Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Directional
Drilling
Training
Manual
A Training Program Presented
by
for
February 1999
-i
1999 Horizontal Drilling International
Houston, Texas, USA, & Paris, France
All rights reserved.
This publication, including all paper and electronic copies, is strictly confidential and the sole
property of Horizontal Drilling International. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of Horizontal Drilling International.
Chapter 1
Planning and Scheduling
Chapter 2
Engineering
Chapter 3
Steering
Chapter 4
Reaming
Chapter 5
Pullback
Chapter 6
Mud
Appendix A
Units and Abbreviations
Appendix B
Glossary
-iii
Chapter 1: Planning and Scheduling
List of Tables
Pipeline pullback.
iii
Notes
iv
Chapter 1: Planning and Scheduling
Introduction
Horizontal directional drilling (HDD) is a Then the pilot string is removed and the
technique that comes from the oil field, but hole enlarged by reaming according to the
it is applied to the crossing of rivers, rail- diameter of the pipeline or conduit to be
ways, motorways, dikes, and other installed. This is done with a reamer or
obstacles. The drilling assembly has a bent hole opener, which is pulled and rotated
into the pilot bore. The bentonite carries
sub for steering purposes, and is equipped
the cuttings out of the hole, and leaves a
with an electronic probe to continuously lining (the filter cake) on the wall of the
report the position of the pilot hole to the bored pathway. Arriving at the final size
driller. Interpreting this information allows required for the reamed hole may require
the pilot hole to follow the designed path. one or more passes.
This course is designed to assist the Sumit- for bid, or in the process of mobilization.
omo project manager in planning and By taking the time to answer these ques-
scheduling an HDD project. This chapter tions in the early stages of the project, the
reviews all questions that should be project manager will save his company
answered when a project is in planning, out time and money.
Case study
A case study designed to walk you through instances where the project manager has
the various planning stages is presented preliminary input to the pipeline route, fol-
throughout this chapter. Project specifics lowing these guidelines whenever possible
for the case study are set in green italicized will minimize construction risk:
type, as follows:
Keep the crossing as short as possible.
This case study concerns a seaway cross- Crossings less than 1000 ft (300 m) are
ing, the Ij Meer, near Amsterdam in the considered short, crossings between
Netherlands. It was awarded to HDI in 1000 and 2950 ft (300 and 900 m) are
early May 1995 and construction took considered medium, crossings between
place in June 1995. 2950 and 4600 ft (900 m and 1400 m)
are considered long, and crossings
Dimensions and characteristics of the longer than 4600 ft (1400 m) are con-
crossing. Typically, by the time the project sidered extremely long.
is assigned to the project manager, the
pipeline route has already been established. Keep the entry and site exit sides of the
This being the case, the HDD consider- crossing as close to the same elevation
ations concerning route selection will not as possibletry to avoid elevation dif-
be considered here. However, in those ferences of more than 50 ft (15 m).
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Avoid routes where the pipeline cannot Banks: No significant difference in eleva-
be constructed in one continuous tion
string.
Construction period: Award in three weeks
Maintain a minimum separation of and construction within three months
50 ft (15 m) from other existing pipe-
lines. Other: Horizontal curve 8 at 2/3 of the
crossing with 1640-ft (500-m) radius.
Cross the river or obstacle in a straight
line.
Avoid placing a crossing near large Soil investigation report. The single most
important consideration to the directional
masses of steel, such as railroad
drilling contractor is the nature of the soils
bridges, steel piling, or docks where at the crossing location. The subsurface
barges are moored. condition is the primary factor in determin-
ing the methods, price, and feasibility of a
The client provided the following data for project. Clients should provide geological
the project: information with their tender document.
Pipeline diameter: 16 in. (406.40 mm)
In this project, the subsoil consists of alter-
Wall thickness: 0.75 in. (19.10 mm)
nating layers of clay, silty clay, peat, and
Coating: 0.12 in. (3 mm) polyethylene (PE) sand (Fig. 1.1). The navigation channel
overlies a deep sand deposit. Standard
Length of the crossing: 3821 ft (1165 m)
Penetration Test results range from 10
Width of the watercourse: 3018 ft (920 m) blows per foot (bpf) in the peat layer to
25 bpf in the clay layers, and average
Depth of the crossing: 100 ft (30 m)
35 bpf in the sand formations. No sieve
Vertical drilling radius: 1640 ft (500 m) analysis was provided.
1 Soil boring
Identifying tasks
The first task is to assess the feasibility of by the client and visit the site, preferably
the crossing by HDD. The project manager with a client representative.
will review and analyze the data provided
1-2
Planning and Scheduling: Site Visit
The second task, once the feasibility of the When the offer is accepted by the client,
project is confirmed, is to estimate the con- the project manager must mobilize all the
struction costs. For this purpose, the project necessary equipment and consumables,
manager will determine the necessary finalize the necessary subcontracts, and
equipment and crew, assess the drilling, brief the construction crew about the spe-
reaming and pulling methods (types of cifics of the project.
tools and sequences), prepare a tentative
construction schedule, and estimate quanti- The following pages will take you through
ties of consumables. Then the selling price the complete exercise, based on the specif-
can be determined. ics of the case study.
Site Visit
It is useful to visit the site with a client rep- ment that you have complied with contract
resentative, because they will often specifications.
communicate their concerns about local
restrictions and regulations placed on them For this project the client organized an
by governing bodies. During this site visit, onsite meeting with all the prequalified
take relevant photographs and write a contractors, followed by a site visit. During
report to document what has been seen and the meeting they were very specific about
discussed; it is common that the actual con- the accuracy of the drilling profile: the per-
struction takes place several months after mit allowed for a corridor of only 20 ft
the initial site visit. If the contract specifi- (6 m) wide, which would be checked by a
cally states, Grounds (or roads) will be gyroscopic survey performed after the
returned to their original condition, the projects completion by a third party at the
photographs are especially useful to docu- clients expense (Fig. 1.2).
1 Pipeline route
2 Initial crossing alignment
3 Revised crossing alignment
1-3
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Access
Because the drilling spread consists of gravel) and the length of this temporary
wheel-mounted loads that average 25 tons access road must be estimated during the
each and measure approximately 40 ft long site visit. The same is true for access to the
and 13 ft high (12 m long and 4 m high), pipe side.
make sure that it is possible to deliver all
the equipment to the rig side of the cross-
ing. For this reason, make note of low Access to the Ij Meer rig site is straightfor-
bridges, sharp turns in roadways, or any- ward, via highway and paved road until
thing else that may impede access. Usually 260 ft (80 m) from the entry point. The pipe
the access to the crossing site is a tempo- side is accessible by barges or, for light
rary construction road (dragline skids, equipment, by a narrow paved road.
Rig side
A crossing with the maxi-rig requires a The total available workspace is sufficient,
drilling site of 200 x 200 ft (60 x 60 m), but the entry point chosen by the client is
while a crossing with the midi-rig only too close to the embankment of the adja-
requires a site of 70 x 100 ft (20 x 30 m). cent road. During the site visit with the cli-
For a large crossing through rock or coarse ent, it was agreed that the entry point be
granular materials, the workspace should shifted by 10 ft (3 m), which is far enough
be increased to 200 x 260 ft (60 by 80 m). from the embankment (Fig. 1.2, item 3).
Any shift in the entry point must stay within
the crossing corridor approved by the river
authorities.
Water source
During the site visit, determine the fresh- If the available water source is located
water source for mixing the mud: some distance from the planned entry
point, the drilling spread must have enough
hose and pump capacity to move the
City water: Can city water from a required volumes the distance and eleva-
hydrant be used? What notice is tion changes that you will encounter.
required by the city water companies?
Is a meter required? Where is that There is no problem with pumping large
quantities of river water in the Ij Meer, but
arranged? What is the cost?
the water salinity must be checked. A labo-
ratory test confirms a salt content of less
River water: Can water from the river than 120 mg/l, which is acceptable for mix-
be used? Is it fresh water? ing the bentonite (see Mud, page 6-14).
Pipe side
Ideally, the pipe side should have enough therefore more working room. At the exit
temporary workspace to lay the pipeline in location, a temporary workspace of 50 ft
a continuous string in the axis of the cross- wide by 100 ft long (15 by 30 m) is ideal
ing. The pipeline should be prefabricated in for most intermediate crossings. For large
this temporary workspace starting approxi-
crossings through rock or coarse granular
mately 50 to 100 ft (15 to 30 m) beyond the
exit point. This space should be 30 to 50 ft materials, a temporary workspace 100 ft
(10 to 15 m) wide, depending on the diam- wide by 150 ft long (30 by 45 m) may be
eter of the pipe. Larger-diameter pipelines needed to accommodate the necessary
require larger pieces of equipment and equipment.
1-4
Planning and Scheduling: Site Visit
On both sides of the river, permission is For a complete discussion of setting Tru
needed to set up a wire Tru Tracker coil Tracker coil, see Steering (page 3-30).
from the edge of the water to either the
A coil could not be installed on the pipe
entry or exit points. Generally, these coils
side because of housing and private prop-
are set as wide as the crossing is deep at the erties. On the rig side, the coil could be
particular location. Setting these coils dis- installed, but very little room was left
turbs very little of the surface vegetation. between the entry point and the riverbank.
During the site visit, identify obstacles At the Ij Meer location, there was no such
such as existing pipelines, cables, or sheet constraint. However, because of the narrow
pilings. Massive steel structures such as corridor allowed by the water authorities,
pilings, pipelines, or high voltage lines will
wooden piles were installed to aid the lay-
disturb the local magnetic field and create
interference for the steering tools. In these ing of Tru Tracker coil at intervals along
cases, it is almost mandatory that the Tru the crossing. Also, a very strict criterion
Tracker locating system is used to drill was determined for accepting the pilot hole
accurately. data: if a reading made in the coil is more
than 7 ft (2.2 m) away from the centerline,
Constraints such as neighboring housing,
it is rejected and the joint is redrilled (the
which limits the acceptable noise level, or
special environmental considerations about corridor allows for 10 ft [3 m], so the read-
the handling of mud, should also be identi- ing must be accurate2% of the depth
fied at this stage. and a half-diameter of pipe).
Communications
During the site visit, locate the shortest The Ij Meer is very shallow outside the
routes to transport equipment and person- navigation channel and barges cannot be
nel from one side of the crossing to the used. Therefore, only the narrow road can
other. On a large crossing that lacks a be used, which means limiting the number
bridge, a barge and tug must be planned. of trucks and allowing no vacuum truck to
be used; hence the mud return line. Crew
members can easily get from one side to the
other by car. A boat is needed to install and
operate the Tru Tracker coil.
1-5
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
The quality of the living accommodations Several reputable hotel chains exist in Hol-
and board is very important for the morale land and it is never difficult to find suitable
of the crew, and a crew with good morale accommodations except during holidays.
will often be more efficient. The site visit is The Ij Meer crossing was not conducted
a good opportunity to check the quality and near a holiday, so accommodations were
prices of neighboring hotels or motels; easy to find.
prices are often negotiable for groups and
extended periods of stay.
The choice of rig is an important decision. In the Engineering chapter (Chapter 2), a
The chart in Fig. 1.3 indicates the pulling more precise calculation of the pull force is
force the rig should have for various diame- explained, which also takes into account an
ters and standard wall thicknesses of steel eventual buoyancy control system.
pipes relative to the length of the crossing.
F (KN) (")
5000
4500 40"
4000
36"
3500
3000 32"
2500
28"
2000
24"
1500
1000 20"
16"
500
12"
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 L (m)
Available torque is another important item not maintained, lower penetration rates will
to consider when choosing a rig configura- result.
tion for a particular job. Normally, higher
torque is required when planning large- A fast carriage travel speed is recom-
diameter hole-opening operations in soft or mended when drilling in soft formations. It
hard ground and rock. Proper makeup and is rarely necessary otherwise, but does save
breakout torque is the minimum required time.
torque.
For the above reasons, sometimes only two
A rig should also have the power to turn at (out of four) translation motors are used on
a specified rotary speed with specified the maxi-rigs, thereby increasing the car-
torque, without impacting the pulling or riage travel speed on crossings where a
rotation specifications. Hole opening in moderate pull force is expected, and one
rock requires higher rotary speeds in (out of two) rotation motor is used with
smaller sizes and lower rotary speeds in double rotation speed on reaming small
larger sizes. If the correct rotary speed is diameters in rock or hard formations.
1-6
Planning and Scheduling: Planning and Estimating Costs
A midi-rig was too small so a maxi-rig was For this project, one pumping skid was
chosen, using only two translation motors used, delivering 140 cum/hr at 150 bars.
and one rotation motor to increase effi- Pumping rates would be as high as 100
ciency. cum/hr during casing and reaming.
At this stage, it is critical to understand the In this project the decisions were to:
specifics of the project and define the meth-
ods. In particular, answer the following
questions about the pilot hole, reaming, drill by jetting because of the soft, allu-
pulling, and anchorage of the rig: vial soils
How many shifts per day will the crew work the day shift until the casing is
work? installed, and a double shift after that.
1-7
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Reaming. Pulling.
Subcontracts
Civil works (access, site preparation, rein- Civil works can easily be integrated into
statement) and pipeline prefabrication the scope of work in a turnkey contract. In
(stringing, welding, coating, testing) can be these cases, the non-drilling aspects of a
handled by the client when they are a pipe- job are often subcontracted to another com-
line contractor or the pipeline division of pany or to another division of your
your company. In this case, you have a con- company. However, you can also decide to
tract for drilling services only. perform the access and site preparation on
the rig side when no major earth moving is
involved.
1-8
Planning and Scheduling: Planning and Estimating Costs
When choosing a subcontractor and negoti- HDI was a subcontractor of A.Hak, and the
ating the subcontract, keep in mind that the contract only included drilling services.
cheapest price might not always mean the Therefore, the only concern about civil and
best deal. It is important to make certain pipeline works was the timing of the opera-
tions. Once A.Hak set the date when the
that work schedules are kept and that the
pipeline would be ready for pulling, HDI
access is finished when the rig arrives, or worked backward to plan the mobilization
that the preliminary hydrotest and joint and drilling operations, and informed
coating are finished by the time reaming is A.Hak of the date when access and rig site
started. would be ready for the rigs arrival.
Work schedule
Based on the above decisions about drilling 1/2 day (one shift) of slack time for
methods and tools, together with knowl- potential problems (shorts, mechani-
edge of usual progress rates for each cal failure, etc.)
drilling step and tool in similar soil condi- 1/2 day (one shift) for preparing the
tions, it is now time make a tentative work reaming (removing the spider subs,
schedule. etc.)
1/2 day (one shift) for removing the 12-
In this project the following was antici- in. (300-mm) casing
pated:
1 1/2 day (three shifts) for reaming the
hole and preparing for pulling
two days for mobilizing all the equip- one day (two shifts) for pulling the
ment to the site pipe, with the second shift starting the
rig down
three days (three shifts) for rigging up
the rig and mud system two days (two shifts) for rigging down
and loading all the equipment
two days (two shifts) for drilling the two days for demobilizing.
first 1300 ft (400 m)
The totals were:
two days (two shifts) for installing
500 ft (150 m) of 12-in. (300-mm) cas- four days of transportation
ing
five days of rig up/rig down (five shifts)
two days (four shifts) for drilling the 10 days of horizontal directional drill-
remaining 2500 ft (765 m) ing (16 shifts).
Quantities
Crew. Once the basic decisions about the one mechanic/pipe sider
drilling program are made (type of rig,
one floormanfor a total of six crew
method, and tentative schedule), it is time
to plan the crew. Typically, a crew working members on small crossings.
a single shift consists of:
Maxi-rig:
Midi-rig:
one superintendent
one superintendent one driller
one driller one surveyor/assistant superintendent
one surveyor one mud technician
one mud engineer one recycling technician
1-9
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
1-10
Planning and Scheduling: Planning and Estimating Costs
With a given quantity of bentonite, mix a number of trucks necessary to mobilize the
volume of mud that, in cubic meters, is complete spread can be estimated. Of
approximately 14 to 17 times the tonnage course, the equipment might not all come
of the bentonite. Out of this volume antici- from the same place, and considerations
pate that 2/3 will have to be treated or other than the number of trucks are impor-
disposed of after the project. tant when planning a mobilization. These
other considerations will be reviewed later.
When there are a series of crossings in the
same area, it is also possible to plan vac- For this job the following was needed:
uum trucks and move the liquid mud from
one job to the next if the costs of removal three tractors for the rig, mud tank,
are high. In this case, the project manager and power unit
should think globally about his mud
consumption. one tractor and a flat-bed trailer for
the recycling unit
In this case, Table 1.1 shows that with recy-
cling, anticipate 0.48 x 50 kg x two tractors and a flat-bed trailer for
116510.3048 = 91,730 kg of bentonite will the control, workshop, spares, and
be used, therefore mixing a total of 14 x crew containers
57.333 = 1280 cum of mud. Approximately three tractors and a flat-bed trailer for
213 x 1280 = 852 cum of used mud will be the 75 rollers
left over at the end of the job.
one tractor and a flat-bed trailer for
If fresh water cannot be pumped from the the 500-ft x 12-in. (150-m x 300-mm)
river, the total volume of water that must be casing and the dead man
purchased is calculated the same way. For
practical reasons, locate a source of fresh four tractors and a flat-bed trailer for
water that can deliver as much as 60 cum/ the 260 5-in. drill pipes and monels.
hr; otherwise plan for storage water pits to
be sure that there is enough flow when you Another important consideration when
need it (during casing and reaming). planning a job is the time needed to mobi-
lize the drilling spread. This obviously
affects the price, since this time cannot be
Rig consumables and spares. The drilling used to work elsewhere and therefore rep-
spread should always travel with sufficient resents an opportunity cost. To reduce this
spare parts to remediate mechanical break- cost, plan the jobs so that the crossings per-
downs onsite and sufficient consumables formed in one region are completed one
(wire, grease for tool joints, hydraulic oil, after the other during the same period of
etc.) for the job or series of jobs to be con- the year. Of course, this is often a question
ducted. For estimating purposes use a day of opportunities, but it is important to keep
rate, which is a daily average of the amount this aspect of the planning in mind.
spent over a year.
Furthermore, when planning and pricing a
Give special consideration to the quantity job, consider the crew mobilization and
of fuel needed for the projecta midi-rig plan the relevant train or plane tickets and
spread uses an average of 300 gal (1150 l) expenses. Again, if crossings in the same
per 12-hr shift, while a maxi-rig spread region can be grouped, it is possible to
with complete pumping and recycling mobilize a single crew for several jobs.
capabilities uses as much as 520 gal
(2000 l) per 12-hr shift.
When bidding the Ij Meer crossing, a con-
tract with another client was already
Mobilization/demobilization. When the signed for two 30-in. (760-mm) crossings
type of rig, type and number of pumps, in the Amsterdam region. So all three cross-
type of recycling unit, and number of drill ings were completed in the same time
pipes and rollers have been decided, the frame using the same rig and crew.
1-11
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Other considerations
The following considerations are listed for dures for all the water lines and mud
completeness, since each project has its lines at each end of day. Also, the
own specifics (client, country of execution, power unit must be protected from
financing). excessive cold. One solution is to work
double shifts systematically, and install
Customs duties and taxes. Consider not a tent with heaters on the power unit
only the cost of these duties and taxes, but for moderate cold (-10C [14F]). For
also the time spent at the customs office. very cold and windy conditions, plan a
Sprung structure to protect the entire
drilling spread and crew.
Local taxes. Other taxes that may apply
when pricing a job include local income
taxes (which can sometimes take the form Terms of payment. The terms of payment
of a percentage of the turnover) or taxes on will influence the cash flow of the project
salaries. and therefore will generate financial costs
or gains.
Insurance. In general, the drilling contrac-
tor must present its own third-party liability Bid bond. Some clients request a bid bond
insurance. But quite often, a Construction to be deposited in a bank of their choice
All Risk (CAR) policy is offered by the cli- before a drilling contractor can have his bid
ent or main contractor, since they have
considered at the price opening meeting.
greater bargaining power with the insur-
This has a cost, although moderate.
ance company and can spread the risk on a
wider range of activities. If a CAR policy is
not offered by your client, you should think Performance guarantee. Some clients ask
about the cost of obtaining one before start- for a performance guarantee when award-
ing the project.
ing a job to a contractor; this also has a
cost.
Weather conditions. Although the HDD
method for river crossings is fairly inde-
Bank guarantee upon completion. It is
pendent of weather conditions, remember a
common that the final payment (5 or 10%)
few basic considerations when planning a
is linked to the final acceptance of the
job:
project. This payment is typically made
one year after the provisory acceptance,
If heavy rains are expected, pay atten- unless a bank guarantee of the same
tion to preparing and maintaining the amount is arranged by the contractor for
access roads and work areas during the the benefit of the client, with the corre-
project. sponding validity period; only then is the
final payment made at the time of the pro-
If freezing is expected, daily progress visory acceptance. These costs should also
will be hampered by drainage proce- be considered.
Closing meeting
There should always be a closing meeting and its context are presented, and the sell-
initiated by the project manager with his ing price and conditions are discussed and
management. In this meeting, the project agreed upon.
1-12
Planning and Scheduling: Preparing to Work
Preparing to Work
Assume that after this careful study and also monitor the progress of the civil and
bidding, Sumitomo is awarded the con- pipeline works to make sure that no delays
struction of the project. The project occur, or adjust the mobilization plan in
manager should now review all the tasks
described above and make sure that every- case of deviations in the planning. The fol-
thing will be available and delivered on lowing section outlines all the tasks the
time to start the job. Meanwhile, he should project manager will need to complete.
Permits
Usually, permits are delivered by the client ting since the onsite work cannot start until
or main contractor, but the project manager all permits are delivered.
should follow the progress of the permit-
Equipment
Rig and spare parts. Determine which rig often requested to be delivered on the pipe
you will use, check its working condition, side before beginning the project, because
and replenish its spare parts stock. pipeline contractors might decide to install
the rollers at the same time that the pipe-
Drill pipes and downhole tools. Locate the line is being welded. Even if a flotation
necessary length of drill pipes and check ditch is used for the complete string, plac-
their condition. Locate the drilling tools ing a few rollers at the entry of the pipe in
you will need (jet assembly or mud motor) the hole could be useful. For the launching
and the drill bits. Check the available ream- ramp, locate cradles of sufficient size for
ers (barrel reamer/fly cutters/hole openers) the pulling operation.
and their condition, and build new tools if
the required sizes are not available. Transporting equipment. Plan the sched-
ule of the truck transports, equipment
Pumps and spare parts. Check the avail- (cranes), and crew to load and offload the
ability of the pump(s) and replenish the equipment. For convenience, plan to
spare parts stock if necessary. Plan suffi- receive the rig and support equipment
cient hoses to install the pump(s) on the onsite the first day, and receive the drill
construction site. pipes and supplies the second day when the
rig is almost rigged up.
Recycling equipment and spare parts.
Check the availability of the recycling Clearing customs. At each border cross-
unit(s) and replenish the spare parts stock if ing there is a procedure for clearing
necessary. Plan sufficient hoses to install customs. In some cases, detailed lists of
the recycling unit(s) on the construction equipment and consumables must be pre-
site. Plan the feeding pumps accordingly. pared to expedite the clearance. If this is
not prepared carefully and on time, it might
Pipe rollers and cradles. Check the avail- result in a considerable loss of time at the
ability of the rollers. Note that rollers are border.
Personnel
Selecting the crew. Crew members are ings, large-diameter crossings, rock
selected based on their specialties and crossings). Use a mixed crew of specifi-
sometimes upon other criteria, such as lan- cally experienced people with less
guage skills, past relations with a given experienced people in order to train those
client, or specific experience (long cross- with less experience. Experience in the
1-13
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
field is the best training ground for direc- Transporting the crew. Prepare the final
tional drilling. mobilization plan of the crew(s) and inform
all personnel. Usually the drilling superin-
Briefing the superintendent and assis- tendent is mobilized earlier to supervise the
tant. Before the work starts, brief the
superintendent and possibly his assistant or preparatory activities at the site. Even if
the driller about the projectespecially these activities are not in the scope of work
about the soil conditions. At this stage, the but performed by the main contractor, the
project manager must be open to sugges- superintendent must be onsite to coordinate
tions, new ideas, or requests for specific the effort. The superintendent also informs
equipment coming from the superinten-
dent. Practical considerations of the the project manager about the progress to
superintendent often save time and avoid correctly plan the equipment and crew
inconveniences onsite during construction. mobilization.
Consumables
Bentonite. Place orders for the supply of mud. If you have to buy the water, finalize
bentonite. On large crossings with limited the contract now.
working space, you can plan a gradual
delivery to the site following the progress Fuel. Locate a local fuel supplier and final-
of the job, but only if the supplier is reli- ize a contract, stressing the importance of
able. Avoid being left on standby because regular deliveries. Again, avoid being on
the bentonite supply has been depleted. standby because there is no fuel left on the
job.
