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Article history: The use of drifting sh aggregating devices (FADs) has become the dominant practice in tropical tuna
Received 11 September 2013 purse seine shing. However, just as FADs can increase shing efciency, their use has been associated
Received in revised form with several negative ecosystem impacts, and moves are being made to manage the use of FADs. In the
17 December 2013
evaluation of potential management options it is important to consider how shers will respond to the
Accepted 21 December 2013
introduction of control measures, which rst requires an understanding of shery and eet dynamics.
This paper addresses this need by characterising the past and present use of FADs in the Indian Ocean
Keywords: tropical tuna purse seine shery. The paper describes historical trends in shing practices, summarises
Tropical tuna spatiotemporal patterns in the use of FADs and establishes and attributes variation in FAD shing
Purse seine
strategies within the eet. It also provides an overview of current FAD management policies in the Indian
Fleet dynamics
Ocean and examines the observed effects of existing measures on the behaviour of the purse seine eet.
Implementation error
Management evaluation Using this comprehensive understanding, the potential impact on the purse seine eet of a number of
Bycatch plausible FAD management options are discussed and inferences are drawn for the future sustainability
of tropical tuna purse seine shing in the Indian Ocean.
& 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0308-597X/$ - see front matter & 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2013.12.014
164 T.K. Davies et al. / Marine Policy 45 (2014) 163170
300
150
200
100
100
50
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year Year
Fig. 2. Trends in (a) total catch on oating object sets (FOB) and free school sets (FSC) of three main tropical tuna species (yellown, skipjack and bigeye tuna) in the Indian
Ocean and (b) total number of sets per vessel by shing practice over the history of the tuna purse seine shery in the Indian Ocean. Data from [4].
that they originate from nutrient-rich areas (e.g. river mouths, perpetual articial oating object habitat across much of the north-
mangrove swamps) and subsequently drift with these patches of west Indian Ocean.
productivity into the ocean. Seasonal patterns of shing activity by the purse seine eet
Given these possible explanations for the association of tunas follow a roughly cyclical movement around the western Indian
with oating objects there is concern that the deployment of large Ocean that is largely inuenced by the distribution of oating
numbers of FADs in the pelagic ocean could change the natural objects and by seasonal changes in shing opportunities (T.
environment of tunas, a theory known as the ecological trap Davies; unpublished data). The main FAD-shing season extends
hypothesis [25,26]. Large numbers of oating objects could from August to November and the eet shes predominantly in
potentially modify the movement patterns of tunas and carry the northwest Indian Ocean to the east of Somalia. Although this
associated schools in ecologically unsuitable areas and thus affect northwest region is reasonably small, catches are high and almost
their growth rate or increase natural mortality and/or predation exclusively made on oating objects. The use of FADs in particular
[26,27]. Although this subject has received considerable research has consistently been high in this sector with a northwards
attention, it is difcult to evaluate the impacts of FADs on the extension of the eet in the Arabian Sea region during the mid-
ecology of tunas, largely due to uncertainty in how tunas interact 1990s. It is interesting to note that these new northerly shing
with oating objects (e.g. length of association, reasons for joining/ grounds were discovered by FADs tted with satellite buoys
leaving an object). Consequently the ecological trap hypothesis drifting into previously unshed (but productive) areas [29].
remains open to discussion [5,9]. As primary productivity levels fall from November, catch rate
on FADs decreases and the eet moves into the equatorial Indian
Ocean (southeast Seychelles and Chagos regions) in search of free-
3. FAD shing in the Indian Ocean swimming schools. At this time schools of yellown and bigeye
tunas are generally feeding or spawning near the surface and thus
3.1. Spatiotemporal patterns of FAD shing are easier to nd and catch [30]. However, the spatial distribution
of schools can vary considerably and as a result there is marked
FADs have had a strong inuence in shaping the spatial dynamics variation in the proportion of catches on free schools in the Chagos
of the purse seine shery. Floating objects are not distributed evenly region during this period; vessels enter the region to search for
throughout the western Indian Ocean and their location at any given free schools but will also sh on FADs where available, resulting in
time is determined largely by surface currents and winds. Floating a higher proportion of FAD catches when free schools are scarce.
