3.

DRAINAGE INSTALLATIONS

3.1 Standards and Regulations

The Building Regulations 2000 (London: The Stationery Office).

BS 6465: Part 1: 1994: Code of Practice for the scale of provision, selection
and installation of sanitary appliances (London: BSI).

BS EN 12056-2: 2000: Gravity drainage systems inside buildings sanitary

pipework, layout and calculation (London: BSI).

BS EN 12056-3: 2000: Gravity drainage systems outside buildings roof

drainage, layout and calculations (London: BSI).

BS EN 752: 1996-1998: Drain and sewer systems outside buildings

(London: BSI).

3.2 Definitions

1. Soil appliances: includes a water closet or urinal receptacle, bed-pan

washer, bed-pan sink and slop sink.

2. Soil pipe: a pipe (not being a drain) which conveys soil water either alone
or together only with waste water, or rainwater, or both.

3. Ventilating pipe: a pipe (not being drain) open to the external air at its
highest point, which ventilates a drainage system, either by connection to a
drain, or to a soil pipe, or waste pipe and does not convey any soil water,
waste water or rainwater.

4. Waste appliance: includes a slipper bath, lavatory basin, bidet, domestic

sink, cleaners bucket sink, drinking fountain, shower tray, wash fountain,
washing trough and wash-tub.

5. Waste pipe: a pipe (not being a drain, or overflow pipe) which conveys
waste water, either alone or together only with rainwater.

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 6. Waste water: used water not contaminated by soil water or trade effluent.

7. Bedding: material around a buried pipeline assisting in resisting

imposed loads from ground and traffic.

8. Benching: curved smooth surfaces at the base of manholes, which assist

the smooth flow of fluids.

9. Combined System: a drainage system in which foul and surface-water are

conveyed in the same pipe.

10. Crown: the highest point on the internal surface of a pipe

11. Discharge stack: vertical pipe conveying foul fluid/solid.

12. Foul drain: a pipe conveying water-borne waste from a building

13. Foul sewer: the pipe work system provided by the local drainage authority.

14. Invert: the lowest point on the internal surface of a pipe

15. Manhole: an access chamber to a drain or sewer.

16. Separate system: a drainage system in which foul and surface-water are
discharge into separate sewers or places of disposal.

17. Subsoil drains: a system of underground porous or un-jointed pipes to

collect ground water and convey it to its discharge point.

18. Stack: vertical pipe

19. Surface-water drain: a pipe conveying rain water away from roofs or paved
areas within a single curtilage.

20. Surface-water sewer: the local authority pipe work system.

21. Waste pipe: pipe from a sanitary appliance to a stack.

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3.3 Drainage Systems

Separate System
The foul water discharges from the sanitary appliances and the surface water
fun-off from the roofs and paved areas are kept separate. The foul waste is
discharged to the sewer or treatment plant and the surface water is discharged to
the street drain channels, sewer or seepage pit.

Combined system
The foul water and the surface water are conveyed in a combined or single drain
to the sewer. This system is no longer acceptable by most regulations

Fig 3.1 Separate system of drainage Fig 3.2 Combined system of drainage

The two-pipe or dual-pipe system

This is the traditional system of drainage within buildings. The foul or soil matter
is conveyed in a separate drain and stack from the waste matter. The size of the
soil stack should not be less than the size of any soil fitting discharging into it,
and in Nigeria, is generally not less than 100mm. The waste stack is similarly
sized and is generally not less than 50mm.

The one pipe system

This system combines the waste and foul discharge into a common stack.
Connections can also include for the ventilating pipe. It is suited for where the
sanitary fittings are closely grouped.

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 Researches by the BRE (Building Research Establishment of the UK) have
concluded that ranges of WC and WHB can be connected to the single stack
without need for relief venting. Sizes of stacks are usually 100mm and 150mm
but note that sizes actually depend on the number and type of fittings.

Fig 3.3 Two-pipe system Fig 3.4 Fully vented one-pipe system

The single stack system

This is a variant of the one-pipe system in which the ventilation pipes are omitted.
Installation requirements are more demanding in order to prevent the loss of trap
seals. Fittings are individually connected to the stack.

The modified one-pipe system

This is similar to the one-pipe and the single stack. The trap ventilating and anti-
syphon pipes are omitted. However, there is a main vent stack with a cross vent
connection to the main stack at each or alternate floors. Vent stacks can range
from 50mm to 75mm dia.

