Timber:

Structure and Properties

Repair, Assessment & Rehabilitation
Introduction

Until the introduction of steel construction at the beginning of the

industrial revolution, timber was the only material with which man
could build a complete structural framework.
 The Basic Constituent

Basic constituents of wood:

Cellulose (70%) the primary
constituent of wood
Lignin (~25%) this is the
constituent which gives the
wood
strength
Extractive: consisting
of tannin, starch, oils,
resins, fats, and waxes
Ash: forming minerals
The Structure of Wood

Three important
levels in the structure
of wood:
The fiber structure
The cell structure
The macrostructure
The structure of the
cellulose filaments in
wood
The Structure of Wood
The Structure of Wood
The Structure of Timber

(a) The macrostructure, including a layer

structure outlined by the annual growth rings.
(b) Detail of the cell structure within one annual
growth ring.
(c) The structure of a cell, including several layers
composed of microfibrils of cellulose fibers,
hemicellulose fibers, and lignin.
(d) The microfibrils aligned, partly crystalline
cellulose chains.
Basic Types of Wood

The microscopic structure of wood shows a bundle of straws glued

together, each straw representing longitudinally-oriented cellulose
cells and a hollow center (lumen).
The cell walls are cemented together by lignin, a natural polymer
that glues the cells together and gives wood its strength.
The structure of hardwoods is more complex, their strength and
stiffness properties being much higher along the grain than across
the grain, thereby classifying hardwood as an anisotropic material.
SEM of Softwood
SEM of Hardwood
Basic Types of Wood

Softwoods
Softwoods are woods extracted from coniferous or
evergreen tress. Pine, spruce, fir, cedar, and redwood are
all softwoods but they have different properties and prices
and are therefore used in different ways in building
construction.
In softwoods the main constituent is cellulose
Basic Types of Wood

Hardwoods
Because the trees that produce hardwoods take much
longer to mature than those that produce softwoods,
hardwoods generally command much higher prices,
hardwoods are generally used only for finishing.
in hardwoods it is primarily lignin.
Timber varieties are then graded according to their properties.
By doing this, a whole new range became available for use in
building, including types previously classified as non-resources or
firewood.
Tree Growth and Wood Strength

Wood grows in an annual fashion, with concentric rings from the

centre (in cross section) marking the beginning and end of each
years growth.
These rings are the grain of the wood. When referring to wood, the
direction is being parallel to, or across the grain; meaning
respectively: vertically and horizontally with respect to the original
standing tree.
 Tree Growth and Wood Strength

Wood is two to five times stronger parallel to the grain.

Tree Growth and Wood Strength

When mentioning beams it is common to stress with

respect to their direction:
Compression is caused by pushing the ends of the beam
together.
Tension is caused by pulling the ends of the beam apart.
Shear is caused by sideways force, i.e. force not along the
long axis of the beam.
 Wood is 30% stronger in
compression than in tension.
Wood is stronger in resisting
shear across the grain than it is
parallel to the grain.
Moisture Content

Moist wood is subject to rot, and therefore, will

decay.
In order to resist decay, the moisture content in
wood must be below 20%.
Commonly, wood is dried to about 8% moisture
content for interior uses, and 12% moisture content
for framing purposes.
Tree to Plank

The steps in processing the tree intended for

construction purpose are as follow:
Felling
Storage
Sawing
Drying
Seasoning (impregnating)
Tree to Plank
Felling

The quality of end product of timber is relative to

the season when the tree was felled.
Another advantage of the winter and early rainy felling of
ordinary construction timber is that the sawn timber dries
out more slowly and is therefore less likely to split.
Coniferous trees were felled at full moon, because the
resins were well drawn out of the roots and into the trunk.
Tree to Plank
Storage

The timber should be stored in water, where there is hardly any

oxygen. This reduces the risk of mould and insect damage.
Timber stored in water during the summer often becomes porous
through the action of anaerobic bacteria which eat the contents
of the cells and pore membranes. This can dramatically increase
its resistance to rotting later, because the timber can easily cope
with damp.
Tree to Plank
Sawing