logs and branches generally originate from large rivers and mangrove From March to July the eet shes mainly in the Mozambique
systems and drift with the currents throughout the coastal waters Channel and northwest Seychelles region using a mixed strategy
and potentially further offshore. This natural otsam, which has of oating objects (both natural and articial) and free school sets.
always been a part of the ocean habitat of tuna, accumulates at As there has always been an abundance of natural oating objects
particularly high densities in the Mozambique Channel where in this region [31] the proportion of catch on oating objects has
numerous river systems wash debris into the ocean [28]. Logs also always been reasonably high and the deployment of FADs has
occur in certain offshore regions of the western Indian Ocean, been more limited than further north in the Somali region.
particularly within the large ocean gyres to the east of Somalia, but
typically at lower densities [28]. It is in these areas where natural 3.2. Historical trends in FAD shing
oating objects are less abundant that shers have subsequently
deployed the greatest number of articial objects. FADs have a short Although no distinction is made in the data, up until the late 1980s
life time (generally o6 months; [29]) and can sink or be appro- oating objects are generally considered to be have been natural
priated by other vessels. Thus skippers constantly deploy new FADs otsam [3]. In this early period of the shery the proportion of total
or relocate older FADs (e.g. objects that have drifted into areas with catch from sets on free schooling tuna and oating objects was
poor shing opportunities) and in doing so have effectively created a roughly equal (Fig. 2a). However, skippers were making a considerably
166 T.K. Davies et al. / Marine Policy 45 (2014) 163170
higher number of sets on free schools (Fig. 2b) but with a much lower During this period shing companies moved vessels into the Indian
success rate than sets on oating objects (46% versus 89% success rate Ocean from the Atlantic to capitalise on this boom (J.J. Areso, Spanish
respectively during the period 19841990; data from [4]). The eet representative, personal communication), temporarily increasing
advantages of shing on oating objects were obvious to skippers both the total capacity of the eet [4] and also the relative proportion
and shing companies, yet opportunities to sh using this setting of free schools sets (Fig. 2b).
method were limited by the number of oating objects in the ocean. In In the late 2000s there was a sharp increase in the number of
order to continue the growth of the shery it was necessary to oating object sets per vessel (Fig. 2b) attributed largely to the impact
generate more shing opportunities and skippers realised that, whilst of piracy on purse seine operations. In 20082010, approximately a
they could not inuence the number of free-swimming schools, they third of the eet, mainly comparatively smaller French vessels, moved
could feasibly provide a greater number of oating objects for schools from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic due to the threat of piracy [4,34],
to associate with. Thus, the intensive use of purpose-built FADs began leaving behind larger vessels predisposed to target mainly FADs due to
in the early 1990s and catches on oating objects increased steadily their size. Furthermore, these vessels were restricted in their activity
through the 1990s and 2000s. through the requirement to carry security personnel on board (and for
The increasing use of FADs improved catch rates and greatly a short while, in the case of the French eet, vessels were also required
enhanced the productivity of the shery, allowing boat owners to to sh in pairs), making it more difcult to search for free schooling
build the capacity of their eets in an attempt to exploit more of tunas and ultimately increasing effort on FADs [34].
the resource. Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s French and Interestingly, the relative price of skipjack, the main species
Spanish shing companies invested in larger purse seine vessels, caught on FADs, appears to have had little inuence on the
which offered numerous commercial advantages including the propensity of the eet to sh on FADs. In a study of what makes a
ability to make extended shing trips with larger sh-wells [32]. FAD-sher, Guillotreau et al. [33] found that knowledge of yellown
The development of the eet included the construction of several and skipjack price had little inuence on a skipper0 s decision making.
super-seiners (4 2000 gross tonnage; GT) and even super super- Instead, skippers generally aimed to ll their sh-wells as quickly and
seiners ( 43500 GT) and the increasing trend in capacity matched as full as possible regardless of the species.