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 Fig 3.5 Single stack system Fig 3.6 Modified one-pipe vented system

3.4 Design Notes

Following are some points to note when designing any drainage scheme:

Above ground drainage

1. The one-pipe system is favoured over the two-pipe system because there are
fewer pipes and it is more hygienic.

2. The two-pipe system uses a separate vent from each sanitary appliance,
which are then joined into a combined vent stack, whereas the single-stack
system is simplified.

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 3. All systems are vented and trapped to exclude smells and foul air. Traps are
devices, which contain a water-seal of about 50mm to 75mm to prevent
gases escaping into sanitary fittings like wash basins, water closets, sinks,
baths, showers, etc. Foul water pipes exceeding 6.4m long are usually
required to be vented.

4. If the waste pipe from a wash basin is at too steep a gradient, self-siphonage
may occur. This is where the contents of the trap are sucked out into waste
pipe because the water flows away too quickly thus emptying the trap.

5. Induced siphonage can occur if a suction pressure develops in the drainage

system. A suction pressure of 500 N/m2 (50mm water gauge) will reduce the
water level in a basin trap by 25mm).

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 6. In badly designed systems backpressure can also occur which is sufficient to
remove water from a trap.

7. Waste pipes from appliances which discharge into larger pipes avoids
siphonage problems because the larger pipes do not normally run full. For
example, a 32mm waste from a wash hand basin is connected to a 100mm
diameter Soil and Vent pipe.

8. Waste pipes from appliances which discharge into pipes of the same
diameter have limitations on lengths, number of bends and gradients to
minimize siphonage problems.

9. Self-siphonage is not normally a problem for sinks, baths and showers

because of the near flat base of each appliance allowing the trap to re-fill
should it empty.

10. The horizontal length of soil pipe from a WC is limited to 6m (Building

Regulations U.K).

11. Soil and Vent stacks should have no waste branch close to the connection of
the WC.

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 12. Sometimes it is not possible to prevent pressure fluctuations in pipework in
which case separate vent pipes should be installed. It may not be possible to
limit the length of branches or provide reasonable gradients in some
installations.

13. A velocity of flow of 0.6 to 0.75 m/s should prevent stranding of solid matter in
horizontal pipes.

14. Gradient from 1 in 40 to 1 in 110 will normally give adequate flow velocities.

15. A range of 4 lavatory basins, the traps from which discharge into a straight
run of 50mm waste pipe not more than 4m long, with a fall of 1-21/2 , will give
rise to a need for venting. (reference British Standard No. 5572).

16. It is normal practice to connect a ground floor water closet straight into a
manhole. Self-siphonage and induced siphonage will not occur because of
the large pipe from a W.C. diameter (100mm) and because the drain is
vented.

17. Access points should be sited:

a) At a bend or change indirection
b) At a junction, unless each run can be cleared from an access point.
c) On or near the head of each drain run.
d) On long runs
e) At a change of pipe size.

18. The lowest branch connection to the stack shall be made at the following
minimum distances from the base of the stack:

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 Table 3.1 Connection clear space at stack base
Application Min distance
(mm)
Single dwelling up to 3 storeys in height 450
Buildings up to 5 storeys in height 750
Buildings up to 20 storeys in height 1 storey

Buildings over 20 storeys in height 2 storeys

Below ground drainage

1. The layout of the system should be as simple and direct as possible and the
number of bends, trap and manholes kept to a minimum.

2. The pipes should be laid in straight lines, from point to point.

3. The pipes should be non-absorbent, durable, smooth in bore and of

adequate strength.

4. The pipes should be adequately supported without restricting movement.

5. Foul water drains should be well ventilated, to prevent the accumulation of

foul gases and fluctuation of air pressure within the pipe, which could lead
to the unsealing of gully or W.C. traps.

6. All the parts of the drainage system should be accessible for inspection and
cleaning.

7. The pipes should be laid to a self-cleansing gradient, that will prevent the
settlement of solid matter, which might lead to a blockage.

8. The velocity of flow should not be less than 0.75L/s which will prevent the
stranding of solid matter. A maximum velocity of 2 m/s is acceptable, but
the upper limit is not considered important and on sloping sites the drain
may be allowed to follow the fall of the land. Large diameter sewers,
however, require ramps to restrict the fall on sloping sites, to permit
workmen to make necessary inspections and repairs.