There are different ways of sawing a log to

produce planks:
Plain sawing: this method results in the greatest yield.
Quarter sawing: more expensive than plain sawing, this
method leaves the grain exposed, and results in less
warping of wood.
Rift sawing: radial cutting, used for expensive woods.
Tree to Plank
Sawing

The wedge is more sensitive with wood than the

axe, and the axe is more sensitive than the saw.
By using a wedge, the cells are kept whole when
the wood is split; the saw cuts straight through the
cell walls.
This is critical to the timbers absorption of water,
which governs the risk of attack by mould or
insects.
Tree to Plank
Sawing
 Tree to Plank
Sawing

Qualities of panelling and planks depend on way of sawing.

Tree to Plank
Drying
Effect of Shrinkage
Tree to Plank
Seasoning

Seasoning is the process of preparing wood to resist

decay. The methods of seasoning are as follows:
Air drying (for two to six months)
Kiln drying
Pressure treatment: in which the wood is impregnated with
chemicals that prevent decay.
Tree to Plank
Seasoning

Pressure-treated wood. Softwood timber treated by a process

that forces preservative chemicals into the cells of the wood.
The result is a material that is immune to decay. This should
not generally be used for interiors.
Tree to Plank
Seasoning

Fire-retardant-treated (FRT) wood. Heavy timber (thick timber)

is generally assumed to be resistive because it produces a
charred surface when burned, which retards further burning.
Smaller wood members can be fire protected by coverings,
coatings, and treatments.
Modern fire-retardant treatment of wood consists of various
organic and inorganic chemicals, followed by kiln drying to
reduce moisture to 15 to 19%.
The Durability of Timber

All timber breaks down eventually. Usually happen either

through oxidization caused by oxygen in the air, or through
reaction with micro-organisms which attack the proteins and
therefore the sugars.
Timber that is submerged in water is more durable because of
the lower amount of oxygen; in swamps timber can lie for
thousands of years without deteriorating.
The Durability of Timber

The oldest known timber building in existence is the Horiuji temple in

Japan, which was built of cypress in AD 607.
Timber is very resistant to aggressive pollution in the atmosphere
evidence of such damage occurring in timber has not been found.
The Durability of Timber
The Durability of Timber

The extensive use of artificial fertilizer is probably reducing its

durability, as the fast growth of cells produces wide annual
rings and gives a spongier, more porous timber.
Fast-growing species were introduced in the 1950s which
have proved to yield lower quality timber. These conditions
also led to a greater need to impregnation timber with
chemicals.
Man-Made Products
Plywood

Plywood sheets are composed of several layers of

wood veneer, glued together.
Each layer of plywood has its grain offset 90 degrees to
the adjoining layers to prevent warping.
Plywood is constitutes of face plies and core plies.
Plywood is available in Interior and Exterior Grades, which
are determined by whether or not moisture-resistant
adhesives are used (Exterior Grade is characterised by
moisture resistance).
Man-Made Products
Hardboard

Hardboard describes a material made from wood fibres

which are bonded under heat and pressure.
Its two forms are basic and pre-finished (which is known as
masonite). Masonite can be waterproofed if necessary.
Common uses include under floors, cabinet work, and
ceilings.
Man-Made Products
Particle board

Particle board differs from hardboard in that the chips or

wood pieces are glued together with resins and other
binders.
It comes in interior and exterior grades. Aspenite is a kind of
particle board with rather large constituent fibres. It is
commonly used for sheathing as a substitute for plywood.
Man-Made Products
Composite board

Consists of a homogeneous layers of refined wood product

(card paper). Impregnated with asphaltic materials.
Because it is waterproof, it is used as light construction
sheathing.
Good acoustic qualities, it is often used for ceilings and
interior wall finishes.
Man-Made Products