Water. Check whether you need a permit to
pump in the river, and if you do need one, Electric wire. Check the meterage of wire
be sure that you have it. When loading the for directional control. As explained in
equipment on the trucks, check again that Steering (Chapter 3), always use new wire
there is sufficient length of hoses to reach to try to eliminate the risk of electrical
the source of fresh water for mixing the shorts when drilling the pilot hole.
Before any onsite activity, make sure that of the crossing. This must be completed
the line of sight of the crossing and entry before preparing the platform and installing
and exit points of the drilling are properly the sheet piling, to make sure that every-
marked. Entry and exit points should be thing is properly placed.
identified by the client and checked by the
crew surveyor. The surveyor will then place The crew surveyor installs the coil while
the survey stakes, marking the line of sight the rest of the crew is rigging up.
Subcontracts
Civil works. Most of the time, civil works Very often, mud removal is part of another
consists only of preparing the final access subcontract and is not performed by the
road for the rig (and pipe) site(s) and the civil works company.
drilling platform, mud pits, and water pit,
when necessary. This must be ready before The subcontract for civil works must incor-
porate the clients specifications for
the drilling and support equipment arrives.
reinstatement. Also, since the HDD method
The reinstatement will be done immedi- is environmentally friendly, reinstatement
ately after the tie in. As already mentioned, should be done quickly and properly to
the access road must be strong enough for leave a good impression of the river cross-
loads of 25 tons. ing method.
1-14
Planning and Scheduling: Preparing to Work
Sheet piling for rig anchorage. When a example, use a formal procedure, with an
sheet piling is necessary, organize it a day acceptance sheet, for delivering the pipe-
or two before the drilling equipment arrives line welded, tested, and coated to the drill-
onsite. This work can be subcontracted. ing contractor; from this point the drilling
contractor is responsible for the pipeline.
Mud return line. When a mud return line Also, make it clear who supplies and welds
is necessary, make sure it is in place before the pulling head (the design being, of
the reaming operation begins. Try to install course, the responsibility of the drilling
it before the rig arrives to make sure that company, unless stated otherwise).
reaming activities will not be delayed once
the pilot hole is finished. This preparation The principle of a formal acceptance of the
can be subcontracted or executed by a few pipeline also applies when you are a sub-
crew members mobilized early onsite. contractor of a pipeline main contractor.
Mud trucking. When a mud return line Buoyancy control system. When a buoy-
cannot be installed, for small crossings or ancy control system is necessary, it always
when forward reaming is used, you can remains under the direct responsibility of
locally hire a few vacuum trucks or farm the HDD contractor. Even if the supply and
tractors with tanks to move the drilling installation are subcontracted, its constitu-
mud surfacing in the pipe side exit pit back ents and dimensions are engineered by the
to the recycling unit located on the rig site. drilling contractor, and the construction
Finalize the contract with a service com- should be supervised by one of its crew
pany or local farmers, making sure it also members. At this stage of the project, it is
states the working hours. Particularly, mandatory to pass orders for the supply of
nighttime working hours should be sched- materials if they are not in stock, and plan
uled to ensure that the night crew has the the construction onsite.
support they need to continue working.
Even if the system can be put into place
Pipeline prefabrication. Finalize the sub- only after the pipeline has been success-
contract for pipeline prefabrication (if any) fully pretested, you can plan the materials
at this stage, although probably much (such delivery and some preparatory works (such
as the choice of the subcontractor) has been as double-jointing of HDPE pipes, con-
decided during the tender and negotiation structing the flanges) during the pipeline
phases of the main contract. Remember prefabrication period.
that good pipeline works are essential for
the success of the project. The client is Mud removal. Devise a good solution for
interested not only in a finished product, mud removal at this stage of the project. If
but in a finished product that is in good left until the end of the project, you may
working condition. This means that the find yourself dealing with high prices and
pipeline must withstand the expected pres- an unhappy client.
sures, maintain its circular shape, and have
a proper coating. The best way to achieve Since the inception of mud recycling tech-
this is to make sure that the prefabricated niques on directionally drilled crossings
pipeline fulfills these requirements before that use new light and mobile recycling
you start the pulling operation. units, there is usually little liquid mud to be
evacuated. In some cases, farmers may
Another important consideration when allow you to spray the mud on their fields.
finalizing the subcontract is the respect of
the work schedule. Avoid being on standby Dispose of the dry cuttings coming out of
after the pilot hole because the pipeline is the hole (for a total equivalent to the vol-
still not tested or because the field joint ume of the reamed hole), which have been
coating materials have not yet been separated from the mud. Often these cut-
delivered. tings can be locally backfilled.
In any case, clearly identify the limits of In all circumstances, obtain from the bento-
the subcontract and responsibilities. For nite supplier a composition certificate for
1-15
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
his product. You may wish to conduct labo- As mentioned in the Drilling Consumables
ratory tests on mud samples to confirm that section (page 1-10), when there are several
it is harmless before locating a disposal crossings in the same region, liquid mud
area. can be moved from one site to the next with
vacuum trucks or farm tractors with tanks,
to create as little waste as possible.
It is very important to organize a good The progress of the subcontracts and deliv-
communication system between the job site ery of consumables during this preparatory
and the outside world (phone, fax). This phase, as well as during construction, must
will enable the site to inform its base regu- be watched closely by the project manager.
larly about the progress of the project, He is the central point of the project organi-
zation through whom all communication
confirm orders for new deliveries of con- must flow to make efficient decisions and
sumables, request spare parts from the adjustments. For a successful operation,
base, discuss technical problems with other you must establish a good working collabo-
specialized colleagues at the base, and ration between the project manager and the
make faster and better decisions. construction superintendent.
1-16
Chapter 2: Engineering
Generalities......................................................................................... 2-1
Presenting the engineering course .................................................................... 2-1
Strength of materialsBackground ................................................................... 2-1
Basic strength of material ................................................................................................2-1
Stresses combination ........................................................................................................2-2
Beam strength of materials...............................................................................................2-2
Beam/pipeline formulas....................................................................................................2-2
ii
List of Figures
List of Tables
iii
Notes
iv
Chapter 2: Engineering
Generalities
This chapter reviews the objectives of hori- It is assumed that the engineer has the fol-
zontal directional drilling (HDD) lowing minimum information:
engineering and the course plan of the
modules dealing with engineering. The pipeline characteristics
engineering exercises are aimed toward
issuing a recommendation on the feasibility pipeline route
of an HDD crossing with regard to techni-
cal, scheduling, and economical criteria, obstacle profile
and defining the crossings acceptance
criteria. subsoil conditions.
Strength of materialsBackground
5
Fig. 2.1. Stress-strain curve.
4
3 1 = Strain
2 = Stress
3 = Proportional limit
4 = Elastic limit
5 = Ultimate limit
2
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
The modulus of elasticity E, also called section. For beam calculations, you must
Youngs modulus, is the ratio of unit stress determine at any point x the moment of all
to unit strain, within the proportional limit. forces applied to the beam, either at the
right or left of that point x. These two val-
When a material is subjected to a longitudi- ues are equal in static equilibrium;
nal strain within the proportional limit, therefore, use the one that is easiest to
there is a lateral strain that is proportional calculate.
to the longitudinal strain. The ratio is called
Poissons ratio . It is important to under- If a beam is subjected to a longitudinal
stand that if a material is not allowed to (pulling) force, the stress caused by the Fx
strain in one direction, the strain in the component of the force F is:
other direction induces stresses in the
material.
F
= -----x
A
For example, during pressure testing of a
pipeline, if the pipeline section is restrained If M(x) is the moment of a straight and hor-
from shortening, you will observe a tensile izontal beam, then the deformation of the
stress in the pipeline equal to the tensile beam can be calculated by resolving the
stress that results from pressure multiplied following differential equation:
by Poissons ratio. The values of E and
for steel are:
d2y M(x)
--------2 = -------------
EI
Poissons ratio: steel = 0.3 dx
Pipeline Codes
Definitions
The code applied to the pipeline construc- Operating pressure: The value of the pres-
tion indicates the various basic data that sure during pipeline operation.
must be used to design the pipeline. A dif-
Test pressure: The value of the pressure
ferent code applies to gas or oil pipeline,
used for pipeline testing.
and different codes apply to each country,
according to national laws. However, most Class Location: The class of a pipeline sec-
of the national codes refer to the Ameri- tion as per applicable code.
can National Standards Institute (ANSI) B
Construction Type: The type of construc-
31-4 for oil pipelines and ANSI B 31-8 for
tion for a pipeline section.
gas pipelines. The following terms are used
in this section: SMYS: Specified Minimum Yield Strength.
This is the elastic limit of the pipe material
Design pressure: The value of the pressure as defined by the American Petroleum
used for pipeline design. Institute (API) (Table 2.1).
Location classes
Class Location and Construction Type You can quantify this activity by determin-
allow you to determine, for every section of ing population density indices and relating
the pipeline, the design factor F applicable the design of the pipeline to the appropriate
population density index. The code
to that section. The most significant factor
requires you to lower the stress level rela-
contributing to the failure of a pipeline is tive to increased activity. Four class
damage to the line by human activity along locations are defined in the code, from
the route of the pipeline. Class 1 to Class 4.
Construction types
Class Location alone is not sufficient to regardless of the population density index.
assess the risk of damage to a pipeline, Four construction types are defined from
since various situations (such as road, river, Type A to D, according to the ANSI B 31-
or bridge crossings) may increase the risk 8-1982 Table 841.15A. (Table 2.2).
2-3
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
2-4
Engineering: Pipeline Codes
Pressures
Design criteria
The engineer must first determine the con- This is important, because you must use the
struction type that is most applicable to the design factor F to verify that the pipe is not
crossing. Based on horizontal drilling overstressed in different situations during
experience, an HDD crossing can be Type construction and operation. Stresses may
A with a design factor F equal to 0.72 if the be caused by pressure inside the pipeline
land section on both sides of the crossing is
(during testing or operations), pressure out-
also Type A. In fact, the river section is
safer than the land section because there is side the pipeline (including ground
no risk of human interference. Therefore, pressure), temperature variations, bending
whenever the local regulations or laws the pipeline in the hole (during testing or
allow it, try to use the same classification operations), or bending the pipeline out of
for the crossing as for the land line. the hole (during installation).
2-5
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Hoop stress
Hoop stress is the stress caused by internal formula is valid if the ratio D/t is greater
pressure. Its value is given by the Barlow than 20.
formula, where P is the differential pressure
(the difference between internal and exter-
PD
nal pressure), D is the outside diameter, H = --------
and t is the wall thickness. The following 2t
Bending stress
The maximum bending stress is: where R is the bending radius. This stress is
a compression on the outside fiber and a
ED compression on the inside fiber.
b = --------
2R
Temperature stress
If the temperature of the fluid carried by the oil must be heated to be pumpable.
the pipeline is different from the tempera- Temperature stress caused by a T varia-
ture during installation, you must consider tion of temperature is:
the stresses caused by temperature in the
restrained pipeline (there would be no t = ET
stresses if the pipeline was free to expand
or contract). This is the case when the pipe-
line is a gas pipe, where gas temperature where is the linear expansion coefficient
may be much higher than ground/installa- in m per unit length per degree Celsius
tion temperature, or for an oil line where (11.7 10-6 m/m/C for steel).
Earlier in this chapter (Basic Strength of ratio between these two stresses was the
Material, page 2-1) it was mentioned that a Poisson coefficient . For example, hoop
stress in one direction would create a stress stress H would generate a longitudinal
of the same sign in the perpendicular direc- stress equal to:
tion if the material was restrained from
expanding or contracting in that direction
(the restrained pipeline stress), and that the L = H
Traction stress
2-6
Engineering: Pipeline Engineering
Ground pressure
When the pipeline cover is important, and When the D/t ratio is high, there is a risk of
when the soil cohesion is low, you must elastic instability. Elastic instability is when
consider the weight of the ground on top of a body collapses even though the load
the pipeline. The following formula, taken applied to this body does not create stresses
from Dreyfuss (Thin metallic conducts in excess of yield. This is because the stress
under roads and railways, Technip Edi- formulas assume that the load is perfectly
tion), can be used to estimate ground centered and that the pipe is perfectly
pressure g: round. The critical value for external pres-
sure on a pipe is given by the formula:
D
g = 0.4h ---2-
t 2E 1
P tc = --------------2 --------------------------2
1 DD
where ---- ---- 1
tt
= ground specific weight
h = depth of top of pipe. where Ptc is the critical external pressure.
Pipeline specifications
API specifications 5L, 5LX and 5LS first The API grades and corresponding SMYS
stated the chemical requirements of steel are given in Table 2.1 (metric and US
used for seamless or welded pipeline. The units). Some of the grades may not be used
minimum yield limit (SMYS), minimum in certain areas, especially when very low
ultimate tensile stress, and minimum per- temperatures are expected.
centage of elongation are also specified, as
are tolerances on dimensions and weight.
Pipeline Engineering
The engineer must first check that the wall t = nominal pipe wall thickness
thickness of the pipeline is sufficient with
respect to working pressure. D = nominal pipe diameter
F = design factor
Hoop stress. Hoop stress was previously E = longitudinal joint factor
defined as the stress caused by internal
pressure in the pipeline during testing or T = temperature derating factor.
operations. The formula for that calculation
is given in ANSI B 31-8: The values of factors F, E and T are given
by ANSI B31.8-1982, in Tables 841.1A,
St 841.1B, and 841.1C, respectively (repro-
P = 2 ----- F E T duced here as Table 2.3, Table 2.4, and
D
Table 2.5, respectively). This is the Barlow
where formula used to determine the strength of
materials (Bending Stress, page 2-6),
P = design pressure where the hoop stress H must not exceed
SMYS x F x E x T. Please note that D is the
S = SMYS nominal diameter of the pipeline.
2-7
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
*Includes Classes 12, 22, 32, 42, and 52 only (definitions for the various classes of welded pipe are
given in 804.243).
2-8
Engineering: Pipeline Engineering
Hydrostatic test
Operating pressure
Comments
The above calculations apply to pipeline ject to ground slippage. This additional
installed with the HDD method only. The engineering is beyond the scope of this
soil should be strong and stable; additional chapter because it is based on standard
engineering is required for very soft or pipeline engineering.
muddy soils, seismic areas, and zones sub-
Installation conditions
During installation, the pipeline is subject force estimation and catenary calculation
to traction forces, balance by ground fric- will be explained later, and for now assume
tion into the hole or on the rollers, and by than the pulling force PF is known.
bending according to drilled path profile.
You must estimate the pulling force to
check that the pipe will not be overstressed. The longitudinal stress a due to PF must
In addition, the pipe is generally laid hori- be less than 95% of SMYS. Accordingly,
zontally on rollers or in a flotation ditch. calculate the minimum radius during pull-
Since the pilot hole exits at an angle, the ing of the pipe Rpull:
pipe must be handled so that it enters the
ground with an equivalent angle. This is
what is called the catenary. The pulling a = PF /(t(D-t)) ED/2R 0.95 SMYS
Minimum radius
You have determined the minimum radius Minimum radius during installation:
for various conditions. The minimum Rpull
radius of the crossing must be the greatest
of:
However, there may be other situations
where you would use a higher radius than
Minimum radius during testing: Rtest this. First, the pilot hole cannot be drilled
perfectly. Use a coefficient to allow for
Minimum radius during operation: unexpected variations in hole profile and to
Roper make sure that the radius cannot be less
2-10
Engineering: Crossing Engineering
than the minimum. Second, the radius is an the anticipated pull force. The relationship
important factor for pull force value. For a between radius and pulling force will be
large pipeline, use a higher radius to reduce described later.
Crossing Engineering
Introduction
You now have the basic engineering infor- use to design a crossing and determine
mation required to design a crossing. You whether it is feasible will now be reviewed.
know how to determine the minimum First, you will learn how to design the
allowable radius and how to verify that the
crossings profile based on the minimum
pipe wall thickness is acceptable for HDD.
radius and exclusion area. Then the layout
However, this is still not enough. The vari- on both sides of the river and the necessary
ous parameters you must understand and resources you must have are described.
River. The basic information you will need high. There may also be an existing naviga-
is a profile of the river. Particularly, you tion channel or one planned for the future.
should obtain the current profile of the If the river is dredged, you must leave an
riversome rivers may change during a allowance for the dredge below the nomi-
years time, so old profiles must be used nal dredging depth.
and checked very carefully.
It may sometimes be difficult to determine Exclusion area. At this stage, you should
where the river bottom is, especially when know the pipe and entry sides, the water
the river is subject to scouring. The scour- source, the quality of the water, the river
ing level must be estimated according to bottoms location, and the location of its
the rivers hydrologic data. banks. These data are sufficient to start
drafting a tentative profile of the crossing.
You must also determine where the river
banks are, because the river can shift from
time to time, especially after a flood. In that On a drawing of the rivers profile, mark
case, the banks may be the limits of the the dredging limit (if any), the scour level
flood area, or any other point within these (if any), and the real banks of the river. The
limits where you can be sure that the river area delimited by the verticals from the
will not shift and expose the pipeline. banks and the lowest of river bottom, scour
level and dredging area, plus minimum
There may be obstacles in the bed of the pipeline cover, is called the exclusion area.
river, such as bridge piers, which may This defines a rectangular area (Fig. 2.2)
cause problems when the river flow is very where the pipeline must not be installed.
2-11
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
1 Exclusion area
2 Bedrock
If the river is very stable, the bottom line of Entry angle. The entry angle is limited by
the exclusion area may follow the rivers rig design and by safety guidelines for the
bottom (i.e., parallel at a distance equal to drilling crew working on the rigs walk-
minimum pipeline cover). ways. The inclination should not be more
than 18, and a minimum entry angle of 8
Minimum pipeline cover refers to the mini- is suggested.
mum soil height that must cover the pipe to
make sure that it will not rise toward the
surface when it is empty. Generally, about Exit angle. The maximum suggested exit
15 ft (5 m) are sufficient. This can be angle is 10, which can be reduced to 4 for
reduced somewhat in rock or hard forma- large-diameter pipelines. Generally, the
tion, but you also must remember that pilot exit angle must be as low as possible for
hole drilling is not that accurate. You can large-diameter pipes.
add a drilling safety margin to the mini-
mum cover, which should be 2 to 5 ft (1 to
2 m), according to the crossings length. Subsoil nature or obstacles. The best soils
for river crossings using the HDD method
The basic data for a crossings design are are sand, silt or clay. Gravel is the most dif-
the exclusion area parameters discussed ficult to work with, and bedrock is also
above. However, there may be another
problematic (the problem with bedrock is
restriction, which is the maximum ground
the interface between the soft and hard
cover that is allowed above the pipe. It was
previously mentioned that ground pressure ground). Therefore, whenever possible,
(page 2-7) could be a problem. In that case, avoid the gravel areas and remaining higher
the formula will give you a maximum than the bedrock. If you have no other
cover on top of the pipe. Mark that limit on alternative than to drill through the bed-
the profiles drawing, which will be a hori- rock, the angle between drill path and
zontal line called bottom limit. bedrock must be as high as possible.
C0 C5
C1 C4
C2 C3
C0 Entry
C1 Point of curvature
C2 Point of tangency
C3 Point of curvature
C4 Point of tangency
C5 Exit
Section C2C3 does not need to be horizon- If Z2 Z3, with amiddle being the inclina-
tal, although this is generally the case. If tion of the middle section, you have:
the river is deeper on one side, and if you
X2 - X1 = R (-sin(aentry) + sin(amiddle))
want to avoid some gravel area on the other
side, you can decide to make this section Z2 - Z1 = R (cos(aentry) - cos(amiddle))
with an angle. X4 - X3 = R (sin(aexit) + sin(amiddle))
Z4 - Z3 = R (cos(amiddle) - cos(aexit))
First calculate the horizontal and vertical
projections of the two circular sections. Note that the angles are trigonometric
This is easy, since you know the radius R is angles (i.e., horizontal is zero, a 10 entry
the minimum allowable radius, and you angle [100 on the steering tool] is -10,
and an 8 exit angle [82 for the steering
know the entry and exit angles. With the tool] is +8). Thus the entry angle is nega-
basic formulas mentioned in Strength of tive, exit angle is positive, and middle
Materials (page 2-1), you have: section angle is either or null.
Z2 - Z1 = - R (1 - cos(aentry)) X1 - X0 = L cos(aentry)
Z1 - Z0 = L sin(aentry)
X4 - X3 = R sin(aexit)
X3 - X2 = L cos(amiddle)
Z4 - Z3 = R (1 - cos(aexit)) Z3 - Z2 = L sin(amiddle)
2-13
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
1 Exclusion area
2 Bedrock
1 Exclusion area
2 Bedrock
2-14
Engineering: Crossing Engineering
Entry side. First, define the entry and exit age tank is required. Usually, the water
sides of your crossing. For the driller, the supply will not be able to meet the rigs
entry is where the drilling tool enters the demand during pre-reaming or pullback,
ground. The other side is the pipe side or and in any case, you should not rely on a
exit point. From time to time, the term entry third party for water. Be sure that sufficient
pit is also used for the pipe side. The entry water, in quality and quantity, is available
pit is the pit that is dug at the place where during all critical phases of the job, even if
the pilot hole exits. The entry pit collects these phases last longer than scheduled.
mud returns from the hole and, if required, You cannot afford to run out of water dur-
reduces the height of the catenary. ing a difficult pre-reaming or pullback.
Generally, the pipe side is selected first As explained in the drilling fluids section
because its requirements are more restric- of this course (Mud, Chapter 6), water
tive. However, there are also some quality is also important. During the site
requirements for the entry side related to visit, take water samples and proceed with
available space, water supply, and access the water analysis to make sure that bento-
roads for the equipment and crew. nite will mix properly with the available
water.
The total weight for a 250-ton pull force rig
and its ancillary equipment consumables is
approximately 250 tons; several single Another potential problem related to the
loads weigh 30 to 35 tons. Normal trans- entry side is noise. Whenever possible, the
portation to the site is by truck. Access entry side must be away from housing
roads must be wide and strong enough to areas. The pipe side is generally not as
handle such loads safely. Overhead clear- noisy.
ance must also be checked, as well as local
transportation restrictions. A typical entry side layout is shown in Fig.
2.6. The area required is about 200 x 200 ft
An alternative to road transport is river (60 x 60 m), depending on mud and water
transport. Obviously, the river must be free pit sizes. It does not need to be square, but
from ice, unless the ice is very thick. Water it is good practice to have mud pits close to
depth must be sufficient for barges and tugs the entry point and good access to these
to reach the site. In addition, an access pits for dump trucks. Also make sure that
ramp must exist or be built close to cross- heavy equipment can move easily around
ings site to unload equipment. the rig. Remember that in most cases,
mobile cranes wont be able to move in
Water is usually supplied from the river. If front of the entry point, especially after
this is not the case, water supply must be pre-reaming, because they may cause the
provided on the entry side and a safety stor- hole to collapse.
2-15
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
9 19 50 m
11
12
HDT
10 Mud Pit Mud Pit
15 x 15 m 20 x 10 m
20 500 m3 500 m3
28
12
HDT
17
27
18 13
50 m
25
7 16
Access
25
Mud Return
4 Line
6
22
14 1
Center
24 Line
5 26
15 2
21 3
Pipe side. The most important requirement the proposed crossing. The risk of getting
for the pipe side is space for the pipe string stuck during pullback is increased by
(Fig. 2.7 and Fig. 2.8). Water supply may standby in the pulling operation, whether it
also be a problem if the pipe must be bal- is because of a mechanical problem or a
lasted. In that case, refer to entry side tie-in of two sections. A tie-in may last sev-
comments about water (page 2-15). eral hours because the pipe must be aligned
properly, welded, and allowed to cool down
The pipeline should be welded and pre- before x-ray inspection; and the joint must
tested in a single string in the alignment of be coated and allowed to dry (if necessary).