the proliferating use of FADs (Fig. 3). However, because larger
vessels are more sensitive to increasing operating costs (e.g. fuel 3.3. Variation in FAD shing between eets
price; [2]) it was necessary for shing companies to adopt
increasingly competitive shing strategies to achieve high annual In the Indian Ocean there is some variation in the FAD shing
catch thresholds (e.g. circa 1520,000 t; A. Fonteneau, personal activity of the two major nationalities operating purse seine
communication). Consequently, the purse seine shery has vessels in the shery, France and Spain, largely due to different
become increasing reliant on the use of FADs to achieve the very strategic standpoints regarding the use of FADs since the 1990s
large catches needed to remain protable [32,33]. [29,33] and the physical characteristics of their vessels, with
Against the background trend in shing capacity two episodes in Spanish vessels typically being much larger than those in the
particular show that other factors have an important effect on the French eet (e.g. 30% larger in 2008; see [32]). This is apparent in
relative use of FADs in the Indian Ocean. In the early 2000s the long- the number of individual FADs deployed and monitored by the
term increasing trend in the number of oating object sets attened two eets, with Spanish vessels deploying a greater number of
out and there was a clear spike in the number of sets made on free FADs than French vessels ( 100 versus 30 per vessel respec-
schools (Fig. 2b). This switch in the predominant shing practice is tively; [33]). Furthermore, although FADs generally belong to an
thought to be explained by the comparatively high abundance of free- individual skipper (i.e. only they can track a particular buoy), in
swimming tuna schools during 20032005, linked to increased the Spanish eet skippers may pool FADs and thus increase their
availability of prey species as a result of higher-than-average primary overall opportunity to sh on oating objects [29].
productivity in the western Indian Ocean and greater vulnerability of In addition to the greater number of FADs available there is also a
schools to purse seine gear due to a shoaling of the thermocline [30]. suggestion that skippers in the Spanish eet are generally better at
shing on FADs [29]. While eets made approximately the same
number of sets on oating objects per vessel (despite differences in
200 the number of FADs deployed), the Spanish eet had a higher catch
rate using this shing practice, which was particularly pronounced
during the 1990s (Fig. 4). This is largely due to operational differences
between the eets. Firstly, the Spanish eet typically deploys satellite
and sonar buoys (as opposed to GPS buoys) which have no antenna
Total sets per vessel
50
300 80
250
60
150 40
100
20
50
0 0
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year Year
Fig. 4. Trends in (a) the number of sets on oating objects (FOB) per vessel by the French and Spanish eet and (b) average catch per vessel on oating object sets by eet
nationality over the history of the tuna purse seine shery in the Indian Ocean. Data from [4].
the impact of FADs and to consider potential management options, it applied on seafood brands by the environmental lobby to source
is necessary to generate more data on how, where and why they are from non-FAD sheries and several of the major seafood suppliers
used. This urgent need for more data on the use of FADs in purse seine have already begun to move in this direction (see http://www.
sheries in all oceans was highlighted at the most recent joint meeting greenpeace.org.uk/tunaleaguetable for a league table of suppliers).
of the tRFMOs (Kobe III) in La Jolla 2011, with two types of information Furthermore, improving data collection and adopting technical
on FADs considered to be pertinent; an inventory and activity record measures like eco-FADs has been relatively painless to the shing
of FADs (FAD logbook) and a record of encounters with FADs by industry and is likely to have negligible nancial cost. It is assumed
shing and supply vessels (shing logbook). In recognition of this that shing companies prefer these soft measures that will
need for better data, IOTC has recently revised and improved its improve understanding of the impact of FADs over more restrictive
reporting requirements for FADs under Resolution 10/02, which were management measures.
previously considered ambiguous and insufcient to comprehensively
record the practise of FAD shing. These new and more detailed 4.2. Existing management measures
requirements include reporting the unique identier, position, type
and construction of the FAD shed on. The use of supply vessels, Given the uncertainty surrounding the ecological impacts of
including the number of associated catcher vessels and number of FADs there is a reasonable argument for tRFMOs to take a
days at sea, must also be reported. In addition, in 2012 IOTC adopted a precautionary approach and make moves to manage the use of
entirely new resolution (Resolution 12/08; http://www.iotc.org/Eng FADs more strictly. Whilst improvements in the design and
lish/resolutions.php; accessed 1st June 2013) setting out the require- construction of FADs can certainly play a role in reducing ghost
ment for eets to develop and submit FAD Management Plans by late shing and bycatch [21], other measures that control shery input
2013. This resolution, which again not only requires shing companies are necessary to reduce the total catch taken by the purse seine
to provide highly detailed information on their use of FADs but also eet on FADs [36]. These measures might potentially include effort
apportions responsibility in managing their use, represents an impor- controls such as area closures, limits on the number of monitored
tant step towards regulating the practise of FAD shing in the IOTC buoys or limits on the total number of sets on FADs, although to
convention area, although it falls short of outlining any restrictions on date only area closures have been widely implemented [37].