9. A foul water drain should never run at more than 90 per cent of its capacity.
This is equivalent to running at a depth of flow equal to three-quarters of the
bore. This maximum discharge, together with adequate ventilation, will
prevent the possibility of compression of air in the drain, which could cause
unsealing of traps. Surface water drains may be designed to run at full
bore.

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 10. Pipes should not pass under a building unless absolutely necessary and
pipes should not be laid close to building foundations.

11. Pipes should not pass near trees because of the possibility of damage by
the roots.

12. Where possible, flexible joints should be used and the Code of Practice on
drainage recommends that pipes under buildings should have flexible joints
and means of access.

13. Where pipes pass through walls, relieving arch or lintel should be provided
in the wall above the pipes to prevent the wall load bearing on the pipe.

14. Bends in pipes should have a large radius of between 215 and 750mm for
100mm diameter pipes and between 225 and 900mm for 150mm diameter
pipes.

15. Branch connections should be swept in the direction of flow.

16. Drain pipes should be at least 900mm below roads and at least 600mm
below fields and gardens.

17. Clay pipes under roads should have their strength increased by surrounding
them with 150mm thickness of in situ concrete. Flexible joints should be
used and a 25mm gap should be left at the joint to give flexibility at this
point (see Fig. 8.7). Alternatively, ductile iron pipes may be used with
flexible joints.
Note: The BS Code of Practice 2005, 1968, Sewerage recommends a
minimum cover of not less than 1.2m for sewer under roads or footpaths.

18. Where pipes are not under a road and the depth below ground is less than
600mm, two pre-cast concrete slabs should be laid over the pipes, so that
the load transmitted to the pipe wall is at points of about 22.30hr and
13.30hr. There should be a minimum thickness of 150mm of soil, free from
large stones, building rubbish, tree roots, vegetable matter and large lumps
of clay. Alternatively, broken stone or gravel 10 mm nominal single size
may be placed between the concrete slabs and the top of the pipe.

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3.5 Soil and Waste Above Ground Drainage

There are a number of established methods and programs for sizing drains and
stacks. The common ones make use of discharge units based on the frequency of
use of the appliances. Table 3.2 gives the discharge unit per appliance that is then
used in conjunction with table 3.3 to determine the diameter of the stack.

Table 3.2 Discharge unit values for sanitary appliances

(COP 304:1968)
Appliance Private Public
DU DU
Water closet (up to 9L) 10 14
Wash basin 3 5
Bath 7 12
Shower 4 8
Sink 6 8
Bidet 4 8
Urinal - 2
Washing machine 4 8
Dish washer 4 8

Table 3.3 Max discharge unit allowed on vertical stacks

(COP 304:1968)
Nominal internal diameter of DU
stack
50 20
65 80
75 200
100 850
125 2700
150 6500

Note: Vent stacks may not necessarily be required for buildings up to 4

storeys using 100mm stacks and 10 storeys for 150mm stacks. Where
there are offsets in the stack, 50mm and 75mm vents should respectively
be installed for 100mm and 150mm stacks.

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3.5 Soil and Waste Below Ground Drainage

The discharge unit computation is also used in sizing below ground drains. Table
3.2 can be used in conjunction with manufacturers pipe sizing charts (e.g. fig 3.11
below).

In selecting gradients, note the recommended maximum for the sizes of drains:

100mm: 1 in 80
150mm: 1 in 120
200mm: 1 in 150

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 Fig 3.11 Drainage pipe sizing graph

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 Example
Size the foul water pipework for 12 houses from the DATA below in the table.

1. Use a minimum gradient of 1:80 for all pipes.

2. Discharge units from each house:

No. off Appliance DU Total units

2 WC 10 20
2 basin 3 6
1 bath 7 7
1 shower 4 4
1 sink 6 6
0 washing machine 4 0
0 dish washer 4 0
Total 43
12 houses x 43 = 516 discharge units.

Flow graph gives 150mm-dia. foul drain since the convergence of the two lines
on the graph is between the pipe size 100mm diameter and 150mm diameter.