2-16
Engineering: Crossing Engineering
7 8 9
1 2
5 4
Most of the pipe side area need not be space for dump trucks to maneuver
wider than the regular right-of-way. There without any restrictions.
are two exceptions to this rule:
2. Close to the exit point, an entry pit
1. If mud returns must be trucked out to must be dug and mud pits must be
the entry side, there must be sufficient built. Moreover, the pipe must be han-
2-17
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
dled with heavy equipment to enter the explained later. It is important to remember
entry pit with the correct inclination, that a small variation in the path because of
which is the pilot hole exit inclination. incorrect positioning of even one crane can
Generally, catenary cranes or side- drastically increase the force on the
crane(s) and stresses in the pipe.
booms will be on the left side of the
pipe string, looking at the river. The
truck road, along the pipe string, will You can estimate the length of the catenary
with a simple hand calculation, once you
be on the right side. If possible, mud
know the minimum installation radius (see
pits must be ahead of the entry pit and
Installation Conditions, page 2-10). If you
on the right side. This is because dump approximate the catenary with a combina-
trucks should be free to move between tion of circles, with a radius equal to the
the mud pits and the exit of the pipe above-mentioned minimum radius, the
side. Also, any equipment required to length and height of the catenary are:
handle tools or pipe should be free to
reach the entry pit in case of emer- L = R sin(a) + 2R sin(a/2)
gency. Therefore, the right-of-way
must be wider in the catenary area. H = R(1 - cos(a))
2-18
Engineering: Engineering Procedures
Engineering Procedures
Preliminary evaluation
At this stage you may only have a rough drill through, or other problems are evi-
idea of the pipeline route, pipeline charac- dent, it is best to stop now and look for
teristics, nature of obstacles, and subsoil alternatives.
conditions. Answer questions in these four
areas:
Product line nature. The product line must
1. The pipeline nature and characteristics: be pulled in a pre-reamed hole, as men-
Can you pull that type and size of pipe- tioned earlier. Therefore, it is not possible
line, or can you recommend a different to install a water pipeline with bolted con-
nections, for example. The line must be a
type and size, or casing, so that you can
steel line, or a high-density polyethylene
do the job? (HDPE) pipe with fused connections.
2. The length of the crossing: Can you
drill that length, and can you pull it? Pipe size. The maximum size of pipeline
Can you move the route elsewhere to that has been installed using the HDD
shorten the length? Can you split the method is 48 in. (1.2 m). An alternative is
crossing into two shorter ones? to lay two lines of smaller size across the
3. The necessary access and work areas: river. However, this solution is not ideal,
since the line maintenance may become
Can you lay the pipe in the alignment
difficult.
of the crossing, in one single section,
or can you modify the alignment
accordingly? Do you have access for Pipe length. Depending on soil conditions,
the rig, and do you have water of the maximum length that has been drilled is
acceptable quality and quantity? between 5000 and 6000 ft (1500 and
1800 m). You may need to cross the river at
4. The subsoil: Is it good for HDD; i.e., a different place, or drill from an island in
is it possible to avoid gravel layers and the middle of the river (if any). You can
remain above the bedrock, if any? also run a casing during pilot hole drilling.
To help you decide, refer to Fig. 2.10,
These simple questions should be easy to which shows the feasible length/diameter
address. If, based on experience, the cross- range for HDD, based on a good alluvial
ing is too long, the subsoil is too difficult to soil or rock crossing.
2-19
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
L (m)
2000
3
1800
1600
2
1400
Fig. 2.10. Length/diameter
feasibility range.
1200
1 = Feasible
1000
2 = Feasible with good alluvial
soils
800 3 = Not feasible as per state-of-
the-art
600
1
400
200
0
10 20 24 30 36 48
The last alternative is to use epoxy paint, Under any conditions, tape coating of field
although this solution is not recommended joints is not recommended. The same
because these coatings are almost impossi- restrictions apply to field repairs to the
ble to repair if they become damaged. For coating. Although it is quite long, a sin-
this reason, epoxy coating is not recom- tered PE pipe can be repaired using the
mended if PE coating is available. same procedure as for field joints. For
major repairs on a three-layer PE coating,
Powercrete is a rock shield coating compat- shrink sleeves can be used. Patches are
ible with the fusion-bonded epoxy acceptable for small repairs. For epoxy
corrosion coating. Powercrete has a very coatings, epoxy repair paint is a possible
low coefficient of friction and is applied solution.
over the fusion-bonded epoxy. This combi-
nation of coatings is the most effective for
protecting the pipelines during installation.
Catenary
It was mentioned earlier that the pipeline cranes area. Therefore, the catenary calcu-
string can be considered as a beam with lation will consider the two or three cranes
constant inertia. This beam is subjected to and the first five to 10 rollers.
its own weight, including the weight of the
buoyancy control system, if any, and to The strength of materials problem is to
reaction forces at each roller or cradle. It is determine the rollers reaction for a given
also subjected to the weight of the pulling position and determine the number of roll-
assembly (reamer or bullet nose, swivel, ers/cranes. The length of pipe string that is
pull head) and to the pull force necessary to not input into the calculation applies a fric-
balance the friction on the rollers. tion force at the pipe end. The pulling
assembly and pull force are equivalent to a
The rollers are generally installed 40 ft given force at the other end of the pipe
(12 m) apart, which is the average distance string, on the entry pit side. The direction
between each field joint. There is no need of that force is known, since it is the incli-
to calculate the stresses for the whole string nation of the pilot hole exit. The horizontal
lying on its rollers since the hyperstatic projection of that force must be equal and
problem takes much longer to solve when opposite to the friction force. Therefore,
the number of supports increases. How- you can calculate the vertical projection,
ever, the rollers that are more than 330 ft and the only unknown values are those of
(100 m) away from the cranes have no the n reactions on the n rollers/cranes (Fig.
influence on the loads and stresses in the 2.11 and Fig. 2.12).
2-21
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
5
7 3
2 4
1 6 6
8
2-22
Chapter 3: Steering
Magnetics............................................................................................ 3-8
Borehole direction and inclination ...................................................................... 3-8
Geographic location ........................................................................................... 3-9
Magnetic sensor spacing ................................................................................. 3-10
Z axis interference ..........................................................................................................3-10
Spacing ...........................................................................................................................3-11
Outside sources of interference ....................................................................... 3-11
In-ground sources...........................................................................................................3-11
Above-ground sources ....................................................................................................3-13
Magnetic interference....................................................................................... 3-14
Steering tool interference ...............................................................................................3-14
Using Tru Tracker ..........................................................................................................3-22
ii
List of Figures
List of Tables
iii
Notes
iv
Chapter 3: Steering
Guidance Principles
This chapter covers the basics of guidance tems, gyroscopic systems, and magnetic
services. These services may be provided azimuth systems.
by using surface locators, surface coil sys-
Basic principles
Instrumentation
The inclination and azimuth readings are it is provided through another wireline to a
measured by electronic survey instruments remote display located directly in front of
within the borehole, and the distance away the driller. The entire process occurs about
from the entry is measured by direct pipe once every second. The data are used by
measurement at the rig. the software to calculate and store survey
calculations of current and previous bore
A wireline steering tool consists of a sensor positions.
section and a wireline transmission section.
The sensors contained are three accelerom- Since the tool measures the earths mag-
eters and three magnetometers mounted netic field to resolve magnetic north, it is
orthogonally. The gravity and magnetic important to house the downhole probe in
data obtained from any attitude of the tool an area free of any extraneous magnetic
in space can resolve its inclination and interference. The bit, downhole motors,
azimuth. most subs, and the drill pipe are strong
sources of magnetic fields. The high carbon
The transmission section receives the sen- content of the high-quality steel needed for
sor data, converts it from analog to digital the drilling process generates high residual
format, and transmits it along a single con- fields. The probe is housed within a non-
ductor wireline to the surface interface. The magnetic collar separating the drill pipe
signal then moves from the interface to a and the drilling assembly. Therefore, mag-
laptop or desktop computer. After process- netic sensors are spaced away from the
ing, the data are displayed on the computer interference fields of the assembly and the
screen and sent back to the interface, where drill pipe.
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Coordinate systems
Plans for drilling operations are repre- In many cases, a pipelines length from its
sented on paper, but the work is done in origin is used to measure or position the
three dimensions on the curved surface of entry point. This is called a station, which
the earth. It is not possible to represent a has an origin point (0 + 00) at the begin-
sphere precisely in two dimensions; how- ning of the pipeline. Sometimes the profile
ever, since most jobs connect an entry and is represented based on stations. In every
exit with a straight line, two dimensions are case, you are dealing with distance away
normally sufficient. from the entry, however represented, and
elevations.
Actual planned profiles begin at the entry Elevations also may be expressed in a local
point and terminate at the exit point, or the system with the entry point considered to
local coordinate system, which is deter- be zero. Often, mean sea level (MSL) or
mined for a specific project. A client will another local datum is required. Once the
accept data on a local system as long as the coordinate system is determined, a drilling
entry point is known. profile is drawn.
Calculating survey data for plotting on a Profile: A projection of the vertical posi-
directional plan involves fundamental trig- tion of the bore against a planned vertical
onometry. This section covers various profile.
calculation methods and some operational
Vertical section: A mathematical calcula-
recommendations to use in the field. Read
tion to express 3-D positions in two
the following definitions before beginning
dimensions.
the section to review important
information. Radius: An expression defining the exact
curvature of a line, expressed in feet or
Measured distance: The total length of the meters.
drill pipe and that part of the BHA up to the Dogleg severity: The total 3-D change of
probes sensor, measured from the entry angle between two given points. This is
point. expressed by the calculation program in
degrees per 100 ft (30.5 m) and may be
Vertical depth: The vertical distance from directly converted to a radius between the
the surface reference elevation datum to the two points.
probes sensor.
Raw data are used to determine the position
Inclination: The angle of the borehole in
of a point along a borehole. Instruments
degrees, measured from the vertical or hor-
currently in use produce the raw data,
izontal plane.
which are then used in calculations to
Entry point: The point of entry chosen as obtain the final values.
the beginning of the vertical and horizontal
profiles. Normally, the point where the drill Many new methods have improved the cal-
pipe enters the ground in front of the rig. culation of the curved path of the bore
between two survey stations. Since the cal-
Exit point: The target expressed in distance culations accuracy depends on the
from entry, elevation, and a position left, frequency of survey stations and surveying
right, or directly on a centerline. This may takes time, much effort has been expended
be a planned exit or an actual exit point. in mathematically modeling the theoretical
bore path between stations. These models
Horizontal plan: A projection in plan view are the tangential method, average angle
of the left or right position of the bore method, and radius of curvature method.
against a planned centerline. These methods are discussed in detail in
3-2
Steering: Guidance Principles
the following sections, along with the cal- the joint and uses the balance of the joint to
culations appropriate for each method. hold his target angle. In a 30-ft (9.2-m)
joint, the first 10 ft (3 m) would then be a
None of these methods take into account curve, while the following 20 ft (6 m)
the fact that the driller can influence the would be a straight line at the desired
calculation method. He sees his angular higher angle. Since the angles measured
position at every foot drilled and makes form the basis for the resulting calculated
corrections as needed. Normally, he is position, the driller can bias the calcula-
given an inclination target that he must hit tions by changing when he reached the
at the end of the joint to be drilled. Usually, desired angular target during the joint. This
he hits this target within the first third of bias must be accounted for.
Mathematical review
This section covers the fundamental mathe- A review of basic trigonometry. A right
matics required for the job. As a minimum, triangle is composed of one angle equal to
90, and two angles less than 90 (Fig. 3.1).
basic trigonometry is necessary, while a
The side opposite the 90 angle is called
working knowledge of geometry is also the hypotenuse, labeled c. All three angles
beneficial. must add up to 180.
c
a (vertical)
(d
ril
lp
A
b (horizontal)
If the length of any two sides of the right are listed below for the angle marked A in
triangle are known, the length of the other Fig. 3.1.
side can be determined by Pythagoreans
Theorem: a
sin A = --
c
a2 + b2 = c2
b
cos A = ---
For example, if c = 10 ft and b = 9 ft, then: c
tan A = --a-
a = 10 2 9 2 = 4.36ft b
Furthermore, if one side of the triangle and For directional drilling, the hypotenuse of
an angle (other than 90) are known, all the triangle c is the drill pipe, side b is the
other sides and angles can be solved using away or horizontal distance, and side a is
trigonometric functions. These functions the vertical drop, or build.
3-3
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
For example, if angle A = 12 and side c = or walkover system positions. Use the best
10 ft, then: fit.
Away = 11.34 ft
Recommendations. Always begin a job
using this calculation method. Watch how This number is placed in Column H.
the driller obtains his targets. If he aggres-
sively chases the target early, stay with the
tangential method. If he waits to obtain his Next, calculate the distance moved left or
desired angle at the bottom of the joint, right of centerline:
change to another method of calculation.
Compare both methods to direct elevation Right = course length x sin (Inc) x
readings from Tru Tracker coil positions sin (Az)
3-4
Table 3.1. Survey tabulation sheet.
Client BitSensor A
Location
Country
Job No. Sht Of
Sumitomo
Directional Drilling Systems
ViceEntry
TF Offset
BHA Length
B
C
Engineer Crossing Length
Probe No. Sht Azi. Mag Dip Rig Azi. Surv.File Coil File
Ground Elevation: Entry Exit
Date Pipe Length High Inclination Azimuth Station Elevation Survey Tru Tracker
Jt. No. Time Mag Dip
Remarks CL MD Side Raw Avg Raw Avg Away Survey TT Left Right Left Right
D E F G H I Ja Jb
K L
Again, this AZ is the difference between The average angle method treats the bore
the line Az and drilled Az. as a straight line, but approximates the
slope of the line by taking the average of
Right = 11.5 x sin (80.6) x sin (0) the inclination angles at each end of the
drilled section. This process is also carried
Right = 11.5 x 0.9866 x 0 out for the hole direction (azimuth) read-
ings. These averages are used in a standard
Right = 0 ft tangential calculation to determine eleva-
tions and left/right positions.
Because the Az did not change, it did not
deviate from centerline. This number is This method becomes less accurate as the
entered in either Column Ja or Jb, depend- difference between either pair of angles
ing on whether it moved left or right of increases or as the distance between survey
centerline. stations becomes large. Within these limita-
tions, however, the results obtained with
this method differ little from those obtained
Now calculate the elevation drop or true
from more sophisticated methods.
vertical depth (TVD):
Advantages.
TVD = Course length x cos (Inc)
TVD = Course length x cos (80.6) Fairly accurate, and good repeatability
with other more advanced methods.
TVD + 11.5 x 0.1633
Calculations are simple enough for
TVD = 1.878 ft field use with a non-programmable cal-
culator.
By drilling 11.5 ft and moving from an
entry angle of 80 to a drilled angle of Disadvantages.
80.6, TVD has dropped approximately
1.9 ft in elevation. This number goes in
Column I. No theoretical justification.
( Inc 1 + Inc 2 ) ( Az 1 + Az 2 )
- cos -----------------------------
Away = Course length x sin ------------------------------- -
2 2
Az 1 + Az 2
------------------------- = Az 3
Note: 2
Just as in the tangential method, take the cosine of the difference between line Az and Az 3
to use in this formula.
This number will be placed in Column H. Next, calculate the distance moved left or right
of centerline:
( Inc 1 + Inc 2 ) ( Az 1 + Az 2 )
- sin -----------------------------
Right = Course length x sin ------------------------------- -
2 2
Az 1 + Az 2
Again, ------------------------
- = Az 3
2
( Inc 1 + Inc 2 )
TVD = Course length x cos -------------------------------
-
2
Rarely different from average angle If calculating the horizontal distance of the
calculations. same curve using the same information,
use the following formula:
Not easily explained to customers.
Horizontal distance = cos 78 x 1000 ft
Magnetics
During the process of drilling a borehole, of the distance between the source and the
the steel components of the drill string sensor/compass. That is:
become magnetized. Magnetic surveying
devices placed within the drill string are PoleStrength
affected by magnetized components of the InterferingForce = ----------------------------------
drill string. Therefore, surveying devices Dis tan ce 2
are always placed in a non-magnetic sec-
tion of drill string. These non-magnetic Therefore, as the distance between the
sections act as spacers, causing the mag- magnetic source and the sensor/compass
netic poles to be spaced away from the increases, the force on the sensor/compass
sensors/compass. By spacing the sensor/ decreases exponentially. For example, if a
compass a proper distance from the mag- force F is affecting a sensor/compass at a
netic poles, the interference on the sensor/ distance of 4 ft, then the interfering force
compass will be minimized. Magnetic field (IF) will be reduced to 1/4 strength at 8 ft,
interference varies with the inverse square or to 1/9 strength at 12 ft.
A leveled magnetic sensing device, such as mized. The horizontal component of the
a compass or a magnetometer, actually interfering force IFH is defined as:
relies only on that portion of the earths
magnetic field that is in the horizontal PoleStrength
plane. Therefore, only that portion of the IF IF H = ---------------------------------- sin ( inclination )
(caused by magnetized steel) that is in the Dis tan ce 2
horizontal plane will affect the magnetic
setting. As the inclination of the drill string The direction (azimuth) in which the drill
becomes more horizontal, the greater will string is positioned is also a factor in deter-
be the IF that exists in the horizontal plane. mining the effect of the IF on the magnetic
Therefore, at high inclinations (e.g., 90 sensor. If IFH is divided into north-south
borehole) the effect on the sensor is maxi- and east-west components, then angle a
3-8
Steering: Magnetics
represents the direction of the drill string. error is represented by angle Z and can be
IFH can be divided into a north component expressed as:
(IFH north) and an east component
(IFH east). At angle a the following vectors IF H east
can be determined: sin Z = ------------------
- or
IF total
Total north vector = H + IFH north IF H east
Z = Arc sin ------------------
-
Total east vector = IFH east IF total
The following formula mathematically The above formulas are included to make
expresses the vector addition of magnetic you aware that it is possible to calculate
north and the IF (north and east) interference originating from the drill
components: string. This is called Z axis interference,
since the Z axis, magnetometer (the one in
IFtotal = Total north vector + the pipe axis) is the one picking up most of
Total east vector = the interference from the drill string.
Geographic location
Geographic location must also be consid- the equator than near the poles because a
ered when understanding the effects of stronger natural horizontal force will be
magnetic interference caused by magne- exerted on the sensor. If an IF is present, it
tized drill string components. As stated will have a more noticeable effect on direc-
earlier, a leveled magnetic sensing device tional readings taken near the poles than on
senses the horizontal component of the readings taken near the equator. That is, the
earths magnetic field. The amplitude of the magnetic north vector (H) will be less pro-
horizontal component of the earths mag- nounced at the poles, so the effect of an
netic field varies with geographic location. IFHeast or IFHwest will be even more influ-
ential. Understand that the increase or
The horizontal component of the earths decrease in magnetic interference at differ-
magnetic field is at a maximum near the ent geographic locations is not caused by
(magnetic) equator, and at a minimum near an increase or decrease in the IF of the
the north and south poles. Only the hori- magnetized drill string, but is caused by the
zontal component of this magnetic field increase or decrease of the horizontal com-
affects a leveled magnetic sensor used to ponent of the earths magnetic field. Any
indicate azimuth (such as a compass or lessening of the earths natural field allows
sensor). As the latitude increases north or the drill string field to have more influence.
south from the equator, the angle of dip of
the earths magnetic field increases. This
increases the effects of the vertical compo- Sensing devices measure the inclination
nent of the earths magnetic field and and direction of the hole as well as the high
decreases the effects of the horizontal com- side of the BHA. When magnetic interfer-
ponent. Thus, any magnetic sensor is ence is present, some of these sensors will
required to act on a diminishing horizontal be affected. Since the inclination and high
component as it is moved north or south side tool face are measured by accelerome-
from the equator, and it is more likely to be ters and are fairly independent of magnetic
affected by interference from other hori- north, they are not affected. However, hole
zontal field effects. Therefore, a magnetic direction is referenced to magnetic north
sensor can sense magnetic north easier at and any error in detecting magnetic north
3-9
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
will result in an erroneous hole direction or poles. Principal poles of this kind are situ-
azimuth. ated near the north and south geographical
poles; they are called the magnetic north
At points on the earths surface where the and magnetic south poles. (The dip pole
horizontal component of the magnetic field near the geographic north pole is, in reality,
is minimal, a dip needle will rest with its a south magnetic pole, although it is
axis vertical. Such points are called dip referred to as magnetic north.)
As noted earlier, the BHA and drill pipe are on paper, continue moving the motor or
strong sources of magnetic interference, jet forward, further from the probe
commonly called Z axis interference, until the original readings are obtained.
which must be minimized. The greatest At this point, move the assembly an
responsibility during rig-up on location is additional 24 in. (61 cm). Leave the
to accurately establish the line azimuth. assembly in position on the ground.
This cannot be done with confidence if Z
axis interference is present. 3. Pick up the crossover sub and lay it in
its normal connected position on the
Z axis interference. Take the following ground. Check that the data are not
steps to test for Z axis interference: affected. If so, move sub and motor or
jet further from the probe.
1. Locate a magnetically clean area by
connecting a test lead to a steering tool 4. Pick up the non-magnetic collar and
probe and roughly aligning with the lay it alongside the probe, being careful
axis of the planned bore. Ensure the not to touch or move the probe. Note
probe is rotated to probe high side and the data on paper.
is not software-corrected. Note H-Total
5. Pick up a joint of drill pipe with its
and dip on scratch paper. Move the
crossover installed and lay it in its nor-
probe 5 ft (1.5 m) right or left and note
mal running location behind the non-
data. Move 5 ft (1.5 m) forward or
magnetic collar. Check data. If
back and note data. The three readings
affected, begin moving it further
should be very close as long as tool
behind the assembly until the original
high side has not been changed during
readings are obtained. At this point,
movement.
move the drill pipe an additional 24 in.
If the readings differ by more than 0.1 (61 cm) and measure the distance from
dip or more than 40 in the H-Total, the shoulder of the crossover sub on the
move back to first locations and end of the drill pipe to the shoulder of
attempt to repeat initial readings. They the non-magnetic drill collar. This is
should repeat. After repeating, move the length of additional non-magnetic
the probe in directions opposite from
collar that you need.
the first moves. Again, look for differ-
ences. If different, continue moving 6. Measure the distance from the shoulder
forward until a location is found that of the bottom of the probe to the probe
repeats the dip and H-Total within connection shoulder in the orienting
specs. Once a clean location is found,
sub. This is the distance to space the
orient the probe to centerline. Note dip,
H-Total, and azimuth on paper. probe away from the drilling assembly.
7. You now have a clean BHA that is not
2. Lay the BHA on the ground at least producing Z axis interference.
15 ft (4.6 m) from the probe. Lay down
the jet or motor 12 in. (30.5 cm) from 8. In some cases, non-magnetic collars
the front of the probe, and look at the will become slightly magnetized. This
data. If different from what was noted would have been noted in step 4. Nor-
3-10
Steering: Magnetics
mally, it is OK to drill with some inter- 2. Entire BHA: The physical measure-
ference. ment from the face of the bit to the
shoulder of the crossover sub above the
If you locate a magnetically clean area, pull non-magnetic collars, including the
the probe through the non-magnetic collar sub. Record the measurement on the
and print screen at each foot of length. The field sheet in the space allotted.
resulting magnetic picture should be the
same throughout. If it is not, identify 3. Make up BHA: Once the assembly is
exactly where the hot spots are and made up before spud, ensure the previ-
ensure that you space away from these
ous measurements are reasonable. This
spots.
can take the form of a second measure-
ment, stepping off the length or, in
Spacing. Once all measurements of the
some cases, estimating the length.
BHA have been made, check the following
three points, taking into account spacing Once youve done this, refer back to
away from Z axis interference: your initial measurements and compare
them. If they are correct, proceed to
1. Distance from bit to probe sensors: spud.
This is the physical measurement from
the end of the bit to a point between the If you do determine a BHA measurement
magnetometers and the accelerometers. difference, note it on the field sheet and
Record this measurement on the field attempt to quantify the error before spud.
sheet in the space allotted. Note the same in your daily report.
Z axis interference relative to the drill Pipelines. Buried pipelines are common,
string was previously discussed. In addi- and they may cross perpendicularly or
tion, you may also see Z axis interference obliquely anywhere. If trenched, they will
when approaching an outside magnetic normally be 3 to 5 ft (0.9 to 1.5 m) below
field. If so, usually you will not be able to the surface. If drilled, they may be any-
quantify it as Z axis, unless you are hori- where. It is important to locate pipelines
zontal and not changing direction. By relative to the bore path being drilled. This
watching the sensor readings and seeing no should take the form of physically measur-
changes in your X and Y magnetics, but ing its location and transferring the
some change in Z, you may identify an iso- measurements to the drilling plan, if it
lated occurrence of Z axis interference. could pose a hazard to progress. Magneti-
cally, it is important to understand exactly
Usually, you will not have time to watch where the line is.
sensor readings in isolation, but will be
watching H-Total and dip for interference Pipelines normally have a cathodic protec-
warning purposes. Normally, in utility and tion current running through the line. This
pipeline drilling, there are many sources of is a direct current (DC) source; normally
interference to look for. Immediately on low-current, powering cathodes. These are
arrival in a new location, make time to walk used to slow the oxidation process of a
the line. Keep your eyes open for any pipeline by sacrificing a faster oxidizing
potential magnetic problems. Look at the metal. If Tru Tracker coils are associated
topography and the surrounding land- with cathodic protection, the readings will
scape, and make notes for later reference. be affected. Normally, unless the bore path
is very close (5 in. [12.7 cm] or less),
In-ground sources. There are many cathodic protection will not affect azimuth.
sources of underground interference. Look The steel of the pipeline will, however. If
at the field drawings. Pipelines and services the bore path is within 30 ft (9 m) of a 12-
will be shownmost of the time. Aban- in. (30-cm) line or larger, some interference
doned services, however, usually will not. can be expected. Measure the distance both
3-11
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
horizontally and vertically. Beyond 30 ft, piled exit pits. Expect major interference
you should be aware of the line. within 30 to 60 ft (9 to 18 m) of sheet
piling.