their use. However, a major management challenge is to achieve meaningful
The European tuna purse seine shing industry appears to have reductions in bycatch and catches of tuna species thought to be
a proactive attitude towards developing management plans and vulnerable to overshing (i.e. bigeye and yellown tunas) whilst
generating additional data on the use of FADs. Since the mid- not signicantly reducing catches of skipjack, which are not
2000s French and Spanish shing organisations and have been currently considered overshed.
working in collaboration with their respective national scientic In the Indian Ocean the most signicant restriction on FAD shing
institutes (and independently with organisations such as the has been a time-area closure, implemented in November 2011 and
International Seafood Sustainability Foundation, ISSF) to improve again in 2012, with the objective to reduce the mortality of juvenile
the data available on FAD shing and to also innovate FAD bigeye and yellown tunas (Resolution 10/01; http://www.iotc.org/
technologies. In particular, the European purse seine industry English/resolutions.php; accessed 1st June 2013). This no-take area
has been constructive in developing and deploying so-called covered a large proportion of the northwest Somali Basin region
eco-FADs, which are designed using rolled nets or ropes rather towards the end of the FAD-shing season. However, a preliminary
than open mesh panels to minimise entanglement of sharks and evaluation of the rst year of this closure using the IOTC catch data,
turtles [5]. This cooperation by the industry is likely to be inspired presented in Table 1, suggests that it had mixed results in reducing
in part by the desire to improve the public perception of purse total annual catches of bigeye and yellown on FADs. Taking into
seine shing, with environmental organisations generally inter- account the reduced total shing effort in 2011, catches of bigeye tuna
preting a lack of data as bad news. There has been strong pressure on oating objects were reduced by only a small amount during the
168 T.K. Davies et al. / Marine Policy 45 (2014) 163170
vessels, their use is not expected to decline under a business-as- longer) closures may achieve greater reductions in juvenile catch
usual scenario, potentially rekindling the excess capacity observed this would be at the expense of signicant reductions in skipjack
in the shery in the past [36]. However, any increase in the use of catch. This has major implications on the shing and processing
FADs would not necessarily mean a uniform increase in shing industries based in the Indian Ocean, with a realistic danger that
effort throughout the western Indian Ocean, but rather increased many purse seiners would choose to leave the Indian Ocean
intensity of effort in the main FAD shing regions. The shery and altogether. On the other hand, input controls such as limiting the
ecological effects of such a change in the spatial dynamics of effort number of actively monitored FADs or the number of sets made on
are not well understood, although recent modelling work suggests oating objects directly address concerns about FAD shing, if
that an increase in the number of FADs in a region would probably designed and implemented appropriately, but are likely to be
result in smaller schools distributed between greater number of challenging to negotiate within the IOTC and difcult to enforce.
objects. Thus search costs and bycatch might increase, rather than
catches [44].
A number of external pressures might also be expected to Acknowledgements
change the face of FAD shing in the future, although conicting
pressures have the potential to push the industry in different We are grateful to the Economic and Social Research Council
directions. Purse seine shing has become an increasingly expen- and the Natural Environment Research Council for funding this
sive operation over the past decade, particularly for the largest and research. This paper is a contribution from Imperial College's
most powerful vessels, due to rising fuel prices and increased Grand Challenges in Ecosystems and the Environment initiative.
shing effort [3]. This has reduced prot margins and potentially Generous thanks are also given to J. Pearce, L. Dagorn and A.
increased the sheries0 economic vulnerability to poor shing Fonteneau for informative discussion on the current and future
seasons and environmental or economic shocks. Given the past management of FAD shing, and to J.J. Areso, several members of
trends it might be reasonable to assume that this situation would staff at the Seychelles Fishing Authority and a number of anon-
provoke an even stronger reliance on FADs, especially for those ymous skippers who gave up their time to offer invaluable insight
vessels that still target a relatively large proportion of free schools. into the practical aspects of purse seine shing.
Again, this might result in the saturation of the FAD shery,
potentially leading to increased costs, lower catches but high total
extraction rates. References
In contrast, market pressures might result in reduced effort on
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