assume [...] that it was his task, as a grammarian, to
'preserve' this form of language from 'corruption'.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b "The teaching of pidgin and Creole studies - LLAS Centre for
Languages, Linguistics and Area Studies". Retrieved 25 September 2016.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b c The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (1997, p. 335)
4. Jump up^ Ben (7 October 2012). "Was Received Pronunciation Ever
Rhotic?". Retrieved 25 September2016.
5. Jump up^ "The fall of the r-less class - Macmillan". Retrieved 25
September 2016.
6. Jump up^ The Unfolding of Language, 2005, chapter 2, esp. pp. 63, 69 and
71
7. Jump up^ Agrippa, Heinrich Cornelius (1651) [1510]. "23: Of the tongue of
Angels, and of their speaking amongst themselves, and with us". De Occulta
Philosophia [Occult Philosophy]. [...] all tongues have, and do undergo various
mutations, and corruptions [...].
8. Jump up^ Cohen, Marcel (1975) [1970]. Language: its structure and
evolution. Translated by Leonard Muller. London: Souvenir Press (Educational &
Academic). pp. 7498. ISBN 0-285-64779-2. [...] the shifting movements of
languages in light of whatever knowledge is available of the history of humanity.
9. Jump up^ Cohen, Marcel (1975) [1970]. Language: its structure and
evolution. Translated by Leonard Muller. London: Souvenir Press (Educational &
Academic). pp. 98141. ISBN 0-285-64779-2. Internal evolution [...] is the passing
from one system to another. [...] Internal evolution proceeds progressively, by
modification and substitution of details. It is the sum of these details which, at the
end of a certain period of time, constitutes a total change.
 10. Jump up^ Labov, William (1963). "The social motivation of a sound
change". Word. 19: 273309.
11. Jump up^ Crowley, Terry; Bowern, Claire (2010). An Introduction to
Historical Linguistics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 200
201. ISBN 0195365542.
12. Jump up^ Coates, 1992: 169
13. Jump up^ Barker, Christopher (1588). The Bible in Welsh. London.
14. Jump up^ Forster P, Renfrew C; Renfrew (2011). "Mother tongue and Y
chromosomes". Science. 333(6048): 1390
1391. Bibcode:2011Sci...333.1390F. doi:10.1126/science.1205331.PMID 21903800.

References[edit]

Journals

Altintas, K.; Can, F.; Patton, J. M. (2007). "Language Change Quantification Using
Time-separated Parallel Translations". Literary and Linguistic Computing. 22 (4): 375
393.doi:10.1093/llc/fqm026.
Can, F.; Patton, J. M. (2010). "Change of Word Characteristics in 20th Century
Turkish Literature: A Statistical Analysis". Journal of Quantitative Linguistics. 17 (3):
167190.doi:10.1080/09296174.2010.485444.

Books

Coates, Jennifer (1993). Women, men, and language: a sociolinguistic account of

gender differences in language. Studies in language and linguistics (2 ed.). Longman.
p. 228.ISBN 978-0-582-07492-7. Retrieved 2010-03-30.
Labov, William (1994, 2001), Principles of Linguistic Change (vol.I Internal Factors,
1994; vol.IISocial Factors, 2001), Blackwell.
Lewis, G. (1999). The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success. Oxford :
Oxford University Press.
Wardhaugh, R. (1986), An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Oxford/ New York.

file:///E:/KULIAH/SEMESTER%208/SOCIOLINGUISTICS/Language
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 Sociolinguistic Patterns and Language Change

In the section on language and age the age pattern is discussed as a characteristic type of age-
graded linguistic variation. It is a typical change in the overall speech behaviour of the
individual speaker as (s)he moves through life. The age-pattern is repeated with each new
generation of language users. We find that, with respect to the variants of a variable, younger
speakers tend to use language differently from older speakers (see here for the age-pattern).
When we compare the speech of younger speakers to that of older speakers in a speech
community, we need to consider two factors. First, there is linguistic change in the individual
speaker as he or she gets older and in society as variation is repeated with new generations.
Second, there is linguistic change in a speech community over time.
The central question is whether linguistic differences based on speaker age constitute an
instance of regular age grading or whether these differences can indicate language change in
progress. If language change is the case, a linguistic change can be made visible in a
deviation from the regular U-curve-like pattern for age-graded variation (see diagrams below
about the use of variants of a variable). Such a variable is called a variable involved in
linguistic change.
Regular age-grading:

Possible pattern of distribution for a variable when a change is in progress:

Possible pattern of distribution for a variable when a change is in progress:

(Source of the diagrams: McMahon, April M.S. (1994). Understanding Language Change.
Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press, 241/242).
Stable Variables and Variables Involved in Linguistic Change

(1) Stable variables:

A stable (sociolinguistic) variable is a variable which is not undergoing linguistic
change. Such a variable exhibits the regular age pattern. A stable variable, thus, reflects
change in the speech of the individual speaker as (s)he progresses through life.
An example for a stable (sociolinguistic) variable is (ng) with its prestige velar variant
[] and its non-prestige alveolar variants [n] or [n]. Both the prestige and non-prestige
variants show linguistic stability in that they have been described to occur regularly in the
speech of the individuals in a speech community. The use of one or the other variant(s) differs
with respect to age but there is no indication that the prestige variant is pushing out the
non-prestige variant(s) or vice versa.
(2) Variables involved in linguistic change:
Apart from stable variables which are not involved in linguistic change, there are
(sociolinguistic) variables which are affected by linguistic change in a speech community.
Such variables donot show the regular U-curve-like age pattern and we find that
a particular age group uses more or less standard or non-standard variants than is
usually observed. This indicates that a change might be in progress in the speech
community.
(r) is an example for a variable involved in linguistic change that was studied
by William Labov in New York City (1966). (See here). At the time of the study, the variable
(r) represented a change in progress in New York City. Traditionally, New York City had been
r-less, but after World War II the pronunciation of /r/ gained prestige. Labov found that the
pronunciation of /r/ was reintroduced by younger speakers into New York City speech as the
prestigious variety. Variable (r) showed social and stylistic stratification and all speakers
viewed the pronunciation of /r/ as prestigious by using higher frequencies of it in more formal
styles.
Variable (r) in New York City is an example for a change from above.

http://www.ello.uos.de/field.php/Sociolinguistics/Stablevariablesandvariablesinvolvedinlingu
isticchange

Language Change and the Problems of Actuation, Transition and Embedding

The actuation, transition and embedding of change are central questions within the study of
language change and they have been treated as the three central problems:
(1) The ACTUATION problem is concerned with an explanation of what it is that
actuallytriggers language change. How do changes begin?
(2) The TRANSITION problem is concerned with the factors that are responsible for
thespread of linguistic change within a speech community. How does change spread within a
speech community?
(3) The EMBEDDING problem is concerned with the localization of change with respect to
the linguistic and social settings in which this change is taking place. How is the change
embedded in the surrounding linguistic and social system?

Apparent Time and Real Time Studies of Language Change

Language change and the mechanics of language change are investigated by apparent
time studies and real time studies of language change which differ from each other in the
way they approach the detection of language change in a speech community.
Apparent time studies of language change focus on a comparison between the speech
patterns of different age groups (i.e. younger and older speakers) within the same speech
community at a certain moment in time. If younger speakers show linguistic differences to
older speakers in a speech community, this can be interpreted as an indication of linguistic
change taking place in this community. However, in the course of such a comparison it is
important to make a distinction between linguistic differences that are based on speaker age
(thus due to the stable variable of age-grading) and differences that truly reflect language
change in progress.
Real time studies of language change focus on detecting change not in apparent time but in
real time. The speech of different age groups is compared at different moments in time in
order to detect historical change in the community, i.e. to find out about linguistic change in
a community as it progresses through time. Language change in real time can be illustrated
by the repetition of a community study. That is, the linguistic variation in a speech
community is reinvestigated in a new study undertaken after a certain amount of time.
Significant deviations from the originally found speech patterns within this community are
interpreted as signs of linguistic change over time.