Entry and exit points are critical. With per-
mission, expose any line you are Underground tunnels. Expect that tunnels
approaching in azimuth or elevation. Do will have significant associated steel within
not fall back on the clients as laid draw- their construction. Their size will deter-
ings. Alert the client to the possible mine their affect on azimuth.
problem and ask to expose the line while
you drill at the sensitive point.
Underground trash. Old building founda-
Fiber optic cables. All the above comments tions, bridge abutments, landfill areas, and
relative to safety pertain to fiber optic tele- many other items may cause guidance
phone cables. These cables normally have a problems. Normally, by walking the bore
steel outer shield. The effect on azimuth path, you will locate many potential prob-
normally is minimal, depending on your lems. Make notes and physically measure
distance from it. those that could have the most impact on a
job. Draw them on the drilling plan to
scale.
Power cables. All comments relative to
safety pertain to power cables. These
cables vary from very low alternating cur- Bridges. Pipeline crossings often are
rent (AC) to steel-coated, oil-filled planned near bridges since the right-of-way
megawatt transmission lines. They will permissions are easier to obtain. Bridges
affect azimuth and Tru Tracker readings. pose real guidance problems if close
enough to impact magnetic azimuth.
Telephone cables. All comments relative to
safety pertain to copper telephone cables. There are two problems to overcome with
In many areas high- and low-volume cop- bridges. First is the mass of the bridge
per cable is still in use, rather than fiber itself. Regardless of the type of construc-
optic cable. Since telephone lines use DC tion, steel or concrete, there is a very
current, they are a major source of azimuth significant mass of iron to be concerned
and Tru Tracker interference. about. The actual bridge may rise in eleva-
tion toward the center of the span, causing
All other cables. Most underground cables different magnetics on every joint. Second,
will generate interference. It is best to stay the bore path may not be parallel to the
as far away as possible from them and note bridge, also causing different magnetics on
on the drilling plan exactly where they are. every joint. The footings of the bridge will
be supported either by bedrock or deep
Plastic pipelines. Plastic pipelines will not construction pilings. As drilling progresses
generate interference. It is still best not to near bridge footings, the magnetic intensity
plan a bore near them, although normally it of the interference increases and decreases
is not possible to choose the best path every as the footings are passed. Expect magnetic
time. problems from the span about the same
horizontal distance as the height of the
span. Depending on the type and depth of
Sheet piling. Normally, sheet piles are the footings, expect problems closer than
associated with river banks, although they 100 ft to the footings. The magnetics will
may be found in any area for ground con- be different on the entry and exit sides of
solidation. They are usually steel and will the river.
significantly affect magnetic azimuth when
drilling under or parallel them. Tru Tracker
will be affected if the coil wire is placed Measure and plot on the drilling plan the
such that the pile is located between the orientation of the span relative to the bore
probe and the coil wire. It will also be path. Also, measure and plot the footings
affected when attempting to enter sheet- against distance on the bore plan.
3-12
Steering: Magnetics
been noticed up to 200 ft (61 m) away from under and move away from them. Usually
the tracks. These problems normally may they will not affect readings within 100 ft
be overcome by simply waiting for trains to (30.5 m), although with megawatt lines
pass, although in highly traveled areas in parallel to bore path the influence can
large cities, it remains a major problem. exceed 100 ft.
The client must be kept advised of the
problems and an attempt to determine or
The magnetic field generated from the
quantify degradation of accuracy should be
overheads will vary with time, causing azi-
made.
muth and Tru Tracker readings to offset.
The magnitude of the offset sometimes
Overhead cables. Generally, overhead may be quantifiable, allowing operations to
cables cause few problems since you pass continue safely.
Magnetic interference
First determine the accuracy of the azimuth while the best case is a north/south
or Tru Tracker reading. Identify the inter- orientation.
ference and attempt to quantify it. If done
in an organized manner, the punchout accu-
Unlike Z axis interference, which is pre-
racy will improve. This section covers both
dictable in terms of the direction of the
azimuth and Tru Tracker interference.
error, interference from surface or subsur-
face sources affects all three sensors, with
Steering tool interference. As noted previ- the X and Y sensors being most affected.
ously, the earth produces a magnetic field This is much more difficult to predict since
that can be measured with magnetometers. in many cases you will not be able to iden-
If three magnetics are used orthogonally, tify the source. If the source is identifiable,
the measurements will resolve the earths the problem becomes much easier to
field strength, dip angle, and azimuth rela- handle.
tive to the instrument. If the instrument is
moved physically in a straight line and the It is not possible to quantify from the data
magnetic field does not change, the azi- the amount of error you see in a given sur-
muth produced will be the same at all vey. It is possible to judge whether the
points on the line. If the dip or field interference causes an increase or decrease
strength changes because of a local mag- in the azimuth reading when the only inter-
netic anomaly, the azimuth reading will ference source is located to the right or left
change even though the instrument contin- of the bore path and is a surface source
ues to move in a straight line. This effect (such as buildings, towers, or bridges) An
forms the basis of most interference underground source whose elevation is
troubleshooting. lower than the bore path should produce an
opposite effect of a source located higher
The field data sheet (Table 3.1) has col- than the bore path. The polarity of a mag-
umns for azimuth, mag, and dip to be netic field will produce opposite effects
recorded. They should be noted at every when reversed.
survey station during the pilot hole. In
some cases where strong local fields are Azimuth effect if known source of interfer-
encountered, it may be necessary to stop
the drilling operation every few feet to ence is right of the bore path.
check the change in mag and/or dip.
When drilling north:
Interference to the azimuth occurs when
the intensity or dip angle changes. The If dip goes up, azimuth goes down.
worst case (largest magnitude) of interfer-
ence occurs in an east/west orientation, If dip goes down, azimuth goes up.
3-14
Steering: Magnetics
on the Mag/Dip chart within a judged izontal turn. Apply this determination in a
scale. linear methodology (if 2 = 5 then 1 = 2.5,
etc.) throughout the balance of the crossing
Calculating linear azimuth correction as long as the additional problems encoun-
tered have a similar mass and are a similar
factors. While drilling, if you encounter a
distance from the bore pathin this case
2 increase in dip combined with a 5
on the left.
increase in azimuth, and a building is
located 30 ft (9 m) to the left of the bore
path, which is east, a very large error in azi- This will occur when drilling near bridges
muth will occur. or along overhead cable rights-of-way,
where the bridge pillars or footings and the
overhead cable pylons are evenly spaced
If at the end of the next joint drilled, the dip
away from the bore path.
returned to normal and azimuth decreased
by 5, you would now have a real quantifi-
cation of dip-to-azimuth correction (+2 of For the calculations, change the azimuth of
dip = +5 of azimuth). Note this situation the joint where the error occurred to more
only applies if azimuth is identical on both reasonably reflect the bore path movement
sides of the interference; in other words, from the previous reading to the next read-
you have drilled straight ahead with no hor- ing (Table 3.2).
3-16
Steering: Magnetics
In this case, you were drilling east, Note the correlation between the two
attempting to drill as straight as possible. methods.
You entered the interference at 710 ft
(217 m) out and drilled ahead to 920 ft Almost all azimuth corrections will be
(281 m) out. The dip evened out at 890 ft made using one of these two methods or a
(271 m) while azimuth continued to drop. combination of the two. The key is deter-
The bore began to turn at some point. mining when you do and do not have
interference. To make this determination,
While watching the drillers orientations be comfortable with the initially estab-
during the period of interference, you lished line azimuth and the clean mag and
would have noted a slight bias to the left, dip readings.
causing the bore to turn. Without the bias,
the formation may have pushed the bore off Constructing a Mag/Dip Chart. On a
line. length of graph paper, lay out a convenient
scale along the bottom of the horizontal
Correct the survey position by applying a distance of the crossing. A scale of 1 in. =
correction to those azimuths experiencing 50 ft (2.54 cm = 15 m) works well for rigs
interference. Do this on a best-guess basis, using 10- or 15-ft (3- to 4.6-m) joints,
applying a straight line correction factor while a scale of 1 in. = 100 ft (2.54 cm =
between good shots. The bore moved 1.8 30.5 m) works well for rigs with 30-ft
over seven stations. Divide 1.8 by 7 to (9-m) joints. From the bottom, move up
determine the correction factor to apply on about 2 in. (5 cm) and draw a horizontal
a cumulative basis (see Table 3.3 above). line along the entire length of the page.
Recalculate the survey to determine an
updated position. Draw a vertical line about 1 in. (2.54 cm)
from the left side of the paper. Near the
Inform the driller or client that the bore is center of the paper, draw another horizontal
1.8 off line. Either pull back and sidetrack line from 0 ft to the end of the crossing.
to bring it back to line or turn the bore right About 2 in. (5 cm) down from the top of
and approach the line. the page, draw another horizontal line from
0 ft to the end of the crossing. Label the
The averaging nature of this method scale of horizontal distance every inch
assumes that the bore will start turning (2.54 cm) from 0 ft to the end of the
immediately when interference is noticed. crossing.
If the driller bias was noticed only after 770
or 800 ft (235 to 244 m) out, you could rea- From the land survey notes, draw in the rel-
sonably assume that the bore before the ative locations of all possible sources of
bias was straight and the turn occurred only magnetic interference that were noted
after 800 ft (244 m) out. You would then against distance and left/right of the line. It
straight line a 1.8 correction over only two may be necessary to adjust the scale to
or three stations, yielding a higher rate of ensure space. Now the plotting axis for azi-
turn. muth on the bottom, dip in the center, and
dip at the top is established.
Note that stations at 890 and 920 ft (271
and 281 m) showed a rate of turn of only Refer to your field sheets to obtain the
0.2. In this case, the bore probably began readings you established as your initial line
to turn at a very low rate. To achieve 1.8, it azimuth, clean mag, and dip. Note these
probably took five or six joints. When a readings to the left of the vertical line on
high rate of turn is present, the same or the left of the paper. You must now choose
greater rate will normally be present on the a plotting scale for all three.
next station unless the turn is broken by
applying opposite bias. It is important to always orient yourself and
the readings to the physical line on the
If the rate of turn at 920 ft (281 m) corre- ground. If your line azimuth is 190, left of
sponds to the straight line method, it is the line would be a smaller azimuth and
possible to derive a correction factor for right of the line would be a larger azimuth.
dip similar to that used in the first example. Therefore, all numbers on the chart should
3-17
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
increase from top to bottom. Good work- needs to be completed throughout, espe-
able scales would be as follows (Table 3.4): cially when Tru Tracker is not used.
Table 3.4. Scales for constructing a While drilling, make notes of anomalies as
Mag/Dip Chart. they occur against distance. When the azi-
1 in. = 50 ft (2.54 cm = 15 m) or muth changes, question whether it is a real
Distance 1 in. = 100 ft (2.54 cm = 30.5 m) turn or interference. Refer to previous posi-
Azimuth 1 in. (2.54 cm) = 2 or 2.5 or 4 tions where dip and azimuth changed and
Dip angle 1 in. (2.54 cm) = 2 attempt to quantify the amount of error.
Mag intensity 1 in. (2.54 cm) = 1000 gammas Become familiar with the presentation of
the data in graphical form and use the valu-
able information derived.
On the field tabulation sheet, write down all
the information as it is obtained. Update Using the Mag/Dip Chart. Two charts are
the chart by plotting the measured points as presented as examples. The first (Fig. 3.2)
necessary. In the midst of major interfer- discusses a 500-ft (152-m) crossing. The
ence, it is necessary to plot the chart as the following shoot information is provided:
data are gathered. Decisions must be made
regarding the data immediately, and the Line azimuth = 189.5
trends must be identified and acted upon.
Dip = 68.6
Mag = 55,600 gammas
If you are in a relatively clean area, you
may drill a few joints before catching up Shoot location = 65 ft (20 m) in front
with the plotting. In any case, the chart of rig.
52,500
53,500
Mag. field
54,500
55,500
56,500
57,500
58,500
66
68
Dip angle
70
72
74
76
180
182
184
186
Azimuth
188
190
192
194
196
198
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Away
65,000
60,000
Magnetic field
55,000
50,000
45,000
40,000
35,000
80
75
70
Dip angle
65
60
55
50
45
110
120
130
Azimuth
140
150
Bridge supports
160
170
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,500 1,600 1,700 1,800 1,900
Away
Observe the following: and 750 ft (122 and 229 m) away from
exit on the closest bridge, yielding a
1. This crossing was planned to be drilled coil width of 50 ft (15 m).
30 ft (9 m) left of a double-span high-
way bridge starting about 325 ft (99 m) Before the job was started, the sur-
away from the entry point. The shoot veyor failed in a number of areas. First,
was performed at 90 ft (27 m) in front the line azimuth was not accurately
of the rig and an exit side shoot was not established. He did not establish a
done. The exit side was clean magneti- clean shoot area between the rig and
cally, while the entry side was located the river. Clean magnetics existed
between 120 and 300 ft (37 and
30 ft left of a major highway approach
91.5 m) away.
to the bridges and inside a heavily used
recreational parking area. The exit side,
He did not elect to do an exit side shoot
also 30 ft left of the highway, was next
where the magnetics were obviously
to dense woods. better. As was stated in Magnitude of
The two highway spans were 50 ft Error Quantification (page 3-15), he
(15 m) wide separated by a gap of 20 ft did not realize that he was in a magnet-
(6 m). An offset Tru Tracker coil was ically worst-case situation and did not
laid on the nearest bridge span, outside make stronger efforts to set up the job
of the bridge on each side. The eleva- properly.
tion of the bore was 30 ft (9 m) below
the river bottom. Water depth averaged Tru Tracker was available throughout
18 ft (5.5 m). The bridges were about the length of the crossing, but he failed
12 ft (4 m) above the water. Tru to use proper coil-building techniques
Tracker coils were laid between 400 in specifying the coil shape. He was
3-20
Steering: Magnetics
drilling 30 ft (9 m) to the left of the coil yielding very low intensities, was also
that was only 50 ft (15 m) wide. In reading a right-hand movement. This
addition, he was drilling 60 ft (18 m) was correct but rejected.
below the Tru Tracker elevation. Using
the precept that the coil width should 3. Drilling continued with the azimuth
be at least 5% wider than the depth, he spikes increasing in magnitude to
should have expected his intensities about 1000 ft (305 m) away. The azi-
from the coil to be very low. Also, muth spikes magnitude built to
since the search area outside of an off- approximately 17. At this point, the
set coil is roughly half the width of the spikes reversed and began spiking in
coil, drilling at 30 ft left was 5 ft
the opposite direction. At 1050 ft
(1.5 m) outside the search area.
(320 m), a spike of 30 was noted.
2. While drilling at 120 ft (37 m) away, 4. At 1100 ft (335.5 m) the mag and dip
the azimuth moved from the shoot azi- returned to near normal until 1150 ft
muth to 139.5, and this continued to (351 m).
300 ft (91.5 m) away. Tru Tracker read-
5. Between 1150 and 1300 ft (351 and
ings throughout the entry coil indicated
396.5 m) the same scenario occurred as
a straight course. The surveyor did not
was noted between 350 and 600 ft (107
recognize this as the real azimuth and
and 183 m).
continued using the shoot azimuth.
With Tru Tracker confirmation, this 6. At 1320 ft (403 m) a very large spike
was incorrect. of 34 occurred. This was similar to the
spike at 1050 ft (320 m).
At 300 ft (91.5 m) away, the first inter-
ference problems began with an 7. Between 1350 and 1480 ft (412 and
increasing dip and azimuth. The dip, 451 m), the spikes again reversed.
mag, and azimuth began moving up
and down at roughly the same rate and 8. Good mag and dip readings began at
quantity. Drilling continued blind to 1500 ft (457.5 m) and continued
about 430 ft (131 m), where the first throughout the balance of the drilling.
bridge Tru Tracker coil was set. The The surveyor failed to recognize that
coil indicated a small movement to the with an increasing magnitude of spike,
right but the intensities were so low the bore must have been approaching
that the information was disregarded. the bridge (see 2, 3, and 5 above). He
Drilling continued through the coil to also failed to recognize that a very
about 700 ft (213.5 m). Tru Tracker large spike could only occur when
readings began showing a stronger close to a major source of magnetic
right movement but were still disre- interference. At this point, he passed
garded, since the intensities and under a bridge footing (see 3 and 6
mismatch readings were out of scale. above).
The surveyor failed to measure and The surveyor failed to recognize that a
plot the locations of each of the bridge reversal of the spikes indicated he was
footings relative to centerline and dis- drilling on the opposite side of the
tance away. The observed spikes interference (see 3 and 7 above). He
occurred only when the probe was also failed to recognize that good mag
located the same distance away from and dip readings indicate good azimuth
the bridge footings. readings (see 4 and 8 above).
The azimuth throughout continued The overall effect of all the guidance fail-
moving up and down with an increas- ures in this case would be a bore passing
ing magnitude and was averaging a under both bridges; if it had been punched
right-hand movement. This was correct out, it would have been more than 200 ft
but disregarded. The Tru Tracker coil, (61 m) to the right of the target. In addition,
even though improperly set up and the bore would have passed directly under
3-21
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
at least two bridge footings. The dotted line The surveyor now needs to measure the
of the drawing indicates a fair representa- horizontal distance from the entry point to
tion of the actual azimuth movement using each corner along the centerline and the
the correction methods introduced above. perpendicular distance to each corner from
Lost time and redrills would have resulted. centerline. This is very important. A left-
This job could have been completed with right error in a distance of 2 ft (0.6 m) will
few problems if the proper setup tech- mean a 2-ft error in tool positioning.
niques and magnetics correction methods
had been used. The transit must be set up to get an accu-
rate elevation of each corner relative to
entry elevation. As the Tru Tracker accu-
Using Tru Tracker. Since the Tru Tracker racy is 1 to 2% of total probe depth, it is
system is a secondary means of determin- critical that you obtain accurate elevations
ing a bore position, it is important to on your corners.
understand not only its method of opera-
tion, but also how to judge the relative Coils should be as wide as the anticipated
accuracy of the output. depth of the probe. For example, if the
probe is expected to be 50 ft (15 m) deep,
then the effective search area of a coil W
Operating guidelines and techniques. The
wide would be 3W at a depth of W.
Tru Tracker coil, when accurately installed
on the ground and in the correct position,
generates a magnetic field that can be accu- The coil wire must be stretched straight
rately predicted through mathematical and tight from one corner to the next. If
modeling. The field shape and relative you cannot go in a straight line from one
strength at every position within and some corner to the next, then you will need to
distance outside of the coil is magnetically place another corner between these two
unique. The magnetometers in a steering points.
tool measure those parameters both in a
positive and negative polarity, compare the Always number the coil corners in a clock-
data to the model, determine the closest wise direction. Corner measurements must
match to the fields unique parameters, and be in the same length units as the direc-
print out the result. tional survey and must use the same
reference tie-in (i.e., from the entry point).
If entry is listed as 0 away and 0 elevation,
The input data are the amount of amperage then the corners must be measured relative
input to the coil and the horizontal distance to this point.
of the probe as calculated by the survey
program in the computer. A corner left of centerline looking toward
the exit point must be entered with a nega-
tive sign for the right coordinate. If you are
Setup. A Tru Tracker coil is only as good
using actual survey station numbers for the
as the input data the surveyor enters into
tie-in and you are drilling backward rela-
the computer. A proper setup is imperative
tive to the stations, all corners must have a
for an accurate shot. The most important
negative sign for the away distance. For
aspect of Tru Tracking is determining example, if your entry station is 2000 and
where to place corners. your exit point is 1000, and you are drilling
backward relative to these stations, then
By walking the coil area on both the entry each corner must be entered with a negative
and exit sides, a surveyor can determine value.
where coil corners are necessary. Corners
need to be placed anywhere there is an After loading your coil into the computer, it
anomaly in the coil path, both in elevation is always a good idea to select Load and
and/or distance left and right of centerline. Print a Coil to double-check for accuracy.
Once you have established the location of
the corners, sturdy stakes must be placed at Taking measurements. Once a joint has
these points. been drilled down, it is time to take a sur-
3-22
Steering: Magnetics
vey. Go to Take A Survey on the menu. The If the coil is 1000+ ft (305+ m) long then
computer will prompt: American Wire Gauge (AWG) 6 wire is
recommended. If it is less than 1000 ft,
Enter course length: then AWG 8 wire should be sufficient. On
200- to 300-ft (61- to 91.5-m) coils where
Plug the azimuth (Y/N) you do not anticipate going very deep, then
Use Tru Tracker? (Y/N) you may be able to use 10-gauge wire,
although paralleling two lengths of AWG
10 wire is recommended to ensure that you
You will next be prompted to enter forward are getting sufficient current and the wire
current. If the current is negative, it must does not overheat.
have a minus sign in front of it. Ask the coil
operator for forward current. There are two Testing amperage. After a coil has been
important criteria at this stage. The first is loaded into the computer, go to the selec-
that the coil operator must ensure that the tion titled Predict Field at a Known Point.
current has stabilized before giving this This selection will allow you to enter theo-
information to the surveyor. The second is retical closures (away, right, elevation) and
that the operator cannot break the connec- the total current anticipated. The computer
tions loose until the surveyor is prompted calculates the radial angle, radial intensity,
to do so by the computer. Breaking loose and axial intensity. This option will help
too soon will result in measurement errors you determine the current necessary to pro-
and inaccurate data. vide a 2000- to 5000-gamma radial
intensity.
The operator should also be aware that key-
ing the mike near the Tru Tracker box will Best-case layouts. A coil with as few cor-
cause the readings to fluctuate. The current ners as possible, thereby introducing less
should be read before transmitting the data. human error into the equation, is the best
scenario. If possible, use an away station of
Once the surveyor has been prompted for zero and an entry elevation of zero for your
reverse current, the operator can reverse the entry point. This will give you a simple
leads. When current stabilizes and the read- benchmark for setting up your corner data.
ing has been put into the computer, the
computer will begin its search. Do not For example, suppose you anticipate being
break the leads loose until the computer 50 ft (15 m) deep toward the end of your
has completed its search and locked onto coil. As stated before, the coil must be as
the tool. wide as the anticipated depth, but to do this
you would need to put two additional cor-
Determining the accuracy of a Tru Tracker ners in the coil to maneuver around an
shot will be covered in Determining Shot obstacle. To keep the coil as basic and sim-
Validity (page 3-25). ple as possible, it would be better to make
the coil 55 ft (17 m) wide at this point. This
Power source problems. A solid direct cur- will provide a straight line to the corners
rent (DC) power source is required to use without having to add the additional cor-
Tru Tracker properly. Insufficient or fluctu- ners necessary to go around the obstacle.
ating power can cause erroneous readings
and inaccurate surveys. A good DC welder The best-case scenario is to use as few cor-
is normally used to power a Tru Tracker ners as possible, but to still place corners at
coil. Ensure that there are no nicks in the anomalies. If you can put fewer corners
welder leads that can ground to earth. and still not upset the depth-of-probe to
width-of-coil ratio substantially, then do so.
Cable problems. Nicks in the coil wire or A depth of 50 ft (15 m) with a coil width of
insufficient wire size for the length of the 40 to 60 ft (12 to 18 m) will not cause you
coil are two areas where cable problems to lose accuracy on your Tru Tracker shots.
can occur. Check the wire thoroughly after
laying out the coil to ensure there are no In another example, assume you have a 5-ft
areas where the current can go to ground, (1.5-m) error in elevation over a 30 ft (9 m)
especially at splices. horizontal distance. If you can get your
3-23
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
wire tight enough to go from point A to bottom is the most accurate way to deter-
point B without placing a corner at point C, mine the elevations of your corners when
and ensure that there is no sag in the wire, laying water coils. If sounding is not possi-
then do so. There is less chance for error ble, then using the elevation of the
without compromising accuracy. centerline can help keep the surveyor on
course.