NOTE:
A more detailed calculation will also take the flow velocity of foul water into
consideration. The flow should not be less than the self cleansing velocity of
0,75m/s. Also the proportional depth of flow should not be more than 0.75 (i.e. the
pipe is not to flow full but allowance should be made for air). To this end, more
detailed calculations and graphs are used.

3.6 Surface Water Drainage

In Nigeria (Lagos), surface water systems are designed on a rainfall intensity of

150 200mm/hr. The amount of water entering a drain depends on the amount of
evaporation into the atmosphere and natural drainage or percolation into the
ground. The drain flow load is represented by the impermeability factor and typical
figures are given in the table below:

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 Table 3.4 Ground Impermeability factors
SURFACE TYPE IMPERMEABILITY
FACTOR (f)
Road or pavement 0.90
Roof 0.95
Path 0.75
Garden 0.25
Access road, parking 0.90
Woodland 0.20

The following method is one way of sizing the pipework for drains.
1. Choose a minimum gradient for all pipes, say 1:80
2. Use table 3.4 above to calculate the flow rate in each section.
3. The area of each surface is calculated from drawings.
4. The impermeability factor allows for water, which runs off each surface.
5. The flow rate (Q) for each house can be calculated from:
Q =area drained x rainfall intensity x impermeability factor
6. If Rainfall intensity = 150mm/hr, then Q becomes:

Q= A x 150 x f
Q= (A x f) 150 ((litres/hour)

7. Divide Q by 3600 to get value in litres/second.

8. Multiply Q by number of houses to get Total Q.
9. Estimate pipe size from Pipe Sizing graph (fig 3:11).

Fig 3.12 is a vertical rainwater pipe sizing chart extracted from the Plumbing
Engineering Services Design Guide.

Actual flow rates for grated roof outlets can be obtained from the manufacturers.

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Fig 3.12 Vertical rainwater pipe sizing chart

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Example
Size the surface water pipework for 12 houses using the DATA below in the table.
1. Choose a minimum gradient for all pipes, say 1:80
2. Surface water flow from each house.

SURFACE TYPE AREA IMPERMEABILITY TOTAL

(A) m2 FACTOR (f) (A x f)
Road or pavement 20 0.90 18.00

Roof 40 0.95 38.00

Path 15 0.75 11.25

Garden 68 0.25 17.00

Access road, parking 25 0.90 22.50

Total 192 Total 103.50

3. Rainfall intensity 150mm/hr.

Q = area drained x rainfall intensity x impermeability factor

Q = A x 150 x f
Q = (A x f) 150
Q = 103.50 x 150 = 15,525 litres/hour
Q = 4.313 litres/second per house X 12 houses.
Q = 51.75 litres/second.

Flow graph gives 225mm-dia. Surface water drain. Note that the gradient would
have to be adjusted to 1:100.

3.6 Sewage Disposal

The simplest and best method of sewage disposal is to connect to and discharge
into a public sewer. The sewage is then treated at a central station. This is what
obtains in developed cities and some private estates.

Where there is no public sewer, disposal can be by:

Dilution
Conservancy
Treatment

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 Dilution
In this system, the sewage is discharged to a sufficiently large body of water.
Oxidation of the organic matter is achieved by the oxygen dissolved in the water.
Increasing this method is being discouraged.

A means of improving this method is to first treat the sewage and thus break down
the solid matter (in a septic tank or mechanical treatment) prior to discharge to the
water body.

Conservancy
There are sites in which, due to the nature, configuration and size, treatment or
dilution may not be feasible. In such cases, the use of cesspool is appropriate. A
cesspool is an underground watertight but ventilated container. Construction can
be of concrete or grp. The cesspool shall be impervious to ground or surface
water.

Cesspools are sized based on 120 150L/day per residential dweller (or as
appropriate for building usage). The containment will depend on the frequency of
evacuation though a minimum of 2weeks is usually recommended. The capacity of
the evacuation vehicle is also taken into consideration. Vehicles of 3.5m3 are
common.

Fig 3.13 Portable ventilated closet

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 Treatment
Virtually all sewage treatment plants, both large local authority and small private,
are based on the system of first removing suspended solid matter by means of
sedimentation, settling or septic tanks; then oxidizing the organic matter still
contained in the liquid by means of biological agencies and finally discharging the
final effluent to a watercourse, or if this is not possible, by surface or sub-surface
irrigation. The sludge accumulating during the first stage is removed periodically
(6 months is the usual interval) and either dumped or used directly or in dried form
as fertilizer. Large installations with constant supervision can have many
refinements such as screening to arrest foreign objects, maceration of solids,
chemical treatment to encourage flocculation and precipitation of solids, sludge-
drying beds or digestion plant, facilities for re-circulating effluent if desired
standards have not been achieved and more sophisticated procedures and design.
Indeed the general principles of operation are essentially similar.