http://www.ello.uos.de/field.php/Sociolinguistics/Apparenttimeandrealtimestudiesoflanguage
change

Language Variation and Change

Led by: Riho Grnthal (University of Helsinki) and Juhani Klemola (University of Tampere)

The goal of this branch of linguistic study is to shed light on linguistic diversity and to
describe and model the sociolinguistic, textual and areal factors that affect choice between
expressional variants. The effects that these factors have on the development of language as
well as empirical and theoretical investigation of language internal change are focused upon
here. Linguistic change occurs due to variation within a language or then because of contacts
between languages, and very often one has to deal with the combined effect of both of these
sources of change.

Diachronic investigation seeks to describe and systematize observed linguistic changes. On

the one hand, we can investigate the development of diverse features of individual languages
during a given period of time, either in the light of historical documents or through
interlinguistic comparison, based on genetic or areal linguistics. Yet, on the other hand, one
can search for parallels in contemporary languages and make inferences about the genetic
relations between languages or their contacts during different periods. Areal linguistics study
the effect of modern languages upon each other, Sprachbnde and tendencies shared by
adjacent dialects of different languages. Contact linguistics, in turn, is closely connected to
the study of bilingualism and, thereby, to sociolinguistic questions.

Research topics include areal varieties and local dialects, standard languages and their spread,
sociolects, including differences between spoken and written language and various genres
and their development. The approach provided by the program can be applied to the study of
individual languages and their development, to multilingual and multidialectal areals, and the
manifestation of variation and change in texts.

The program is mainly directed at empirical study of variation, which includes both
qualitative and quantitative analysis. Possibilities offered by large digital corpora are utilized
along with traditional data collection via fieldwork and interviews. Our research also tests the
applicability and validity of modern linguistics methodologies in the field of diachronic
study. Our themes of research are:

Processes of language change

Areal and social variation
Text-based variation and the development of textual types
Standard language and normativity
Sprachbnde and areality

LANGUAGE CHANGE AS A PROCESS

Language changes have traditionally been treated as processes constrained by internal
linguistic factors. According to this view, language contacts have been perceived as
disturbing factors. Therefore, explaining language change requires new analytical ways of
modelling contact, in which both internal and external factors are closely investigated.
Studying language-internal processes requires a fundamental knowledge of sociolinguistic,
textual and regional factors, since all variation-based analytical and explanatory models of
language change rely on the idea of a combined effect of all factors. Another important
insight is to be able to connect the latest language changes with historical ones. Hence, the
concept of grammaticalization offers a productive starting point for analyses of language
changes that span several hundred years.

A typological perspective is also important in studies of both language change and language
contact. Such a perspective means dealing with tendencies of change amongst certain
language types, i.e. typological drifts; they may affect one language only, be regional, or then
more universal. Longstanding interconnected language changes may lead to changes in
typology. The assumptions attached to typological cycles consisting of change tendencies
require more study.

REGIONAL AND SOCIAL VARIATION

Research conducted in this topic area investigates both regional dialects and regional
language variants, including social variation and social dialects. The aims of the research
include descriptions of phonetic, lexical, and morpho-syntactic variation, as well as dialectal
change and language internal and external factors that may promote or inhibit changes.
Topics of interest also include the relationship between dialects and standardized languages,
attitudes to dialect use, and description, explanation and (possibly) prediction of results of
contacts between language variants. Synchronic research of modern dialects is geared
towards spoken languages, and written documents are used in research concerned with past
regional language variants. In the latter, special attention is paid to the emergence and
divergence of new language forms from existing variants. It is written literary texts, along
with surviving manuscript documents, which provide the grounds for this type of research.
Areas of interest in social dialects include, for instance, the impact of urbanization and the
language use of younger generations.

Sociolinguistic research has provided fruitful results on linguistic changes, and we have
plenty of information on the correlations of linguistic change and social variation of
education, gender, and age, for example. Historical sociolinguistic research aims at applying
sociolinguistic models and methods to language history. Real time data are also needed in
modeling diachronic change. Systematic attempts to model past stages of sociolinguistic
reality in historical linguistics have, so far, been preliminary. Scholars of modern languages
have access to social information regarding modern societies; for language historians,
however, such data are provided by historians, particularly social and population historians.