Keep the number of corners to a minimum
while still maintaining coil integrity. By The most effective way to lay coils in the
placing as few corners as possible, and tak- water is to weigh them down with lead
ing into consideration elevation and left/ weights to help ensure that currents or tides
right anomalies, there are fewer chances for do not move the coil during the course of
error. your drilling operation. Establish bench-
marks on the entry and exit side of the river
Worst-case layouts. The worst-case sce- to help guide you in a straight path.
nario for your Tru Tracker coil is where
there are numerous corners because of If it is necessary to have splices in the line
extreme elevation changes or many obsta- you are laying across the water, you must
cles in the path of your coil. make sure that efficient, watertight connec-
tions are made. If you do not have a good
A coil may have up to 256 corners, but one heat shrink available, then it is recom-
coil of this size will be very susceptible to mended that you use vulcanized tape
inaccuracies. Try to keep the number of followed by electrical tape to prevent seep-
corners to a minimum, or make several age into your splices. Any leakage can
coils to allow for these anomalies. This will cause erroneous readings.
enhance the overall accuracy of your coils
by minimizing the human errors. Coils terminating in the water are more dif-
ficult to lay, but are a very effective way to
Extreme elevation changes will cause the help ensure course accuracy. The most
most inaccuracy in coil configurations. It is effective way to lay a coil that terminates in
imperative that the surveyor obtains an the water is by using divers. Professional
exact elevation on the corners for these divers can establish a credible centerline on
coils. Errors in elevation cause errors in the water bottom, and through the sur-
depth during Tru Tracking. The transit may veyors guidance, create a viable Tru
have to be moved several times to ensure Tracker coil. The surveyor must work
accuracy, but this is very important. closely with the divers to make them fully
aware of his needs with respect to distances
It is also imperative that correct horizontal left/right of centerline to maintain course
distances are input for coils in which you integrity.
encounter extreme elevation changes. Do
not use the distance from stake to stake Suspended coils. Suspended coils are
when measuring the corners, but rather use somewhat more difficult to establish. The
the horizontal distance. This mistake can main priority when constructing a sus-
cause extreme errors in the accuracy of the pended coil is to keep as much sag out of
measurements from your coils. the wire as possible. Any sags will create
errors in your Tru Tracker depths.
Extreme deviations left and right can also
cause errors in measurement. Remember Try to keep the wire out of the water, as this
that a tool W in depth with the coil W wide can also cause errors. The current from the
has 3W search area. Coils too wide or too water can cause the wire to sway, prevent-
narrow can give erroneous readings. In ing you from obtaining an accurate shot.
such cases, you may need to lay offset coils Usually the computer will tell you that it
to enhance the accuracy of the information cannot lock on the tool and no shot will be
received. available.
Water coils. Water coils can be very useful If there is a sag in the wire, then you must
tools when drilling across areas of extreme establish a corner at the sag point. This can
magnetic interference. Sounding the river be done by setting up the transit on the
3-24
Steering: Magnetics
bank and transporting the range rod to the G-Total. The G-Total is the result from the
lowest point in the sag. By holding the rod accelerometers, which are gravity-sensing
at water level, an elevation can be estab- devices. The G-Total is primarily used by
lished. You can also shoot stadia to the software to ensure that the tool
establish an away station at this point. remained stationary while the forward and
reverse currents were being recorded. The
Determining shot validity. A Tru Tracker software will alert the operator if it detects
shot should be evaluated and monitored to a discrepancy in an accelerometer sample
ensure that the data obtained is accurate between the forward and reverse current
and reliable. The following indicators are applications. A warning will appear on the
used to determine the accuracy of a Tru screen that the tool moved and the shot is
Tracker shot: H-Total, G-Total, Radial invalid.
Intensity, Radial Angle, Radial Angle Mis-
match, Radial Intensity Mismatch, and Radial intensity. The value of the radial
Axial Intensity Mismatch. The values are intensity is a quick indicator of the current
printed as the shot is taken and should be strength that the magnetometers are sens-
reviewed at each shot. ing. This value should be between 1000
and 5000. While a reading of below 1000
should not be discounted totally, the abso-
H-Total. The data from the magnetometers
lute accuracy of the shot should be
are used by the software to locate the
scrutinized. If this value is above 5000, too
probe. Since the H-Total is also monitored
much current is being applied to the coil.
to detect possible magnetic interference, a
Damage to the magnetometers can occur if
static or natural H-Total should be recorded
an extremely high current is allowed to
at the probe shoot and maintained on a sur-
persist.
vey tabulation sheet to serve as a reference.
As was previously discussed, the H-Total
or magnitude of the earths magnetic field Radial angle. The radial angle value
is region-specific and can be determined should read between 180 and 360 (the
before the start of a bore. proper operating range), or 270 if the
direction of the magnetic field vector is
closely aligned with the probe. The radial
If the probe is located somewhere within angle can indicate improper coil connec-
the confines of the coil, the following tions to the Tru Tracker control box if it is
results can be expected: out of the specified parameters or if the
probe is beyond the effective search area of
1. A forward current will result in an H- the coil. The coil wire leaving the opera-
Total somewhat higher (ideally tors left hand should be connected to the
between 1000 and 5000 gammas) than positive terminal of the control box.
the natural or background H-Total
recorded at the shoot. Radial angle and radial intensity
mismatch. Mismatch percentages are the
2. A reverse current will yield a lower H- differences between actual and theoretical
Total of similar magnitude. You can results.
determine a current strength require-
ment by applying forward current Axial intensity mismatch. The axial inten-
while the tool is idle and monitoring sity mismatch will fluctuate more than the
the H-Total displayed on the screen. radial angle and radial intensity mis-
matches. Ideally, it should remain less than
If an increase of 1000 gammas or more is 15%. Factors that will cause this mismatch
noted, then the setting on the DC power to be more than 15% are proximity of the
source is acceptable. If the H-Total falls beginning or end of a coil, or entering of an
below the background value, then one of erroneous away distance value. Double-
two situations exists: either the polarity of check the pipe count. A good rule of thumb
the input current is reversed, or the probe is is that the probe is inside the coil by at least
outside of the confines of the coil. Deter- one-half the width of the coil when a shot
mine which it is and proceed. is considered good.
3-25
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Tru Tracker interference.Tru Tracker is not suggested method of detection and control
a panaceait cannot be run in a magneti- is described here:
cally corrupt environment (such as when
the H-Total is near 70,000). Constant low- To determine if Tru Tracker results are
level noise or interference, intermittent being corrupted by a variable-strength
surge noise, or spike-type interference can source, take four shots at the same
be recognized, and an operator can make location, not moving the probe, and
allowances or modify the procedures to apply current at a consistent level. If
compensate for such anomalies. variable interference is affecting the
shots, the results may wander 5 ft (1.5
Positive vs. negative readings. It is good m) or more to the left or right. Plot all
practice to apply the following procedure of these points. Drill another joint and
periodically throughout any bore, at least to repeat this procedure. Plot all of the
test that no unknown DC sources or hidden points. As the bore proceeds, a corridor
ferrous masses are distorting Tru Tracker of some constant width or spread will
results. develop. The operator should steer the
bore until the corridor straddles the
Once comfortably inside a coil, you may desired centerline, and continue the
make a shot using the following method: bore in this fashion until exit or the
corridor narrows to a negligible width.
When the computer prompts for For-
ward Current, apply forward current as Determining azimuth from Tru Tracker
usual. When the request is made for data. An operator is often forced to begin a
Reverse Current, do not apply any cur- bore without a true, undistorted heading
rent to the coil and simply enter H as a because of the expanse of the obstacle to be
reverse current value. Wait for the crossed, which is usually a body of water
results, and when the prompt for Take and nearby magnetic interference. Using
A Repeat appears, answer Yes. Repeat Tru Tracker, it is possible to resolve a true
the process. Apply no forward current heading or confirm the heading chosen. If
and enter for this value. Apply the nor- this method is used, extremely accurate
mal reverse current and enter it measurements must be taken when laying
accordingly. If there is a source of out the coil.
interference on one side, the axial
intensity will reflect that source. If the When in highly congested areas where
normal forward current and H reverse there is no opportunity to shoot offsets to
current results show an almost 0% escape corruption, the operator may resort
axial intensity mismatch, the H for- to this method to help establish a line azi-
ward current and normal reverse muth or determine that the chosen azimuth
current results show a 3 to 4% axial is valid. As mentioned before, if this
intensity mismatch, and movement of 3 method is used, all measurements must be
to 5 ft (0.9 to 1.5 m) to the right is exact and the coil must be constructed so
noted, then there is a source of interfer- that every side is a precise, straight line
ence paralleling the bore to the right of between corners:
the bore path. The operator may choose
to continue using an H reverse current
1. Shoot the rig in on line and monitor the
method if the DC source is large
enough to supply ample current to the entry of the first joint with the survey
coil, or he may elect to reset the entire instrument, if possible. This will
coil to a configuration that locates the ensure as straight an entry as possible.
source of interference outside of the
2. Instruct the driller to drill only straight
coil.
up and straight down, taking time to
Corridor benchmarking. The above proce- stop, reorient, and then continue his
dure is effective for sources of push. This will eliminate some of the
interferences that remain stable or constant. wander caused by right-hand rotation,
Some sources of interference are variable and is good practice at the start of any
and interfere at a regular frequency. The bore.
3-26
Steering: Accuracy
3. Proceed with the bore. When reliable 5. Plot the Tru Tracker vs. the calculated
Tru Tracker shots are recorded, three course on a 10 to 1 (or more) scale.
shots at the same away distance agree Continue this procedure until there is
with each other, and the azimuth indi- no more coil.
cators of the steering settle to a reliable
repeating constant (dip and H-Total are 6. Adjust the line azimuth using the tan-
constant). gential method until the calculated val-
4. Steer to maintain on centerline accord- ues fall in line with the Tru Tracker
ing to Tru Tracker. Take standalone values. This will be your final line azi-
shots at five intervals to provide a data- muth and should require few further
base for determining a trend. adjustments.
Accuracy
Within this industry, there is much dis- limits. Some will specifically note instru-
course concerning accuracy. Is accuracy ment accuracies. Finally, some will
defined as exit point accuracy or instrument mention all of the above.
accuracy? Within most drilling contractors
contracts, there will be a clause specifying
accuracy. In some, the limits of job accu- As a guidance company, you should be
racy will be specified in terms of the exit aware of accuracy in all its various forms
point. Some will specify exit point limits, and be able to correctly transmit this infor-
cover limits and, in some cases, corridor mation to your clients.
Accuracy is the quality or state of being mally measure gravity, resolve inclination,
exact or precise. Repeatability is the ability and tool face or roll. Magnetometers mea-
to produce the same result again and again. sure the earths magnetic field and resolve
tool azimuth relative to magnetic north. All
In terms of instrumentation, accuracy can sensors are calibrated to resolve tool accu-
be defined as comparing survey results racy to 0.1 in inclination and 0.1 in
from one device to survey results from azimuth. Tool face or roll will also resolve
another device to confirm that similar data to 0.1.
have been generated from both types of
survey instrumentation.
In addition, a tool will repeat itself to the
Repeatability is a procedure that is used to specified accuracy if it is within calibration
confirm a survey tools accuracy and specifications. Switch-on to switch-on
ensure that the downhole environment has should repeat itself as long as the tool is not
not affected the accuracy of the instrument. moved or the earths field has not changed.
Switch-on to switch-on repeatability is As long as a tool will repeat itself within
necessary. specs, its overall calibration in terms of
magnetic north has nothing to do with the
Measuring instruments are calibrated to a accuracy of the ground exit. Its calibration
particular accuracy, which is determined by in reference to gravity, however, has every-
the application. Beam accelerometers nor- thing to do with elevation accuracy.
Instrumentation
There will always be some error in any sur- tional errors that may result from outside
vey instruments compass. The errors in the influences.
instrument itself are less than the opera-
3-27
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
The accuracy of punchout is dependent or lower than the planned elevation. Most
upon many conditions, some of which may tool error is not cumulative; therefore, the
produce compensating errors and others actual position should be much better than
cumulative errors. Since these conditions a radius of 1.7 ft. Tool face accuracy has
or a combination of conditions are impor- little to do with job accuracy.
tant factors in punchout accuracy, it is
difficult to isolate the exact cause other Keep in mind: tool accuracy is only that!
than interference, which is relative easy to The tool must be placed in a protective
identify. Therefore, interference becomes a housing, and then placed into a drilling
catch-all answer to punchout accuracy. assembly that is bent relative to the hole
axis. The bend, if not properly accounted
Recognize that two surveys might err for, can cause elevation errors. The drilling
within reasonable limits in the same direc- assembly may exert magnetic influence on
tion, while they also might err in opposite the azimuth. The formation will exert side
directions, producing large differences. A forces on the assembly, which can prohibit
steering tool is within specification if it its proper steerability with any type of
achieves a repeatable horizontal survey guidance instrument. Finally, human error
accuracy of 1.7 ft per 1000 ft (sin 0.1 x will cause major job accuracy problems.
1000 ft). In other words, at a distance of None of these are tool problems. The tool
1000 ft (305 m) away from the drilling rig, transmits a measurement, and it is up to the
the tool could be 1.7 ft (0.5 m) left or right surveyor to interpret the data and determine
of the planned centerline and 1.7 ft higher a position reference.
Human error
In todays computer age, we are familiar he will normally be able to overcome prob-
with the phrase garbage in, garbage out, lems and provide generally acceptable
meaning that bad solutions will result from results. However, there will be many occa-
bad data. The surveyor has total control sions where the magnetics are sufficiently
over the quality of the data, within reason- confused to cause major error in position
able limits.
and human uncertainty. When this happens,
When the surveyor is presented with mag- punchout accuracy will be seriously
netic problems, if he has spent the time to affected. All surveyors must communicate
set up properly on the first day, if he uses to the clients supervisory personnel the
his training and experience, and if he uses a factors affecting job accuracy as they
structured problem-solving methodology, occur.
Magnetic variation
A survey instrument, even though operated case. Therefore, an easterly crossing would
in non-magnetic drill collars, will be normally exit further to the right of target,
deflected from its normal heading in the while a westerly crossing would normally
earths magnetic field by the magnetized exit further to the left of target.
drill string, unless the length of the non-
magnetic drill collar removes the compass The amount of compass deflection caused
completely from the horizontal component by a magnetized drill string is directly pro-
of the drill strings magnetic field (Z axis portional to the magnetic pole strengths,
interference). It is probable that many jobs and inversely proportional to the square of
have been completed with this interference the distance from the instrument to the
and were slightly in error from the begin- pole. Since drill string components are
ning. These errors can range from a often changed during the course of a bore,
minimum while drilling north/south to a and since even the magnetism of any par-
maximum while drilling east/west. Errors ticular drill string component might vary
of this nature will always cause the azimuth somewhat from day to day, it would seem
to read further to the north than is really the highly probable that a particular BHA,
3-28
Steering: Job Site ActionsPilot Hole
being different magnetically from the pre- magnetic elements to compensate for the
vious assembly, will produce a different known effects of drill string magnetism,
azimuth once back on bottom. which also provides insurance against
unknown effects.
The solution to this type of problem con-
sists of using an adequate length of non-
Unlike land surveys where backsight and 30-ft course length survey would produce a
foresight are visible from every point, a left/right position of 30 ft, while the 15-ft
borehole survey position is made up of a course length calculation would produce a
series of tangents to the curves of the bore- left/right position of 15 ft.
hole. Therefore, the shorter the course
lengths, the more accurate the surveyed Errors caused by excessively long course
position. It also follows that unless the sur- lengths and to the location of survey points
vey points of different surveys of the same with respect to hole curvature may be
borehole are identical, the coordinates of either random or cumulative, depending
the survey will probably differ. upon the configuration of the bore.
The following hypothetical case will illus- There is a strong case for using shorter
trate this point. Suppose two surveys, one course lengths in the turn sections of a
using 30-ft (9-m) course lengths and one bore, and longer course lengths in the tan-
using 15-ft (4.6-m) course lengths are gent or straight sections of a bore. The
made over 500 ft (152.5 m) of hole where a extra time required must be evaluated
uniform turn of a 500-ft radius exists. against benefit, and normally this time is
Using a standard tangential calculation, the spent only when exit tolerance is tight.
The single most important function during The surveyor responsible for guidance
the job setup is establishing the initial line must have good, logical observation skills
azimuth. Failure to spend the time to do and must apply practical methodologies.
this accurately will result in, at the very This section covers the basic actions
least, pullback on the exit side, resulting in required of the surveyor to successfully
lost time. It will definitely result in a course complete a pilot hole.
change within the Tru Tracker coil on the
exit side, causing excess friction during
pullback of the pipeline.
Arrival
Upon your arrival and after the initial intro- 1. Be observant as you walk. Make notes
ductions are made, look at the job in of potential magnetic problems and
overview. This is normally the last time their locations.
you will have the opportunity to do this.
Once the job begins, you will be concen- 2. Determine where you will do a probe
trating on solving problems of detail, with shoot based upon observation.
no time to sit back and consider the overall
project. 3. Plan your setup of Tru Tracker coils as
you walk. Determine if this is a
Walk the line. Take the following steps straightforward setup or if you will
when walking both sides of the line: need any special equipment.
3-29
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
4. Study the topography, keeping in mind Unload and check equipment. After walk-
how you will shoot centerlines and lay ing the line and before you do anything
out Tru Tracker. else, unload your equipment. Set the inter-
face, readout, computer, printer, power
5. Finally, determine from the client how supplies, cables, etc., in their locations.
much time you have to get rigged up Make up the probe in its housing and set
and ready to spud. Fully discuss with aside. Check your equipment now to make
him any problems you have observed sure you have everything you need for the
and advise him of how much time you job.
will need. Ask for assistance where
required.
Wire. Use insulated AWG 8 (or 10) squared Elevations. Measure and record your ele-
stranded wire. Make strong splices that will vations accurately, because corner
not pull apart. Insulate with rubber bonding elevation inaccuracies will affect Tru
tape and cover with electrical vinyl tape. Tracker readings significantly.
3-30
Steering: Job Site ActionsPilot Hole
Line sags. If you are building an unsup- Ensure that this phantom corner is accu-
ported coil segment across a river or canal, rately noted in the proper sequence on the
you will need to consider line sag. You Tru Tracker coil data sheet.
must ensure that any splices in the segment
can survive the pulling forces required to Coil shapes. A Tru Tracker coil should be
tighten the wire and support its own longer than it is wide. The most accurate
weight. coils are rectangles, so try to attain a rect-
angle where possible. On the entry and
If the ground elevation on each side is the exit, you may taper the beginning and end
same, the process of developing measure- back to the entry and exit points, always
ments is relatively easy. The lowest point of ensuring that it remains wider than it is
the sag will occur exactly in the middle of deep.
the segment. If you have constructed both
the left and right sides parallel, the away Generally, a coil can attain any shape as
distance can be derived once and used for long as it roughly approximates a rectan-
both sides. If they are not parallel, you will gle. Zigzags in the sides over a short
need to plot the centerline and both sides to distance should be avoided at all times. If
scale on graph paper. Using a right-angle the surface topography requires this, con-
triangle, scale the center of each side sider setting out two coils. Otherwise, do
against the centerline and use this for its not trust your readings within 50 ft (15 m)
away distance. Then scale the left or right of the zigzag. The zigzag produces errone-
distance of the lowest point of the sag to ous axial readings where the probe is not
the centerline. expecting them, causing errors.
Check on progress of the rig crew as they box. Lay out a shoot test lead to the shoot
prepare to spud. Discuss your progress location. Tighten the probe connections
with the client and how long you will need and move it to the shoot location. Connect
to get ready. the test lead and power the probe.
Rig up your surface equipment and power Turn the probe to its high side and point it
up. Input your coil data files and make up a generally toward the exit point. Print screen
survey tabulation sheet. Note the coil data and move the probe 10 ft (3 m) right, still
file names on the sheet in the appropriate pointed toward the exit. Print screen. Note
3-31
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
the position of the probe relative to the first Finally, move the probe 10 ft closer to the
check in writing on the printout. Move the rig on centerline. Print screen. You have
probe 10 ft toward the exit point back on magnetically mapped the shoot area. Cre-
centerline. Print screen. Move the probe ate a table as follows (Table 3.5):
10 ft left of the first check and print screen.
By the H-Total, you can see that the center- are not, in practice, continue testing until
line shots are consistent. The only anomaly you locate a clean position.
seems to be the left position. Walk around
and look at the area for the cause of the dif- Ensure proper probe operation. Remove the
ferent magnetics. Recheck the position test lead and connect it to your spare probe.
with the probe. Move it to a position 20 ft If you have time, leave a probe connected
and rig up your spare interface and spare
(6 m) left and see if the H-Total continues drillers readout. Test them to ensure proper
to drop. In the above example, the magnet- operation. If you do not have time now, you
ics are clean and ready for the shoot. If they should make time to do it later.
Profile
At this point, you have a lot of data gener- the client if the radius is too small for the
ated from the Tru Tracker coil layout. You line with a four times safety factor. If the
must relate this to the profile provided by client proposes to proceed without the
the client or to the data provided. If you safety factor, advise the office by phone as
will be drawing the profile, now is the best soon as possible, and fax the information in
time. You may wait until after the probe your evening report.
shoot, but you take the chance of needing
to change the profile if the clients data are
wrong (remember, it is wrong in some way Make sure the profile fits the topography,
95% of the time). length, and cover limits, and circumvents
all in-ground obstructions. If you must
approach a cable or in-ground line, make
On the vertical profile, draw in the surface
topography and all in-ground or surface sure their positions are accurately known.
obstructions you noted when you walked
the line. Remember, you measured dis- If you have concerns, express them to the
tances to each obstruction when you set up client and always have a firm recommenda-
Tru Tracker. On the horizontal plan, draw tion ready. You may advise the exposure of
in the obstructions to scale if possible.
in-ground services before spud if you must
converge or pass close to any live line.
Ensure that the proposed radius will work Once the profile is checked and ready, set it
for the pipeline to be pulled. Discuss it with aside.
3-32
Steering: Job Site ActionsPilot Hole
Physical measurements
A number of measurements must be made ations and use this instead of the center of
on the surface and downhole equipment. the vises.
Make these measurements before the probe
shoot and note them on paper. You should always check the rig angle
yourself before spud. If a mistake was
Rig measurements. Note the following made, you need to know now, not during
measurements on paper: the confusion that always occurs while
drilling the first few joints. Discuss your
findings with the client and how the inaccu-
AHorizontal distance from the cen-
rate rig angle will affect the job.
ter of the vises on the rig to the planned
entry point.
BHA measurements. Now is the time to
BHeight of the center of the vises measure all drill string components of the
from ground level and then to the same BHA. Make a list of each component and
elevation as the entry point. note the measurements of each, shoulder to
shoulder, starting with the bit or nose of the
CDistance from the center of the
jet:
vises to the entry point.
Bit = 1.2 ft (0.4 m)
You have now measured a right triangle.
From the vise elevation and the rig angle, Bit sub = 8 ft (2.4 m)
calculate the projected horizontal distance Motor = 20.7 ft (6.3 m)
to the entry point:
Orientation sub = 2.3 ft (0.7 m)
(vise elevation/tan of entry angle) = Non-mag drill collar = 27.5 ft (8.4 m)
horizontal distance from vises to
Non-mag drill collar = 15.0 ft (4.6 m)
entry
Drill pipe crossover = 1.8 ft (0.6 m)
Compare the calculations to your physical
measurementsthey should be the same. Total BHA = 69.3 ft (21.1 m).
If not, find out why and discuss this with
the client. Note the difference on paper. It Drill pipe measurements. Tell your client
will produce a new physical entry point rel- that you need to know the measurements of
ative to the plan. each joint of drill pipe. Ask him to have
them measured row by row as they are
Be careful when measuring the center of being used and provide the measurements
the vises, because some rigs have movable to you. Find out exactly how many joints of
front vises. You may need to establish the drill pipe are on location and make a note
point of pipe breakoff during drilling oper- of it. Count them yourself to double-check.
The following procedure assumes that the exit point. Using a plumb bob or the
non-magnetic collars were magnetically instruments optic plumb, center the
tested back at the shop and found clean:
instruments over the stake and level
1. Power up the probe to be used. Place accurately. Shoot the exit point and flip
the probe in its protective case on V to backsight. Shoot the entry point. If
blocks or non-magnetic orientation misaligned, move the instrument and
stands. Using one of the centerline Tru
relevel. Continue doing this until fore-
Tracker stakes about 30 to 50 ft (9 to
15 m) from the probe position, set up sight and backsight intersect the exit
the theodolite, and confirm its center- and entry point, respectively. Make
line position by sighting the entry and sure the instrument is leveled.
3-33
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
2. Using the backsight, shoot the power 4. Recheck the centerline position by
sub on the carriage. Estimate how again sighting the exit and entry points
much the rig is misaligned and in what using backsight and foresight. Check
direction. Note this on paper. Flip to that the instrument is level. Again,
foresight. check that the probe is parallel to the
vertical crosshair.
3. Sight the front and rear of the probe
using the vertical crosshair in the 5. Print screen; turn to a tool high side of
scope. Lay the crosshair alongside the 90. Print screen; turn to 180. Print
probe case and continue adjusting the screen; turn to 270. Print screen; turn
probe until it is exactly parallel to the back to high side at 0. Print screen.
crosshair. Turn the probe to its high Construct the following table (Table
side. 3.6) and set it aside for later.