Septic Tank
The first stage of treatment in small plants is traditionally termed the septic
tank. Sewage is allowed to stand in the septic tank, which will usually have a
capacity of between 16 and 48 hours flow. Sludge will settle to the bottom
and scum form on the top and a clear liquid called liquor will overflow as new
flows come in. To some degree digestion may take place. This process is a
breaking down of the organic content by means of the anaerobic bacteria
which can thrive under the conditions of a septic tank. This process reduces
the quantity of sludge and renders the odour less offensive. At ambient
temperatures this process can occupy a period of two months or more,
consequently it can only be partially effective in a septic tank.

In large sewage works special digestion facilities can be provided which have
not only the advantages mentioned above but also can result in the
production of useful quantities of sludge gas which can be used for power
and heating.

The size of septic tanks is governed by a number of factors; they must be

sufficiently large to ensure that the contents are not noticeably disturbed by
flows entering. This will fix the minimum size at about 3.5m 3. The tank must
be large enough to allow the sewage to remain in it for an adequate time.
This is usually taken to be between 16 and 48 hours. The tank must also be
large enough to contain the accumulation of sludge which will take place
between emptying without restricting the necessary capacity. 0.8 litres per
person per day is the volume of sludge used for design. CP 302: 100, Small
Domestic Sewage Treatment Works, gives a formula for sizing septic tanks
which are to be emptied at six-month intervals. In SI units the formula is

Capacity (m3) = nos. of persons in full-time residence x 0.14 + 1.80

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 Septic tanks must be designed to allow flows to enter and leave without being
affected by scum and to allow gentle passage if liquid without short circuiting.

Final disposal
If a watercourse is available and the approval of appropriate authority can be
obtained, this is a simple and effective method. Where no watercourse is
available effluent may be disposed of below ground provided the soil is
reasonably permeable and the water table does not approach too close to the
surface (1.5m is probably a minimum). A soakaway may be used but a
system of agricultural drain tiles similar to that described under land drainage
is considered superior. The total length of drain and area of land is difficult to
estimate and local experience should be taken into account. Areas required
can vary between 1 and 4 m2 per head of population.

In siting sub-surface irrigation disposal systems care must be taken to avoid

pollution of water supplies which, in some circumstances, can take place over
considerable distances.

Fig 3.14 Sub-soil drainage

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 Fig 3.15 Detail of sub-soil drain

Fig 3.16 Detail of Septic tank

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Fig 3.17 Typical Extended Aeration Sewage Treatment Plant

3.7 Pipe Materials

Table 3.5 Materials for waste and discharge pipe work

Material Application Jointing
Cast iron 50mm and above - vent and Lead caulking with molten or
discharge stacks fibrous lead; cold compound
caulking
Galvanised steel Waste pipes BSPT screwed
Copper Waste pipes and traps Compression, capillary, silver
solder, bronze weld or push-fit
ring seal
ABS Up to 50mm waste and vent Solvent cement and push-fit
pipes ring seal
High-density Up to 50mm waste and Push-fit ring seal and
polyethylene ventilating pipes and traps compression fittings
Polypropylene Waste and ventilating pipes and Push-fit ring seal and
traps compression couplings
Unplasticized PVC Soil and vent drains and stacks Solvent cement and push-fit
ring seal.

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References and acknowledgements

1. Chadderton David. Building Services Engineering, Spon Press

ISBN 0 415 415 31534 2.

2. Peter Bubbery. Environment and Services, BT Batford Ltd

ISBN 07134 05155

3. Stein and Reynolds. Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, Wiley
ISBN 047156965.

4. The Institute of Plumbing. Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

ISBN 1 871956 40 4

5. The Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers. Guide G Public Health

Engineering

6. Hall F. Water Installation and Drainage Systems, Construction Press

ISBN 0 86095 808 6

7. Stephen Frazer: Student Notes for Building Services Engineering,

http://www.arca53.dsl.pipex.com

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