Case studies provide the basis for creating models for more general diachronic research. Such
models pay special attention to empirical problems and theoretical questions. A special
challenge is to apply two different, and often contradictory, models to sociolinguistic
research, viz. the traditional class-based model, whose roots lie in the socioeconomic position
of the individuals, and then the social network approach. Theoretical goals within historical
sociolinguistics include an examination of the relationship between societal changes and
linguistic changes. Therefore, language historians provide feedback for modern
sociolinguistic research and contribute to the critical debate regarding its success.

TEXTUAL VARIATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEXT TYPES

Textual variation can be approached by observing the appearance of specific stylistic features
and textual strategies in texts classified according to language external factors. This
classification can be based, for example, on register, genre, function and the target audience.
Stylistic preferences reflect textual conventions, i.e. certain unwritten rules that act as
communicative and pragmatic signals among the producers and the recipients of texts.
Textual variation is shown in clusters of stylistic features that develop into more or less fixed
textual conventions with temporal variability. Classification principles, which bring forth the
dynamics with empirical studies, have lately gained increasing attention. Both text production
and appropriation are now considered to be dynamic processes. Researchers in this field have
adopted linguistic analysis, text linguistics and discourse analysis, as well as other pragmatic
methods of analysis. Non-literary prose, especially instructive and scholarly writings, are of
foremost interest, but, as far as the methods are concerned, there are points in common with
the study of literature as well, above all with its new pragmalinguistic trends, linguistic
stylistics and, for example, the long-term use of rhetorical devices in argumentative texts.

STANDARD LANGUAGE AND NORMATIVITY

Standard language can be described as a collectively accepted language form that does not
produce negative reactions in the speech community. It is a loose norm based on social
conventions. The standard language norm can also be described in a narrow sense, for
instance in relation to language guidance, language teaching and sociolinguistic research.
Standard language varies both situationally and socially. Variation itself represents change, as
so-called apparent time research has shown. Grammars and dictionaries may already be
partly outdated at the time of publication; therefore, there is a great need for research.

Computational corpora compiled from various languages provide a solid basis for the
analysis of standard language variation. Such corpora contain both written and spoken
language, and the largest corpora exceed hundreds of millions of words in size. Relations
between world languages, nations official languages and minority languages continue to be a
subject of heated debates. The dominant language is seen as a threat to the identity, or even
existence, of the subordinate language. These threats are concrete and easily verifiable, as the
fate of many minority languages shows.

LINGUISTIC AREAS AND AREALITY

Areal linguistics focus on geographical areas of language contact and form a special branch
of linguistics, sometimes left outside the common theories of language contact. Thus, there
are several issues to be addressed in defining the notion of linguistic area as well as in
examining the processes of change occurring in such linguistic areas. In the so-called dialect
federations, the dialects of neighbouring languages form their own linguistic area; to be able
to observe such federations, fieldwork is often required. Fieldwork has a central role in all
linguistic contact research. The so-called areal typology can also be discussed: neighbouring
languages and dialects can realise a typological drift together without any of the languages or
dialects being dominant. Areal questions are also closely connected to sociolinguistics. In
multilingual and multicultural states, the influence of the prestige language is visible and may
lead to swift cultural changes, e.g. with changes in educational policies. Under the pressure of
the prestige language, minority languages may influence each other. Analysing such
situations is especially fruitful in areas where genetically and typologically different
languages meet. On the other hand, mutual contacts of genetically closely related languages
have so far received little attention in the formation of general theories. In these situations,
contact-induced change is very different to that previously considered.

Research on contact languages (pidgins, creoles, mixed languages) has not been carried out
on a large scale in Finland. The contact languages are genuinely contact-based languages,
formed out of the contact of two or more languages. Even in those languages that are not
contact-based special contact varieties can be observed through the influence of an adstrate or
a substrate language.

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