6. On the theodolite, recheck the line above, they total 42.5 ft (13 m). Mea-
using foresight and backsight and then sure this distance from the shoulder of
recheck the probe orientation. It some- the orientation sub toward the rig and
times moves during the probe roll, place a marker. Instruct the rig crew to
which would necessitate another roll bring one joint of drill pipe, including
set of readings. If all is OK, continue. the crossover sub, to this position and
lay them on line. You may need to
7. Instruct the crew to bring the motor, move the theodolite.
bit, and orientation sub to a position
about 5 ft (1.5 m) from the exit side of 10. Print screen and note the readings on
the probe. Lay the assembly on line. the paper. The H-Total, dip, and azi-
muth should be the same as during the
8. Check the H-Total, dip, and azimuth on roll test. If not, add another non-mag-
the screen. If different than during the netic collar until the readings match. If
probe roll, move the motor farther this is not possible, do the following:
away by 3 ft (1 m). Check again. Con-
tinue moving the motor away from the Move the motor assembly out of
probe until the exact azimuth measure- the way completely. Move the drill
ment noted during the probe roll is pipe toward the rig until the mag-
obtained. Measure the distance from netic readings match the shoot
the shoulder of the orientation sub to readings. Then begin approaching
the T slot on the probe. This is the the probe with the motor online,
spacing required from the top of the until you reach the non-magnetic
collar measurements. Again, in the
orientation sub to the probe to obtain
example above, the length of the
clean magnetics during the job. two non-mags was 42.5 ft (13 m).
9. Total the lengths of the two sections of Print screen and note the measure-
non-magnetic collars. In the example ments on paper. Now, repeat the
3-34
Steering: Job Site ActionsPilot Hole
Remember, if you must drill with Z axis With the theodolite, recheck the line and
interference, it is best to have the interfer- the probe orientation. Do not neglect this
ence in front of the probe and not behind it.
stepalways recheck that the probe has
The drill pipe has a stronger magnetic
influence than the motor and can change not moved once you have established a line
often downhole through rotation. azimuth for the job.
Pressure testing
Before spudding, it is necessary to pressure Ensure that the bit will enter the ground at
test the system. Push the motor or jet the entry point without a sag in the pipe.
assembly to the ground and engage the Attempt to prop up the string until it is
pumps at a low rate. Establish mud flow obvious that the rig will have a straight
through the jet or motor. pushnot left/right, sagging, or too high.
Work with the crew to ensure that the push
Note on paper the pressure on the gauge at is straight. Push ahead into the ground
the point the bit begins turning. Turn off the about 5 ft (1.5 m), and then stop. Observe
pump and reengage. Note again the point the entry closely to again check alignment.
where the bit begins to turn. Do this until Physically measure the exact entry point
you have a repeatable projected pressure to relative to the planned entry and note the
begin motor operation. actual numbers on paper.
Once this step has been completed, Go inside and observe the inclination read-
increase the flow and watch the pressure. ing on the probe. At this point, you will be
Continue increasing until you reach recom- reading only the actual rig inclination, not
mended drilling pressure for the type of the inclination on the drilling assembly in
motor you are running. When you reach the the ground. This is the reason for the extra
recommended pressure, stop immediately. care in spudding for a straight push.
In the case of the jet, establish stroke count
at your projected drilling pressure. You will be able to easily observe if the
motor or jet is building angle too fast. If so,
pull back until the bit is just below ground
Throughout the test, observe the probe and begin rotation. Rotate ahead for the
operation, watching for shorts or any same 5 ft (1.5 m) and check that you have
improper operation. Also, observe the rig dropped angle. Continue to adjust until you
systems to ensure proper operation. have the alignment you need.
Spud. You have now completed all prepa- Again, push ahead on the high side another
rations and are ready to spud. Leave the 5 ft (1.5 m). If you are building too much
tool operating and advise the driller to angle, withdraw to your previous position
begin pushing the bit into the ground, stay- and again begin rotation. Rotate ahead 10 ft
ing on the high side and using your hand (3 m) and stop. Check that you have a
signals. Go outside near the entry point straight push and continue working the
where the driller can see you. motor or jet into the ground very carefully.
3-35
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Always be high when you spud and work actual entry point is different from the
yourself down to the correct position. planned entry point that was previously
Remember, it is easy to drop angle in sur- input.
face soil, but it is impossible to build angle
once youve already dropped. Continue Take the first survey, using the first course
working the motor into the ground until the length you calculated earlier. Note all data
non-mag collar is in the vises. Print screen, on the tabulation sheet. Carefully study the
and note the position on the printout. Add data as a reasonable test. Does the calcu-
the final length of the BHA. Push this to the lated position look correct relative to what
vises using a combination of high side and you observed? If not, look for your mistake
rotation. and correct it before continuing to drill.
Make sure now that everything is correct
At this point, reenter the Set Up Survey and ready to drill. If so, you have just com-
File and correct the tie-in information if the pleted a successful straight spud.
Drilling ahead
You will serve many functions during drill- you make relative to the data quality. Take
ing operations. Not only will you be these steps to ensure high-quality data:
ensuring proper tool operations, but you
will also be concerned with the position of 1. Construct a Mag/Dip Chart (page 3-17)
the bore. when you have interference.
Tool operation. Throughout the job, you 2. Ensure that switch-off and switch-on
are responsible for the proper tool opera- readings are the same. If not, find out
tion. You not only need to watch constantly why.
for problems, but also ensure good data
quality. With this in mind, keep all required 3. In some cases, take a survey before the
records up-to-date. Fill out the tabulation probe has settled to a final number.
sheet and your daily reports completely as Switch off after the survey and tell the
the job progresses. Observe the tool opera- driller to make a connection. After the
tion constantly, looking for shorts in the connection, if you switch on and find
wireline. the inclination is now half a degree
lower, immediately delete the survey
Be available to the driller to answer his you took and retake itall while still
questions regarding magnetics and what is
at the top of the next joint. Then correct
or is not possible. Focus on the job of
ensuring good equipment operation. Be the your paperwork and begin drilling.
first to spot something wrong, either with 4. While drilling with a motor, the read-
your equipment or theirs. Make the driller ings will bounce around as the G-
aware of your concerns and have him shut
Totals decrease. Be available to assist
down until equipment problems can be
explained and rectified. Also, assist the the driller in determining the correct
driller in looking out for the safety of the number.
rig crew.
Projections. Always be ready to project
Data quality. In addition to proper tool ahead mathematically from your current
operation, you are responsible for the accu- position. Base this projection on the
racy of the bore path, with or without response from your drilling assembly dur-
interference! Since your performance is ing the build sections of the bore. For
measured by where the bore exits relative example, if you are not achieving your
to the target and the distance you may be expected radius, you must calculate exactly
off centerline during drilling, the data qual- how much deeper than plan you expect to
ity is critical to that performance. You must be. This must be brought to the clients
have justifiable reasons for any decision attention for his approval.
3-36
Steering: Job Site ActionsPilot Hole
In this example, you will not only be lower The earlier you involve the client with
than plan, but you will need to replan the problems, the easier it will be to gain his
exit curve, taking into account the larger approval for your recommended actions.
radius you are achieving. This will change Always project ahead to satisfy yourself
the entire profile, in some cases making it that everything is being done to meet your
an impossible situation. The earlier you objectives.
know this, the sooner you can correct the
situation with a trip to change assemblies.
Always know where you are relative to the than planned, if you respect the radius
plan, the surrounding topography, and sub- limit. At this point you will need to discuss
surface obstructions. radius limits with the client, pointing out
your position on the plot and what you will
Radius control. You should know where need to do to bring the curve back on line.
your course is relative to the planned Do not make this decision yourself.
radius. To do this you must plot radius tar-
gets on the vertical profile. The fastest and If your inclination is higher than plan at
easiest procedure is as follows: any point, you will reach the bottom of the
plan higher than planned. You may relax
sin 1 x planned radius = measured dis- the radius slightly. Do not do this over two
tance along curve or three joints. Project ahead a smaller
radius to reach 90 at the same point as the
Take the resulting distance and with an original plan.
engineers scale, begin scaling the distance
from the beginning of the curve. Place a tic Always compare the plotted positions
mark at each scaled distance. For example, inclination to the planned inclination at the
if the planned radius is 2000 ft (610 m) and same away distance. This is the only way
the entry angle is 12, then: you will get an early warning of future
location problems.
sin 1 x 2000 = 34.9 ft (10.6 m)
Intermediate targets. Every joint you drill
Measuring this distance from the beginning should be toward an intermediate target.
of the curve, place a tic mark 34.9 ft Setting targets is a function of present incli-
(10.6 m) along the curve. From that point, nation and azimuth, planned inclination,
place another tic mark 34.9 ft further along and azimuth vs. present and planned
the curve. Continue placing the tic marks positions.
and scaling until you reach the end of the
curve. This should measure exactly that You will know if you are ahead or behind
point where the planned curve reaches 90. the curve from the radius tics. If you are on
If it does not, check for errors. the curve and do not need to break or relax
the radius, the projected inclination target
Once the tic marks are plotted, write the is easy:
planned inclination at about an inch
(2.54 cm) above the marks. Again, if you next joint length/(sin 1 x radius) =
started at 12 (78 from vertical), you will expected degrees per joint
have ascending numbers: 78, 79, 80,
8190. Add the quantity derived to the previous
inclination to generate the next intermedi-
Your plan is now in place. While drilling ate target.
the curve, plot your position as normal.
Look at the inclination and compare it to If the centerline is straight, the target azi-
the planned inclination at that point. If your muth should be the same. If you are right or
actual inclination is lower than plan, you left of the line, you should normally
will reach the bottom of the curve lower attempt to close the line slightly by giving
3-37
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Example 3:
Use the following rule of thumb to calcu-
late a combined radius: if you add the 2000-ft radius planned =
change in inclination and the change in azi- 0.86 per 30-ft joint
muth in degrees, and take 70% of the
Previous inclination = 80.5
result, you will roughly approximate the
angle on a combined basis. Then determine Previous azimuth = 271
the radius of the change in combined angle: Present inclination = 81.0
Present azimuth = 271.5
30-ft joint/(sin 1 x angle) =
resulting radius 81.0 80.5 = 0.5
The expression of dogleg on the screen is 1600-ft (488-m) radius when the target
an angular expression of radius. Using the radius is 2000 ft (610 m) may be accepted
formula above: if the following two joints average 2200 ft
(671 m). The sum of the three joints will
30-ft joint/(sin 1 x dogleg angle total 6000 ft (1830 m) which, when aver-
degrees) = radius aged, will be an average radius of 2000 ft.
Use a running average throughout the
After surveying a joint, look at the dogleg curve.
angle. Change it to radius by using the
above formula. If the result is acceptable, Remember when using dogleg that this is a
note it on your tabulation sheet. Continue combined curve angle. The probe resolves
making notes on every joint. azimuth from the earths magnetic field.
Therefore, if there is magnetic interference,
Since dogleg is an expression of a com- the dogleg angle will be incorrect. You
bined radius as an angle, and it is projected must correct the azimuth first, by plugging
out over 100 ft (30.5 m), it is correct to the azimuth when you take a survey, or by
average three 30-ft (9-m) joints to better editing the survey file and recalculating,
approximate the real radius. A point 30 ft before you can use the dogleg in radius
from the previous one that results in a terms.
Directions to driller
There are two types of drillersthose who tion to a particular number, such as 86.5,
want you to give them angular targets, and azimuth of 217.5. You will have already
those who want you to give them position calculated these numbers and have them
targets. available when required.
Angular targets. This target is one where Position targets. This target is subjective
you ask the driller to build or hold inclina- build 2 and go straight ahead, for instance.
Drilling problems
Wireline shorts. With any wireline, you 2. Switch on the probe and determine
will experience electrical shorts. You need proper operation.
to understand how to troubleshoot shorts to
3. If the test indicates a short is present,
determine their location. A short is exem-
the short is downhole. Trip pipe back
plified when the amp needle on the front of
the interface moves to maximum or the until the short is located.
power fuse blows. Use the following proce- 4. If the probe works normally, the short
dure to locate a short: is somewhere between the interface
box and the wire connection on the rig
carriage.
1. The most likely place for a short is
downhole at a wireline connection or at 5. Continue isolating discrete strings of
the centralizer blades on top of the wire and testing either with the probe
probe. You should begin looking down- or with a continuity tester until you
hole. Rig a test lead from the positive locate the short.
terminal of the interface box long 6. In some cases, the short will be inter-
enough to reach the wireline from the mittent. These are the most difficult to
pipe in the rig vises. Remove the exist- locate. You must continue moving the
ing power lead from the interface and wire uphole or downhole until the loca-
connect the test lead. tion is found.
3-39
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
7. Many times a quick test with a voltage Downhole leaks should be treated as
output meter (VOM) of the probe will shorts, identified, and a course of action
tell you if the short is downhole: determined. It is normally wise to trip to
locate and repair the leak early, rather than
First, disconnect the test lead from tolerate it for a whole job. On the other
the wireline of the joint in the hand, if you are 2 to 300 ft (0.6 to 91.5 m)
vises. Using a VOM, set the resis- from punchout, the client may wish to
tance scale to at least 300 ohms, complete the distance. This should always
and connect the leads between the be his decision, but he is depending on you
power wire and ground. Use the to make a judgment of success.
joint for ground.
You should read a resistance of Wireline opens. A wireline open is defined
between 20,000 and 40,000 ohms. as zero continuity between the interface
If you read more than 40,000, a and the probe. The amp needle on the inter-
wireline leak exists between the face will not move, indicating a wireline
test lead and the probe. Pull on the break somewhere in the system. The posi-
wireline at times during the test to tive or negative wire may be broken.
attempt to make the readings vary,
which would indicate a leak. If the wire breaks downhole, normally you
Reverse the test leads. Watching will see some amperage on the needle.
the meter, you should see a capaci- Begin looking for an open on the surface
tance kick. The needle should kick between the interface and the rig
to about 300 ohms and gently connections.
bleed back near zero.
Tripping pipe out. You must keep track of
Wireline leaks. A leak is still defined as a exactly how many joints of pipe are below
short, but probe operation continues. A leak the vises at all times. All your measure-
is not yet large enough (200 ma) to stop ments are made from this reference point,
probe operation. Leaks will generally turn which makes it very important. When drill-
into shorts with time. In some cases, they ing problems force a decision to trip out,
will cause a trip within a couple of joints, either a few joints or all of them, you must
and in other cases, you may drill the entire keep track.
crossing with the leak.
A leak is usually caused by wire insulation Since you normally start drilling a new
damage. The wireline may be skinned, joint that has not been surveyed, you
exposing the wire to the mud. Power will should lay down that first joint and note its
be lost to the mud in varying amounts until unsurveyed depth and number on the field
the leak becomes too great and the fuse tabulation sheet. For each additional joint
blows. you lay down on the rack, indicate on the
left side of the tabulation sheet an arrow
pointing up, next to the joint number. Con-
A leak may heal itself on occasion. The
tinue removing joints and noting the arrows
electrolysis effect of copper and the mud
until you reach the planned number.
can cause oxidation of the copper wire,
effectively building a non-conductive coat-
ing around the wire. This then seals the Once you have removed the required num-
mud away from the current, reducing the ber, go outside and count the joints you
quantity of amperage being lost. This will have removed. Compare the number to
happen only with very small leaks where your noted numbers for agreement. If they
the insulation has only a slight cut. This do not agree, count all joints on location,
insulation effect will be lost completely if add the downhole joints, and compare the
you ever elect to change the mud system total joints to the total joints on location
from mud to water. The water will wash the that you counted at the beginning of the
coating away, again leaving the copper job. Be precise and make sure you can
exposed to the fluid. account for every joint.
3-40
Steering: Job Site ActionsPilot Hole
Tripping pipe in. On your return into the joints and take a print screen. Note the
hole, place an arrow pointing down against inclination and azimuth on the tabulation
each arrow you previously noted coming sheet against the representative data. Com-
out, once each joint is down. Using a test pare constantlythe readings should be
lead, power up the probe about every five similar.
Punchout
Well before punchout, you determined your This will normally indicate the actual ele-
margin for error in elevation. Given good vation to be between the tangential and Tru
Tru Tracker readings, you will know where Tracker readings.
you are in elevation within a small toler-
ance. If you are on a long job, the elevation Plot each elevation as points throughout the
accuracy may degrade because of a number last 200 ft (61 m). Discuss the different cal-
of factors, such as driller bias, distance culation methods and error possibilities
errors, formation tendencies, short Tru with the client and determine his wishes as
Tracker coils, no Tru Tracker coils, and to crossing length. He may prefer you to be
survey calculation methods. short rather than long. He may indicate that
he only has the required length of pipeline
You should recalculate your complete sur- as planned, meaning that you cannot be
vey against both average angle and long.
tangential methods several times during the
job to compare the methods. Normally, one The best case, naturally, is that all methods
method will match Tru Tracker better than are closebut dont count on it! Play the
the other. In most cases, the methods will percentages and plan ahead. Remember,
produce a bracket of elevation numbers. when you punch out long, failing a major
Tangential calculations may indicate you pullback and sidetrack, you will not be able
are at -22.5 ft (-7 m), while average angle to redrill to a shorter location. Punching out
calculations indicate -26.0 ft (-8 m). At the short gives you the option of pulling back a
same point, Tru Tracker will often be couple of joints and lengthening the dis-
between the two, such as at -23.5 ft (-7 m). tance considerably.
Construction of as-built
As soon as feasible, you should construct the closure angle between the two positions
your as-built print out. Physically measure as follows:
the punchout position and note it on your
tabulation sheet and daily report. Divide the difference between the
actual and calculated left/right posi-
tions by the horizontal length of the
Take an initial print of the survey using the crossing. Take the arc sin of the result.
Survey Processing and Print Screen in the This is the overall angular difference
program. Compare the final position on from the beginning of the crossing
paper to the actual punchout position. Use which, when applied to the line azi-
the calculation method that best approxi- muth, will overlay the actual exit point
mates the actual punchout elevation. and the calculated exit point.
If you have plugged azimuths based on
Determine the calculated left/right position justifiable analysis, compare the course
and compare it to the actual punchout loca- with Tru Tracker positions to find the
tion. If you have been steering to punchout best fit. You may find that the best fit
using Tru Tracker readings and not azi- causes you to change the values of the
muth, there will be a difference. Determine previously plugged azimuths.
3-41
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Notes
3-42
Chapter 4: Reaming
Definitions........................................................................................... 4-2
Troubleshooting................................................................................4-20
General............................................................................................................. 4-20
Increasing torque.............................................................................................. 4-20
Increasing torquea few seconds ................................................................................. 4-20
Increasing torqueseveral minutes............................................................................... 4-20
Increasing torquesudden lockup................................................................................. 4-20
Twistoff of drill pipe........................................................................................... 4-20
Fishing .............................................................................................................. 4-21
Recovery .......................................................................................................... 4-21
Salvaging hole................................................................................................................ 4-21
Severing drill pipe .......................................................................................................... 4-22
Lost or decreased circulation............................................................................ 4-23
Stuck reaming assembly .................................................................................. 4-23
Mud pressure increase ..................................................................................... 4-23
Mud pressure decrease.................................................................................... 4-23
Inadvertent returns ........................................................................................... 4-24
Reduced penetration rate ................................................................................. 4-24
ii
List of Figures
List of Tables
iii
Notes
iv
Chapter 4: Reaming
General
This chapter outlines the different topics enlarge a hole from one size to another size
that pertain to reaming. Reaming means to of greater diameter.
Purpose of reaming
Enlarging the drilled pathway. To deter- encounter gravel, you may choose to
mine the size of the reamed hole, you must increase this factor.
know the size of the pipe to be installed.
Normally, the reamed hole is 1.5 times the
diameter of the pipe to be installed. On Removing cuttings from the hole. To in-
crossings that are greater than 4000 ft stall a pipe in a pre-reamed pathway, it is
(1500 m) with a diameter greater than important to remove the native materials
30 in. (762 mm), or where you may (cuttings) from the pathway.
Reaming alternatives
There are many considerations when plan- use one or two rigs to facilitate the
ning a reaming exercise: reaming.
pull the pipeline and ream at the same The following sections will cover all of the
time ways you can ream a hole.
ream forward or backward
Selecting tools
Proper tool selection is one of the most tremendous difference in your progress,
important decisions you will make in a your risk, and your success rate.
reaming strategy. Your decision will make a
Troubleshooting
Your success will largely be determined by rect them. As problems occur, record them
your ability to identify problems and cor- and their solution for future reference.
When reaming for large-diameter pipe formations, the determining factor is gener-
installations, it is sometimes necessary to ally the volume of cuttings that must be
ream the pathway in stages. The main con- removed with each pass, while in harder
sideration in determining the number of formations, the torsional requirements and
reaming passes you must make is the types volume of cuttings must both be
of soils that will be encountered. In softer considered.
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Definitions
Fly cutter: A fly cutter is a reaming device with or without a circumventing ring. This
that has a center shaft with three or four tool is used as the primary cutter when
spokes (Fig. 4.1). When facing the tool, the enlarging a hole through alluvial
spokes are at the 10, 2, and 6 position on a formations.
clock face. A fly cutter can be fabricated
Barrel reamer: A barrel reamer is a center of the reamer are tapered at approximately
shaft mounted concentrically in a cylinder 40 off the center shaft. The barrel reamer
of pipe that may have a wide range of can be baffled at either end (or neither end)
diameters and lengths (Fig. 4.2). Both ends for buoyancy control.
4-2
Reaming: Definitions
Bullet-nose reamer: A bullet-nose reamer weld caps. They are used more for pulling
(Fig. 4.3 and Fig. 4.4) is the same as a bar- in front of the pipeline during pullback or
rel reamer, with one exception. The ends, as a centralizer. They are not used for ream-
instead of being tapered, are made from ing, but for cleaning cuttings from the hole.
Fig. 4.4. Bullet-nose reamer completing a pullback. Mobile Bay, Alabama, USA.
Conventional hole openers: Conventional arms onto which are mounted roller cones.
hole openers (Fig. 4.5) are designed for use The cones come with or without sealed
in rock, from the softest to the hardest for- bearings. The cones range from mill teeth
mations. A conventional hole opener is for the softer formations, to tungsten car-
cast, and has a center shaft with three to six bide inserts for the harder formations.
Kennemetal teeth: Kennemetal is a brand 100 mm) long. The cutting edge is chisel-
name for cutting teeth that are used, almost shaped and made of tungsten.
exclusively, on cutters and reamers in this
industry. They can be inserted into holders Gauge: Gauge is the scale of measurement
that are welded on the cutters or reamers, of a bit, reamer, or hole opener. It is the
or welded directly on the cutters and ream- absolute outside diameter of a given bit
ers without the holders. size or reamer.
Chisel teeth: Chisel teeth can be fabricated Bottoms up: Bottoms up is a reference of
by most machine shops and are used when time and volume pertaining to a cylinder or
hole. Bottoms up time is the time required
you expect to encounter cobbles or boul-
to displace a known quantity of fluid from
ders embedded in normal soils. The the bottom of a hole to the surface. Bot-
approximate dimensions are 1.5 in. toms up volume is the amount of fluid that
(38 mm) in diameter and 2 to 4 in. (50 to must be displaced in a hole (see Table 4.1).
4-4
Reaming: Definitions
Tripping out: Tripping out means to remove or bullet-nose reamer, or other tools of dif-
the drill pipe from the borehole. ferent shapes and sizes (Fig. 4.6).
Cutter sets: Hole openers can be fitted with TCIs are used in medium and hard rock
different types of teeth, depending on the formations.
formation material. Each type of teeth
comes in a numbered cutter set. Mill tooth cutters: Mill teeth are teeth that
look more like blades than inserts and are
used in soft rock formations.
Tungsten carbide inserts: On the hole
opener, tungsten carbide inserts (TCIs) are PDC teeth: Polycrystalline diamond com-
the cutting teeth on the roller cones that do pact (PDC) teeth are made of manmade
the actual cutting or breaking of the rock. diamonds and are used mainly in shales.
4-5
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Types of Reaming
General
This section covers reaming in different Clay. Similar to silts and sands, the clayey
types of soils, determining the number of soils range from soft to very stiff. The
passes, and removing cuttings from the stiffer the clay, the more difficult it is to
drill path. ream fast; the softer the clay, the easier it is
to overpenetrate. When you penetrate soft
clay too fast, you tend to remove the clay in
For discussion purposes, the soil types are slabs that will pile up behind the reamer
divided into silt, sand, clay, and rock. The and eventually plug the hole, causing mud
formation will usually consist of combina- returns to stop. In most cases, the only way
tions of these soil typessilty sands, sandy to remove the slabs is to rotate back
clays, sand with gravel, etc. through the reamed hole and recut the
slabs. There will be times that you will
need to pull the cutter all the way back to
Silt and sand. Silty and sandy soil densi- the surface to remove the slabs and regain
ties can vary from loose and drilling fluid returns. If you examine the
unconsolidated to very dense and compact. slabs that come to the surface, upon break-
In dense silts and sands, your rate of pene- ing them open you will see that they are dry
tration will depend on the pull and torque on the inside, exactly as they were in situ.
required to physically cut through the for-
mation. With these limitations, the major If you allow these slabs to accumulate
concern in reaming will be pumping behind the reamer, your chances of com-
enough fluid to completely remove the cut- pleting the pipe installation will be
tings from the pathway. reduced. Remember, one of the main func-
tions of the reaming process is to remove
enough material from the pathway to allow
In unconsolidated silts or sands, the torque the pipe installation. Generally, when the
required to rotate the reamer will be low pipe is being pulled into place, a bullet-
and you will be tempted to ream too fast. nose reamer is used in front of the pipe.
When tempted to ream at a faster rate, This reamer is designed to force the slurry
remember what you are trying to accom- and remaining solids outside of the hole.
plish. The silt and sand must be removed Clay slabs resulting from a too-fast ream
from the pathway, and what is not removed will litter the pre-reamed pathway and be
should be encapsulated with bentonite so it pushed ahead of the bullet-nose reamer,
cannot compact. This can only be accom- eventually clogging the entire pathway. If
plished by reaming at the proper enough of these slabs are forced outside of
penetration rates. If you ream too fast, the the bullet-nose reamer and accumulate
sand that is cut in the pathway will settle around the pipe, they can cause the pipe to
out of the drilling fluid shortly after passing become lodged.
through the reamer. The result will be an
insufficiently cleaned pathway or improp- When clay is reamed properly, the pipe can
erly encapsulated sand left in the pathway. be pulled through the pathway with a mini-
mum of force and as fast as the rig carriage
will travel. Clay should be the most condu-
You may be able to complete smaller-diam- cive soil for directional drilling if
eter, shorter-length crossings that have approached properly.
been reamed too fast. Generally, on these
types of crossings, you can make mistakes Rock. Reaming in rock is performed with
and still be successful. However, as the special downhole reamers known as hole
lengths and diameters of crossings openers. Hole openers can be configured in
increase, the chances for failure will also a variety of ways, depending on the type of
increase unless you use proven, time-tested rock encountered. Typically, the driller has
methods. a good idea of the type of rock by the time
4-6
Reaming: Types of Reaming
reaming is necessary, both from geotechni- are only a few openers that will cut from
cal studies and from drilling the pilot hole. this hole size.
pilot hole, or the preceding hole-opening of the formation that will be missed by one
pass and the size of the next cutters core of the hole openers.
buster. The core buster is the set of blades
in front of the hole opener designed to keep
rock pieces from accumulating in the inner Always measure every hole opener as it
circle of the hole opener, and to help cen- arrives onsite and make a sketch in your
tralize the hole opener for concentric hole- field notes. By doing this, you know what
opening passes. Always double-check the you have on hand and whether you need to
sequence of planned hole-opening passes order additional equipment. It is much bet-
to ensure that the hole-opener sizes on the ter to solve problems in advance of the
job site are correct, and that there is no part need.
Pre-reaming
Pre-reaming means that you enlarge the always done, but it always reduces your
hole before pulling the pipeline. It is not risk.
Reaming and pulling means that the hole is long, large-diameter crossings. Generally,
reamed simultaneously as the pipe is the time saved by reaming and pulling is
pulled. Hundreds of lines have been not worth the risk of sticking the pipe.
installed in this manner, but they were not
Back reaming
Back reaming is a term used when the hole When the pilot hole is completed, the jet-
is enlarged from the exit side of the cross- ting assembly (or motor) and non-magnetic
ing (Fig. 4.7). The main advantage is that collar are removed and a reamer is installed
the rig has complete control of the drill onto the drill pipe. The pipe is then rotated
pipe and the reamer. The rig operator can by the rig and pulled toward the rig to
more easily control the torque and pull than enlarge the hole to a predetermined diame-
when forward reaming. The main disad- ter. For hole sizes up to 30 in. (762 mm),
vantage is that the return fluid is returned to this is usually accomplished in one pass
the exit side of the crossing and all of the (except for rock or very dense or stiff allu-
cleaning equipment is at the entry side of vial deposits). For larger hole sizes, two or
more passes are usually required.
the crossing. This requires one or more of
the following:
As the reamer is rotated and pulled, a pre-
determined volume of fluid is pumped
setting up a cleaning system and pump
through the drill pipe and exits the reamer
at the exit side
through jet nozzles. The fluid is then mixed
with the soils being cut away by the
setting up a cleaning system at the exit reamer, and the fluid becomes the medium
side, and hauling or pumping the fluid through which the soils are removed from
back to the entry side the hole. The primary objective is for all
the slurry to pass back through the enlarged
holding the fluid in pits or tanks and hole to a pit at the exit point of the
later sending to a disposal site. borehole.
4-8
Reaming: Types of Reaming
1 2 3 4
1 Rig
2 Drill pipe
3 Fly cutter reamer
4 Drill pipe
For the first 15 years in the horizontal up to 30 bbl/min or 1200 gal/min (4770 l/
directional drilling (HDD) industry, ream- min) were being used. Naturally, the bento-
ing was first done by means of a bit on the nite usage increased with these increased
end of the pipeline, and later by back ream- volumes.
ing. The main reason for this was that mud
disposal was not a problem, as the mud
If you assume a pumping rate of 4 bbl/min
was allowed to flow directly into the river.
(636 l/min) with an average of 20 lb of ben-
At the time, neither mud nor mud disposal
was of great concern, and 95% of the cross- tonite per barrel (57 kg per m3), the hourly
ings were short to medium length, small to consumption of bentonite would be about
medium diameter, and never through rock. 4800 lb (2180 kg) or 44 50-kg sacks. If you
then increase this pumping rate to 30 bbl/
min (4770 l/min) with the same bentonite
As the industry grew and longer crossings
proportion, you are using 36,000 lb
with larger-diameter pipe were being
attempted, the mud volume and viscosity (16,344 kg) each hour, or 326 50-kg sacks.
changed to accommodate the hole sizes and Not only is this cost-prohibitive, it requires
lengths. Also, the industry expanded into physically adding a 100-lb sack every 10
rock crossings, and the volumes needed to seconds through the hopper; neither the
power the mud motors increased rapidly. personnel nor the mixing units can keep up
with this requirement.
Up until the mid to late 1980s, it was
unusual to have a pump on location that Adding to the problem was disposing of
would pump more than 4 to 5 bbl/min or these tremendous quantities of fluid. With
160 to 200 gal/min (636 to 794 l/min). todays concern for the environment, large
Then, as the requirements changed, so did quantities of drilling fluid cannot be
the pumps. Soon mud motors that required allowed to directly enter a waterway.
4-9
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Forward reaming
Forward reaming is enlarging a hole from In most cases, HDI uses a track hoe or
the entry side (Fig. 4.8). To forward ream, dozer. The disadvantage is that you try to
you need some source of pulling power at pull as many joints as possible before dis-
the exit side. HDI has used a second rig, a connecting so that less time is wasted.
dozer, a track hoe, and/or a pulling unit.
However, since the rig must not only turn
Using a second rig is the preferred choice,
but it is the most expensive. In addition to the pipe in the hole, but also the pipe on the
the extra mobilization of the rig and com- ground at the exit side, you are limited in
ponents, you have to employ additional how far you can go before breaking the
personnel to man the rig. drill string.
3 2 1
1 Pulling machine
2 Swivel
3 Recycling unit
While communication is important when tor at the exit side to pull more, pull less,
you are back reaming, it is critical when stop pulling, start pulling, etc., throughout
forward reaming. The operator at the entry the procedure.
side must continuously instruct the opera-
4-10
Reaming: Tool Selection
Tool Selection
General
In this business, planning is just as impor- On large crossings, there will be hundreds
tant as executing a job. With short of steps to follow. There will be a multiple-
crossings, you can devise a plan quickly, step mud program that must be adhered to,
and then totally disregard the plan once and omitting one step can be disastrous.
drilling commences and still be successful. The pilot hole must be planned so that
This is never the case for longer crossings, nothing is overlooked, and planned ream-
where there is little room for error. Jobs ing rates must be followed. Tool selections
must be planned well and the plan must be must be adhered to unless field conditions
followed precisely to expect success. prove the plan wrong.
The fly cutter (Fig. 4.1) was the first ream- Fly cutter with stabilization ring and
ing tool used in HDD and is one of the reversing skirt. This is the same as
most commonly used reamers today. It is described above, except that on the back
used in clay, silt, sand, combinations of side of the ring there is a skirt slanted
sand and gravel, silt and sand, and even soft toward the center to assist when pulling the
rock. The first and most basic fly cutter was fly cutter backward out of the hole.
a center shaft with three spokes. If you face
the fly cutter, you will see a spoke at the ten Purpose and application. The original fly
oclock, two oclock, and six oclock cutter and ring had no skirt, and when it
positions. was pulled backward it had a tendency to
cut down in the hole, preventing a rapid
Fly cutter with stabilization ring. This is a retraction. The skirt helps keep it in the
basic fly cutter with a ring encircling the original hole for easy retraction.
spokes. The ring is normally about 6 in.
wide and 1/2 in. thick. Nozzle sizing and configuration. The same
as for a fly cutter with stabilization ring.
Purpose and application. The ring is used
to stabilize the fly cutter while reaming in
sand, and to help eliminate the tendency of Fly cutter without stabilization ring. Usu-
the fly cutter to walk over logs that are bur- ally the ring is removed when reaming in
ied beneath rivers and streams. Normally, clay. With the ring, the fly cutter tends to
the rings are only used on sandy crossings. ball up more easily. The clay packs the
openings between the spokes, and when
Nozzle sizing and configuration. On sandy they are completely closed, the fluid cannot
crossings, the nozzle size may vary from flow back through the openings. When this
16/32 in. (12.7 mm) to no nozzle at all. happens, the fluid under pressure will frac-
Sometimes, if you do not have the proper ture to the surface, causing a loss of
size jets for sand, you should remove the returns.
nozzle altogether. You need to be able to
pump high volumes with minimum pres- Purpose and application. A fly cutter with-
sures, to minimize disturbing the sand out a stabilization ring is used to lessen the
outside the diameter of the ring. probability of balling. Removing the ring
allows the fly cutter to clean itself more
The number of jets on a fly cutter depends easily.
on its size relative to arm length. You
should open all jets on the cutting side of Nozzle sizing and configuration. Using
the fly cutter that will be against the face. nozzles from 8/32 to 12/32 in. (6.4 to
Open three to four on the backside of the 9.5 mm) increases the pressure to help cut
fly cutter for cleaning, and in case you need the clay. You will find the proper penetra-
to pull the fly cutter out of the hole. tion rate by your torque. The nozzles
4-11
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
should cut just ahead of the cutting tips so 1067 mm), close the inside circle of jets so
that your torque is reduced. that you can get more hydraulic cutting
power to the outside where you need it.
If you are reaming from pilot hole diameter
to 30 in. (762 mm), open all the jets on the As always, leave three or four jets open to
cutting side of the fly cutter. If you are the back of the fly cutter in case the cutter
reaming from 30 to 42 in. (762 to needs to be retracted from the hole.
Barrel reamers
A barrel reamer (Fig. 4.2) is a center shaft Purpose and application. These are typi-
mounted concentrically inside a section of cally used in the larger-sized barrel reamers
pipe 2 to 8 ft (0.6 to 2.4 m) long with vary- to reduce weight in the hole and, conse-
ing diameters. The ends are conical- quently, the torque requirements.
shaped, with a 30 to 40 taper off the center
shaft. They are used in front of or behind
Nozzle sizing and configuration. Since the
primary cutters.
barrel reamers are not used as primary cut-
ters, the nozzle sizing and configuration are
If you try to ream with a barrel reamer, the
not important. You simply want to open
fluid and cuttings cannot flow around it
enough nozzles to keep the reamer face
because the cutting diameter is the same as
clean and get additional volume in the hole.
the diameter of the barrel. The fluids will
be forced to fracture and hole cleaning will
not be adequate. Barrel reamers without buoyancy con-
trol. These are built the same as those with
Barrel reamers with buoyancy control. A buoyancy control, except that the fluid
barrel reamer with buoyancy control has completely floods the inside of the reamer,
sealed chambers that allow the fluid to making the reamer heavier. The reamers
reach the nozzles, but restrict the fluid from without buoyancy control cost much less to
entering the center chamber. build.
Bullet-nose reamers
The basic design of a bullet-nose reamer is 25.4 mm). Larger nozzles are necessary so
a center shaft mounted concentrically that you can get the fluid to the hole with-
inside a pipe of varying diameters (Fig. out plugging the jets.
4.3). Instead of having conical-shaped
ends, a bullet-nose uses weld caps on
which are mounted a minimum number of When deciding what size nozzles to use,
teeth. always know what your filtering system is
capable of and be confident that it will
Purpose and application. The bullet-nose work properly. If you are taking water from
has been in use for only six to eight years. a river, you should have filters on the water
As the holes were better cleaned, the speed supply. You should always have a filter
of the pullback drastically increased. between the mixing tank and the pressure
Something was needed that required almost pumps.
no torque and had no tendency to recut the
hole. The bullet-nose was the answer, since
it is approximately 6 in. (152 mm) smaller Operators walking on top of the tank will
than the hole diameter and approximately loosen small rocks or pebbles that were
6 in. larger than the diameter of the pipe- picked up while on the ground. These peb-
line. These reamers are primarily pulled in bles will fall into the tank and be pumped
front of the pipeline during pullback. downhole if there is no inline filter. If the
pebbles are larger than the nozzles they
Nozzle sizing and configuration. Nozzles will block them, causing the reaming to
range from 16/32 to 1 in. (12.7 to stop and a trip out of the hole for cleaning.
4-12
Reaming: Tool Selection
Centralizers/stabilizers
Hole openers
When the HDD industry first experimented are applied, the cones rotate in the opposite
with rock crossings in 1980, the existing direction of the drill pipe. The rock is frac-
tools, which were built for vertical use, tured under the weight and movement of
could not endure the side loading inherent the cones and the teeth.
in horizontal drilling.
Purpose and application. The purpose of
Due to the cost, time required, and lack of the hole opener is to enlarge a hole from
interest on the part of the tool companies to any given size to a size of greater diameter
modify their tools, it was almost seven when the formation consists of rock of
years before another rock crossing was varying strengths.
attempted. During this seven-year period,
no change was made to the tools required Nozzle sizing and configuration. Jet noz-
to enlarge the holes or to the bits used for zles on a hole opener clean the cutters by
drilling the pilot holes. Eventually, as more creating turbulent fluid action at the face of
and more river crossings were attempted in the rock being cut, forcing the cuttings
rock, modifications were made to the hole away from the face. In some cases, the jet
openers to improve their performance and nozzles also aid in the cutting action.
longevity.
For nozzle sizing, you must determine the
Hole openers are reaming devices used to volumes that you will be pumping, calcu-
enlarge holes in rock formations. A hole late the pressure drop at the nozzle (assume
opener consists of roller cones mounted on a size), and the line loss in your drill pipe.
shafts or pins. The number of cones ranges If the result is a pressure that you can
from three on the smaller hole openers to accommodate, you need not change the
six on the larger hole openers. The cones nozzle size. If the pressure you calculated
revolve around the center shaft as the hole cannot be accommodated, increase the size
opener is rotated. As weight and rotation of the jets and recalculate.
4-13
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Hydraulics
Nozzle selection is based on proper hole Table 4.2. Minimum annular velocities and
opener hydraulics calculations. Some gen- flow rates for cleaning large-diameter holes
erally accepted rules of thumb are used to (metric and US units).
help with the calculations. For example, Annular
basic guidelines for minimum annular Hole size Flow rate
velocity
velocities and flow rates for efficient clean- (mm)
(m/min) (m3/min)
ing of large-diameter holes are shown in 445 1821 2.650
Table 4.2. These values should be consid- 660 1417 4.540
ered only guidelines, since operators and
914 811 4.920
contractors have developed their own mini-
1067 68 5.390
mum flow rates and annular velocities
based on their experience. When viewing Annular
Hole size Flow rate
the chart, you will see that these numbers velocity
(in.) (gal/min)
will be very difficult to attain. (ft/min)
17 1/2 6070 700
26 4555 1200
36 2535 1300
42 2025 1425
The weight and rotary speed recommenda- numbers are for vertical drilling where they
tions for hole openers are found in Table can put an exact weight on the bit. Since
4.3. Again, you will probably deviate from you will be drilling in a horizontal position,
these numbers in actual reaming. When your calculations will be different.
using Table 4.3, keep in mind that these
Table 4.3. Weight and rotary speed recommendations for hole openers
(metric and US units).
Soft shale Medium shale Hard limestone
Size Rotary Rotary Rotary
Weight Weight Weight
speed speed speed
Metric units (weight x 1000 kg)
445 4.5/6.8 50/90 6.8/11.4 40/70 9/13.6 25/45
660 6.8/11.4 45/80 11.4/15.9 35/55 13.6/5 25/40
711762 9.0/15.9 50/70 13.6/50 35/50 15.9/60 15/30
813914 9.0/15.9 40/60 13.6/50 30/45 15.9/60 15/30
9651067 9.0/15.9 30/50 13.6/50 30/40 15.9/60 10/25
Soft shale Medium shale Hard limestone
Size Rotary Rotary Rotary
Weight Weight Weight
speed speed speed
US units (weight x 1000 lb)
17 1/2 10/15 50/90 15/25 40/70 20/30 25/45
26 15/25 45/80 25/35 35/55 30/5 25/40
2830 20/35 50/70 30/50 35/50 35/60 15/30
3236 20/35 40/60 30/50 30/45 35/60 15/30
3842 20/35 30/50 30/50 30/40 35/60 10/25
4-14
Reaming: Hydraulics
The rule of thumb in determining what size and one that is 1.7 times larger. In normal
hole to ream is 1.5 times the diameter of the conditions, use the one that is more than
pipe. However, because of the pipe sizes, 1.5 times larger. If you have reamed
you will not always have a reamer that is through material such as gravel, consider
exactly 1.5 times the pipe diameter. You making one pass larger than the rule to give
may have a reamer that is 1.3 times larger the pipe a little more freedom in the hole.
Penetration rates
Penetration rates are largely determined by For example, if you plan to ream a 762-mm
the pumping capacity you have onsite. (30-in.) hole, calculate the volume of one
There is a direct relationship between linear foot of hole:
pumping and the rate at which you can
penetrate. The relationship between ream- 0.762 2 4 = 456 liters of solids per
ing and pumping is one of the most linear meter of hole (4.91 ft3 per
important relationships in drilling. If you linear foot)
pump too little, in most cases you will stick
your pipe. If you pump too much, you can If your maximum pumping capacity is 954
fracture the formation, cause a washout in l/min (6 bbl/min), you must calculate the
the hole, or simply waste your time and ratio of solids/pumping capacity:
effort by mixing and pumping more than is
required. 456/954 = 47.8%
Pumping
The relationship between penetration rates going on and train them to notify someone
and pumping is the most important in this when there is a deviation from the normal.
business. Learn to constantly monitor what
you are pumping and you will be able to
head off potential problems with your hole. Fig. 4.9 shows typical mud pumps in
Make everyone on the site aware of what is operation.
4-16
Reaming: Hydraulics
Velocity/annular velocity
This topic is divided to demonstrate the see the tremendous differences in vertical
benefit of velocity when a pipe is inserted cleaning and horizontal cleaning. To illus-
into the hole. By doing this, the differences trate these differences, assume an average
between vertical drilling and horizontal velocity in vertical drilling of 18 m/min
drilling and the role velocities play will be (60 ft/min). You will quickly see from the
demonstrated. charts how difficult it is to achieve these
numbers in horizontal drilling.
The original cleaning systems adopted
from the vertical drilling industry were not Refer to Table 4.5 for a 762-mm (30-in.)
designed to cope with the high-viscosity diameter hole. At the bottom of the page,
fluids that are common to horizontal drill- you see that at 6.4 m3/min (40 bbl/min), the
ing. The main reason is that in vertical velocity is only 13.9 m/min (45.75 ft/min).
drilling, velocity plays a much bigger part
in cleaning the hole than viscosity does. You need to pump more than 7.9 m3/min
The cuttings that might fall during a con- (50 bbl/min) to reach a velocity of 18 m/
nection will only fall a few centimeters or min (60 ft/min). Assuming that you install
meters, and are immediately picked up a 508-mm (20-in.) pipe in this hole, you
when the pumps are started after the con- still need to pump more than 4.7 m3/min
nection is made. In horizontal drilling, (30 bbl/min) to achieve a velocity of 18 m/
viscosity is kept higher to prevent the cut- min (60 ft/min). Even though it is possible
tings from settling to the low side of the to pump this amount, it is not economically
hole, which is only a few centimeters away. feasible to have that much pumping capac-
The cuttings must be kept in suspension so ity onsite.
that they can be circulated out of the hole at
a much lower velocity. In addition, most Lost circulation and its effects on velocity
horizontal drilling projects are based on 12- must also be addressed. It is rare to com-
hour single-shift work, and the drilling plete a crossing without having lost
fluid must be capable of holding the cut- circulation at some point in the crossing.
tings in suspension during the work When this happens, there is a section of the
stoppages. hole where velocity is zero. To reiterate, the
drilling fluid must be capable of holding
Refer to the velocity chart (Table 4.5) to these cuttings in suspension until the sub-
understand the relationship between hole sequent pass when they can be circulated
sizes and velocities. In the chart, you can out of the hole.
4-17
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
4-18
Reaming: Hydraulics
Viscosity
Viscosity plays an important role in hori- readings about every 15 min (with a Marsh
zontal drilling. Learn to perform the proper Funnel) and report to you every hour. By
tests and be on top of the fluid situation at recording these readings and your pumping
all times. Train your personnel to keep the data, you will quickly learn the ratios of
viscosity at whatever level you prescribe. bentonite to water for your different
The technicians on the tanks should take applications.
Yield point (YP) can range from single- you should consider dumping and replac-
digit numbers up to perhaps 60 cp. Look ing and, at the very least, adding
for a number that is two to three times the considerable bentonite to raise the YP.
number for plastic viscosity (PV). For
instance, if you are recycling on a large
project, you might start with readings of 45 The YP and PV are determined by a rheom-
for YP and 12 for PV. These are very good eter. You should require your technicians to
readings that show a high capacity for car- perform rheometer tests on the fluid at least
rying the solids out of the hole. However, if twice per shift. By performing these tests
you do not add bentonite, you will see over on a regular basis, you can correct any defi-
the next few days that the readings may ciencies in the drilling fluid before the
change to 30 YP and 30 PV. At this point, problem gets out of control.
PV is an indicator number that tells you the the amount it can carry. These numbers are
ratio of fine solids in your fluid relative to derived from rheometer tests.
Sand content
Know the sand content of your fluid at all Your recycling equipment should keep
times. Sand can enter the system either your sand content below 0.5%. You should
through the water source or from the cut- not attempt to pump the fluid through your
tings in the fluid. Your technician can give pumps if the sand content is above 1%,
you these numbers by using a sand content because you will damage your pumps.
testing unit. The test takes about 2 min and
should be performed and logged at least
once per hour.
4-19
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Troubleshooting
General
There are many problems you can encoun- 2. If you get a low pressure reading,
ter while drilling, and the following check in the following order: tank
sections cover a few of them. For general level, suction plugging, and pump. If
troubleshooting: everything checks to the pump, first
check the packing and, finally, the
1. If fluid is not passing through the impeller for wear.
cones, replace or adjust where applica-
ble.
Increasing torque
The most common reasons for increased 3. Ask them to make sure the pipe outside
torque are listed below. the hole is not restricted from turning.
1. Check to make sure a pump has not Increasing torquesudden lockup. STOP
gone offline (the mud gauge should be EVERYTHING! Contact the opposite side
constantly monitored). to determine if everything is normal (some-
one can inadvertently close the vice or
2. Check the pilot hole data to make cer- tongs).
tain there is no unusual bend at this
section of the hole. This should have 1. Alluvial materials: STOP AND MAKE
already been checked and marked on CONTACT! Lockup is much less
the reaming sheet as a section in which likely to happen in alluvial soils and,
to expect possible increased torque. for this reason, is usually more serious.
3. Check the pilot hole data to see if this If the cause is not above-ground, you
area was marked hard or difficult (if so, have probably hit something in the
it should have been flagged on the pathway.
reaming sheet). 2. Rock: This is a common occurrence in
rock reaming, but you should never
Increasing torqueseveral minutes. If overlook or expect it. Continue to con-
the torque increases over several minutes: tact the opposite side every time lockup
happens. Normally, you can pull or
1. First, contact the opposite side to deter-
push while trying to turn and it will
mine if they are doing anything differ-
free itself. However, there are times
ently.
that the opposite side will need to pull
2. Ask them to check the swivel. you back to free the reamer.
When a twistoff occurs, STOP IMMEDI- point on the rig, and measure all the pipe
ATELY. Assemble all the decision-makers that comes out of the hole. You will want to
in the control cab and discuss all the know, to the centimeter, exactly where your
options. If you attempt to go fishing, log all fish is when you go back in the hole.
pertinent information, mark a reference
4-20
Reaming: Troubleshooting
Fishing
Recovery
This section concerns reaming, where you carriage surging back, and the mud pres-
will have pipe sticking out both sides of the sure dropping. First, cease all operations.
crossing. This gives you many options, a Try to determine what events happened just
few of which are covered below. before the separation. If the drill pipe on
the pipe side was spinning and stopping
erratically, it is possible that the pipe in
Salvaging hole. The first order of business
front of the reamer just unscrewed. Attempt
after a twistoff is to stop all work and dis-
to move the pipe slowly forward away from
cuss all the options. The options available
the rig while rotating. If the pipe has
will depend on where the pipe has
become unscrewed, you may be able to
separated.
screw back into the pipe. If these efforts are
not successful and the separation is close to
Usually the separation will occur between the pipe side, you may be able to retract the
the reamer and the drilling rig providing reamer with conventional equipment with-
the rotation, but it can also occur on the out rotating, and reestablish your hole by
other side of the reamer. The following is a pushing the pipe from the drilling rig while
discussion of the different types of separa- pulling the reamer.
tions and possible remedies.
As a last resort when salvaging the hole,
One remedy is to use one rig pulling the consider moving the drilling rig to the pipe
reamer toward the rig from the pipe side. If side of the river and retracting the reamer
the separation occurs between the reamer using the drilling rig. If you choose to exer-
and the rig, you will know it by the lack of cise this option, retract the pipe on the rig
torque required to turn the drill string, the side and determine where the break
4-21
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
occurred. After you have removed the drill ing fluid from the opposite side of the river
pipe and reamer, you will have to move the as the equipment is configured. Conse-
drilling rig back to the rig side and reestab- quently, you will not be able to remove the
lish the hole by pushing a floater back reamer. In this event, salvage as much of
through the pathway. Once this is accom- the pipe between the surface and the
plished, you can continue reaming. A reamer as possible.
floater is a blunt-nosed assembly on the
end of the drill string. This assembly has a If, while reaming away from the rig, the
large blunt nose with holes cut in it through pipe separates in front of the reamer, stop
which you will pump small amounts of all operations and analyze the situation. In
drilling fluid. Because it is somewhat all probability, you will have to retract the
rounded on the end, it is possible to push reamer to the rig side and pull the remain-
the assembly through a pre-reamed path- ing drill pipe out on the pipe side. At this
way without sidetracking. This assembly point you can either take the rig to the pipe
works about 70% of the time, and works side or resign yourself to redrilling the pilot
best in more consolidated materials. hole.
If, while reaming and pulling to the drilling If you have two drilling rigs available dur-
rig, you separate behind the reamer, stop all ing the reaming process, a lot of time can
operations and try to determine what be saved in the event of a pipe separation.
caused the separation. This type of separa- If the break is in front of the reamer, the rig
tion will only be noticed on the pipe side. at the exit side can rotate the reamer and
The pipe will stop rotating and pulling into withdraw the pipe to the exit side. At the
the pathway. On the rig side, it may be that same time, the rig at the entry side can add
nothing will appear to have changed. The joints and follow the reamer out to the exit.
chances of pushing the reaming assembly If the break is behind the reamer and plug,
and the pipe back into a joint that has the rig at the entry side can withdraw the
become unthreaded are minimal. However, pipe while the rig at the exit side is adding
it is still worth trying. More than likely joints and following with the pipe out of
your best option will be to continue the the hole. If the break is between the reamer
ream until the reamer has exited on the rig and the plug, the reamer must be pushed
side. The drill pipe on the pipe side of the out by the rig at the entry point, while the
reamer can be removed using conventional rig at the exit point withdraws only fast
equipment. Once the ream is completed, try enough to stay just ahead of the reamer.
to reestablish the hole, again using the Constant communication must be main-
floater assembly. tained between the two rigs. If you are
unable to follow the reamer out in either of
If the separation occurs while you are the above situations, you can still use the
reaming away from the drilling rig, but floater assembly to reestablish the pathway.
between the drilling rig and the reamer, you
should stop all operations. This type of fail- If the attempt to reestablish the hole in any
ure will be noticed on the drilling rig side of the above situations is unsuccessful, you
by loss of torque and loss of mud pressure. will be forced to move the rig and redrill
On the pipe side, the crew should notice the pilot hole, starting from scratch.
that the pipe has stopped rotating. Gather
all the information just prior to the mishap
and try to find out how the separation Severing drill pipe. If you decide to redrill,
occurred. If you assume that the pipe you want to recover all that is salvageable.
became unscrewed you can attempt to If the reamer itself is stuck, you must try to
screw back into it, but you will have little recover everything up to the reamer, on
chance of success. You can attempt to both sides.
secure and use fishing tools, but again,
because of the size of the hole, your Many companies prefer to twist the pipe
chances will not be very good. off and recover whatever they can, as
opposed to placing a shaped charge and
Because of the pipe plug in front of the severing the pipe at a predetermined point.
reamer, you will not be able to pump drill- However, if you happen to be stuck 3000 ft
4-22
Reaming: Troubleshooting
Most project managers tend to neglect visors of any decrease in returned drilling
decreased or lost circulation with the mind- fluid. If you are using a recycling system,
set that there is not a lot they can do, or that you will quickly notice that you are getting
to try to rectify the situation is only a waste less back than you are pumping. The level
of time. This thinking is in error and irre- in the recycling tank will drop and it should
sponsible. Your risks are greatly reduced be noticed in time to prevent total loss.
when you are successful in maintaining cir-
culation. It is true that you can be
successful even when you lose circulation, When a reduction in returns is noticed,
but your chances are greatly increased if make every effort to regain the lost fluid,
you maintain returns. even if it means tripping all the way out of
the hole. It is understood that you want to
Train your personnel to watch the return pit progress and do not like to pull back, but
so that they can immediately notify super- regaining circulation will help you later on.
If the reaming assembly becomes stuck and If you are using a rig on each side of the
you are in a rocky formation, you should be river and the reamer becomes stuck in rock,
able to free it up with enough time and you have the advantage of turning the
effort. If the reaming assembly becomes reamer in both directions, first from one
stuck in gravel or as a result of a gravel col- side and then the other. Also, you can pull
lapse, you probably will not be able to free from either side while the opposite rig
it. If you become stuck in sandy soils, you applies the torque. While doing this, pump
must free it quickly or you might be unable high-viscosity sweeps, which can some-
to free it. times aid in extricating the reamer or pipe.
If there is a mud pressure increase, the If the increase is caused by the pumps or
probable causes are: viscosity, the problem is easily solved. If
the problem is caused by either the jet noz-
zle(s) or the borehole packing off, you will
the pump(s) have been throttled up be able to distinguish between the two.
When the borehole packs off, the pressure
the viscosity has increased increase will be less than 20 psi (140 Kp).
When a jet nozzle is restricted, the increase
the reamer nozzles are restricted will likely be 50 to 200 psi (350 to 1350
Kp). Check to make sure the filter does not
the borehole has packed off and you have a rupture or tear that is allowing peb-
are about to fracture the formation. bles to pass unobstructed down the hole.
If there is a mud pressure decrease, the the pump drive has been throttled
probable causes are: down, or there is a problem with the
pump internally (if this is the case you
the pump is not being fed properly by will usually hear the banging)
the mix tank
4-23
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
the mud filter between the mix tank Again, you should be aware of what is
and the pump is plugged going on around you and should be able to
say, within a few minutes, that the problem
there is a washout downhole, usually at
is downhole. You must determine whether
the reamer. or not to make a trip, depending on where
you are in the hole.
Inadvertent returns
Normally, inadvertent returns are caused by Another cause of inadvertent returns is the
either overpenetrating or overpumping. You following: You dig a mud pit in front of the
can cause this by not letting the clues tip rig and call it an entry pit. When you spud
you off to the potential problems. For in the bottom of the pit, the return fluid
instance, you may gradually increase your comes back through the hole at a certain
viscosity until you are over 250 sec, and velocity and enters the pit, and the velocity
then notice that when disconnecting from a drops immediately to zero. The cuttings
drop out in the bottom of the pit and, over
joint, the pressure is escaping through the
time, will plug the entry hole. It can and
open end of the drill pipe. At the same
will build up to the point that the fluid can
time, while removing a joint from the rig, no longer push through it, and will instead
you notice that the fluid cannot even run surface at some other point where the
out of the pipe because it is so thick. If you ground is weaker. This happens many
are not using polymers, you are exerting a times. If you have the space, it is better to
tremendous pressure on the formation and dig your pit to the side of centerline so that
it may not be able to withstand the the fluid can continue to move until it is
pressure. away from the entry hole.
Reduced penetration rates are caused by 4. If your rotary speed is too slow, the
many things: penetration rate will probably be
reduced. If possible, increase the rotary
1. The most common cause is that the for- speed to remedy this situation.
mation has changed to a harder forma- 5. When reaming in rock formations and
tion. The notes from the pilot hole in some alluvial formations with very
should mention if this is the case. If abrasive soils, sometimes the gauge of
increasing the force on the cutter cre- the reamer is worn down to the extent
ates too much torque, you will proba- that the outside wall of the reamer
bly have to accept the slower begins to be pinched by the side of the
penetration rates. reamed pathway. This can increase
torque and consequently reduce your
2. If the Kennemetal teeth, cutter blades, penetration rate. Depending on how
or inserts on hole openers or reamers much reaming remains, you may opt to
become worn, the penetration rate will trip the assembly out of the hole and
naturally decrease. Depending on the repair or replace the reamer or cutters.
amount of reaming left, you must
6. If the pumping volume/pressure rela-
decide whether to trip out the assembly
tionship changes, the penetration rate
and replace or repair it before continu-
may be reduced.
ing with the reaming.
7. The pressure loss may be the result of
3. If you are not applying enough force less fluid being pumped or the jet noz-
against the face of the formation, pene- zles on the reamer being washed out. If
tration rates will decrease. To correct it is the jet nozzles, decide whether to
this, you must apply more force. proceed at a slower rate or trip the
4-24
Reaming: Troubleshooting
assembly and repair or replace the jet gradually come to a halt, once the clay
nozzles. material is simply rubbing against the
8. In clay, the reamer or hole openers will wall of the pathway. There are some
sometimes ball up. This results from additives that can be injected into the
the adhesive material filling all the mud to prevent balling, but not many of
areas between the teeth or cutter them work after the fact. The best solu-
blades. This material can become so
tion is to trip the reamer or cutter and
tightly packed that the protruding teeth,
blades, or inserts cannot make suffi- clean it on the surface. Then use the
cient contact with the face of the path- additives when proceeding with the
way you are cutting. Progress will reaming to prevent balling.
4-25
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Notes
4-26
Chapter 5: Pullback
Pipeline................................................................................................ 5-1
General .............................................................................................................. 5-1
Steel pipeline...................................................................................................... 5-1
Pipe diameter....................................................................................................................5-1
Pipe wall thickness ...........................................................................................................5-1
Buoyancy control..............................................................................................................5-1
Coatings............................................................................................................................5-3
HDPE pipe ......................................................................................................... 5-3
Standard Dimension Ratio ...............................................................................................5-3
Buoyancy control..............................................................................................................5-4
Soils..................................................................................................... 5-4
Clay .................................................................................................................... 5-4
Sand................................................................................................................... 5-4
Rock ................................................................................................................... 5-4
Notes
ii
Chapter 5: Pullback
Pipeline
General
The final objective when planning, design- material to be installed, and the types of
ing or executing a horizontal directional soils that will be encountered. This chapter
drilling (HDD) project is the installation or discusses the factors you should consider
pullback of the pipeline or pipelines (bun-
dle). To properly plan a directionally when installing steel pipeline, concrete-
drilled crossing, you must know the diame- coated pipe, and high-density polyethylene
ter, wall thickness, and type of pipe pipe (HDPE).
Steel pipeline
the large-diameter carrier pipe and filled pipelines to have a neutral weight in the
with water as the pipeline is installed. The pre-reamed pathway, thereby significantly
latter of these two methods has been the reducing the amount of pull force that will
be required to install crossings.
most successful. With a little planning, you
can essentially cause the large-diameter
Buoyancy force 1
1 = Styrofoam cylinder
2
2 = Drill pipe
3 = Filler pipe
4 = Water
4
Weight
1 Buoyancy force
1 = Carrier pipe
2 = HDPE pipeline
3
3 = Water
2
Weight
5-2
Pullback: Pipeline
Coatings. The main purpose of pipe coat- the fusion-bonded epoxy corrosion coating
ings is to protect the pipe in place against (Fig. 5.3). Powercrete has a very low coef-
corrosion. The coatings should have a low ficient of friction and is applied over the
coefficient of friction so that they do not fusion-bonded epoxy. This combination of
adversely affect the installation. In most coatings is the most effective for protecting
instances in alluvial soils, the fusion- the pipelines during rock installations. In
bonded epoxy coating applied at a thick- Europe, polyethylene coatings (three-layer
ness of 0.8 to 0.9 in. (20 to 24 mm) is or sintered) are also commonly used.
sufficient for protection. However, in areas
with large concentrations of angular gravel
or in rock installations, additional protec- A more thorough discussion of coatings
tion is recommended. A rock shield coating can be found in the Engineering chapter
known as Powercrete is compatible with (page 2-20).
Fig. 5.3. Pipeline with Powercrete coating. Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
HDPE pipe
high SDR ratios, the pipe wall is thin com- (254 mm) to prevent collapse from external
pared to the pipe OD. For low SDR ratios, pressure.
the wall is thick compared to the pipe OD.
Thus, high SDRs correspond to low pres-
sure ratings and low SDRs correspond to During the installation, make sure that the
high pressure ratings because of the rela- hole is clean and open to prevent pulling
tive wall thickness. the pipe apart because of the friction load
along the pipes exterior and the relatively
Buoyancy control. When installing an low tensile strength of the material. When
HDPE pipe, fill the pipe with water during drilling in gravelly sands, ream the hole
the installation. This should be done with oversized to allow more open space in the
pipe diameters greater than 10 in. hole.
Soils
A few of the soil types you will encounter mation on soils can be found in the
and the effects they have on the pipe are Reaming chapter (page 4-6).
discussed in this section. Additional infor-
Clay
Clay is the easiest of the soils to drill you should be confident that you have
through, being very predictable and easy to reamed the hole to the required diameter,
manipulate. By the time you reach the pull- cleaned the hole by running a wiper or
back phase, you will be aware of the swab pass, and planned your pullback,
characteristics of the clay through which complete with contingency plans for any-
you have drilled and reamed. At this stage thing unexpected.
Sand
Sand is less predictable than clay, but can time. This is because the longer the pull-
be controlled by using proven reaming and back is delayed, the greater the probability
pullback methods. The biggest problem that sand will settle out of the drilling fluid
with sand is that you do not have the free- around the pipe.
dom to shut down for extended periods of
Rock
In rock, pullback will proceed much the whether the rock fragments fall in front of
same as in clay if you have prepared for it the bullet nose or in front of the pipe. If you
through your drilling and reaming prac- are experiencing torque from the rock, con-
tices. If the hole is reamed to the proper tinue and try to break it up. If they fall in
size and is clean, your success should be
guaranteed. An exception is when drilling front of the pipe and cause your pull to
through a weathered rock formation, which increase, it is better to pull the pipe back to
may crumble and fall into the hole. If this get the piece of rock in front of the bullet
happens, your actions will depend on nose.
5-4
Pullback: Mud Program
Mud Program
Drilling fluids
The drilling fluids chosen for the pilot hole extra lubrication. This can be applied
and reaming will also work for the pull- directly to the pipe or mixed with the fluids
back, except that you may want to add you are pumping.
Volumes
The volume of drilling fluid you pump will less true for sand and sandy gravel
depend on how much hole cleaning is nec- crossings.
essary. If you are reaming and pulling at
the same time, use the bottoms up chart
that is used for reaming (page 4-4). For example, when pulling a 36-in.
(914-mm) pipe at the rate of 31 ft/min
For large-diameter crossings, you can sig- (9.4 m/min), almost 40 bbl/min (6.4 m3/
nificantly reduce the volume pumped min) of fluid is being displaced and exiting
because of the amount of fluid being dis- the hole at one end or the other. In this
placed by the pipe. This is especially true case, you are moving enough fluid through
for clay or rock crossings where the holes the hole that very little is required to be
are normally very clean for pullback, and pumped through the bullet nose.
Fluid control
When executing an HDD crossing, it is account for the increase in the size of your
essential to maintain control over the drill- pathwaybut guard against mixing too
ing fluids being used. While you want to much. Mixing too much fluid will be an
have enough drilling fluids mixed so as to unnecessary expense during the installation
avoid a shutdown, you do not want such an and can also cause additional cleanup
excess of drilling fluids onsite that you costs.
have to cease operations to control the
fluids.
At each location, especially the larger-
Closely monitor the mixing of your drilling diameter and longer crossings, you will
fluids in a closed-loop system. You will need a certain holding capacity for excess
have to continually mix fluids while drill- fluids. This holding capacity can be in the
ing forward and with each reaming pass to form of mud pits or steel holding tanks.
Disposal
Although the drilling fluid used in the 2000 ft (600 m) long by 30-in. (762-mm)
HDD industry is not harmful to the envi- pipe. Onsite you have a return pit to collect
ronment, it can create a mess around the the return fluid, a 6-in. (150-mm) transfer
drilling location and surrounding area if pump to transfer the fluid to the recycling
not controlled. You will also have the prob- unit, two pumps to transfer the fluid
lem of disposing of the excess drilling through the tank, and a pump to transfer the
fluid. fluid to the mix tank.
The following is a quick comparison of If any of these pumps are taken offline for
practices and their resultant costs for a repair, the circulation through the loop
sample project. This comparison is based stops or the drilling or reaming must stop,
on one of the most common reasons you and you do not want to shut down the rig
might inadvertently build excess volume. for any reason. However, if the problem is
Assume you have a beach approach of with the pump at the entry pit, you will
5-5
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
usually have to shut down. The error here At the pullback phase, the 42-in.
was that there was no spare pump that (1067-mm) hole is full of fluid, the entry
could be put online in a matter of minutes. pit is full, the mixing tank is full, the recy-
cling tank is full, and you do not know
when the fluid will start coming to the
If the problem is with one of the pumps on entry side during pullback. What do you do
the recycling unit, the fluid is normally with the 30 bbl/min (4800 l/min) of fluid
diverted to holding tanks, water and bento- that will be displaced by the pipe as it is
nite are continuously added to the mixing pulled in the hole at rates of 30 ft/min
tank, and the rig continues to work. The (9.1 m/min), as well as the 5 to 8 bbl/min
result is that you are building volume that (790 to 1270 l/min) that you will be pump-
ing? The result is excess drilling fluid at the
you must eventually use or dispose of. This
entry, which will cost time and money to
scenario is acceptable if there is sufficient clean up. These costs can be reduced or
reaming remaining to use the volume to fill eliminated through proper planning. By
the hole. Unfortunately, the volume in the keeping the excess volumes as low as pos-
holding tanks is usually forgotten and even sible, your disposal costs will be
added to. minimized.
Pulling Assistance
Support equipment
Breakover or overbend
Breakover or overbend is the bend through be as low as possible so that the pipe does
which the pipe must pass from its horizon- not require undesirable heights above the
tal position on the rollers to its alignment ground to conform to the bend.
with the hole (Fig. 5.4). This angle should
5-6
Pullback: Pulling Assistance
For example, assume that you have a 30-in. cedure is as follows, starting at pilot hole
(762-mm) pipe to pull, the exit angle is 8, completion:
and the minimum allowable radius is
1800 ft (550 m). The top of the overbend, When the pilot bottomhole assembly
or the point at which the pipe is the highest (BHA) has exited, remove the BHA so
above-ground (assuming the ground is that nothing but steel drill pipe remains
level) is 17.5 ft (5.33 m); this point is 250 ft in the hole. Strip back along the pipe to
(76.2 m) from the exit point. If the lifting the correct elevation point that places
equipment is spaced 60 ft (18.3 m) apart, the top of the pipe overbend at a level
four pieces of equipment will be required equal to the top of your rollers. If you
to handle this section. Also remember that plan to place sheet piling on both sides
the pipe behind the overbend must curve of the pipe to prevent cave-ins, do this
back toward the ground, in a reverse curve, now. Reference the point to which you
until it rests on the rollers or in the flotation have dug with a survey so that you can
ditch. This will require a minimum of three return.
pieces of equipment. To minimize the
equipment requirement, either lower the You can now begin and complete all
exit angle, shorten the radius, or place most phases of reaming. When you are ready
of the overbend below-ground. to place the pipe for pullback connec-
tion, place your rollers so that they are
at the proper elevations. When the pipe
Assume you have the same 30-in. is placed on these rollers, you will have
(762-mm) pipe with the same exit angle an overbend that begins 250 ft (76.2 m)
and are restricted to the same minimum from the point at which you are 14 ft
allowable radius. However, instead of plac- (4.3 m) deeper than the exit elevation,
ing the overbend from ground level to a and it breaks over to lay on the rollers
point 17.5 ft (5.33 m) above-ground, place in a perfect curve. The last roller will
the overbend from a point 14 ft (4.3 m) be placed 60 to 70 ft (18.3 to 21.3 m)
below the exit elevation to a point 3.5 ft from the point you originally surveyed
(1 m) above the ground elevation. The pro- that is 14 ft (4.3 m) below the exit
5-7
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
point. This results in the same configu- is mostly below-ground and requires
ration, the only difference being that it no equipment to keep it in position.
Pulling support
As the lengths and diameters of crossings pulling assistance from the opposite side.
increase, so will the need for assistance to Many of our crossings would not have been
install the pipe. The assistance can be in the successful without this assistance. In other
form of dozers with winches or pulling cases, failed crossings would have been
units that are anchored to allow maximum successful had assistance been obtained.
Pulling Program
BHA
For pullbacks, the conventional BHA con- is that every part of the BHA is enclosed
sists of a bullet-nose reamer and an except the reamer. The reamer can be a bul-
exposed swivel connected to the pipeline let-nose, fly cutter, barrel reamer, or hole
with shackles. An unconventional BHA,
opener. The main purpose is to prevent any
called a gravel shield reamer (Fig. 5.5), was
introduced for rock and gravel crossings. large material from building up in front of
The basic difference in the gravel shield the pull head, which could hinder the pipe
reamer and the conventional pulling BHA pulling.
Pulling speed
If you have properly reamed and cleaned torque readings. If you are getting torque in
the hole, you should be able to pull the pipe the first part of the hole where none was
as fast as your rig will travel. This is usu- expected, it is usually due to angle mis-
ally true even if you have a sandy or alignment. This can be corrected by adding
gravelly soil to pull through.
water, removing water, slowing your pull,
Begin the first 100 or 200 ft (30 or 60 m) of or adjusting your breakover. When you are
your pullback by pulling at reasonable certain that the pipe is properly aligned and
speeds, allowing the pipe to find its proper your torque has disappeared, pull the pipe
position, which you will know by the as fast as practicable.
Pulling loads
You will have some indication of what unknowns to predict exactly what the loads
pulling loads to expect prior to pullback, will be. Some of the nuances of pulling are
but you will only know for certain once covered below, which should aid you in
you begin pulling. There are too many diagnosing different situations.
5-8
Pullback: Salvaging Stuck Pipe
Pulling across the bottom of the profile should continue. If you are in rock, it is
and the pull increases with every joint. possible that a piece of rock has jammed
This situation is the most difficult because between the pipe and the outside of the
you may have several hundreds of feet yet hole. If this is the case, you will continue to
to pull and you dont know whether to stop have circulation. You should pull back a
or continue. You must make that decision short distance to try to release the rock that
based on how much you have pulled and has caused the jam and move it in front of
how much you have yet to pull. You can the reamer. If it is in front of the reamer,
determine what the pull might reach if you you can try to keep skipping it forward
project from the information you have. until it finds a place to fall out; however, it
may pass by the reamer and jam the opera-
For example, if the pull was increasing for tion again. You must make this
the past 15 joints at about 100 psi determination on the job.
(689 Kpa) per joint, observe the current
gauge reading. If the pull gauge was read- Pulling through the exit side vertical
ing 1000 psi (6.9 Mpa) before the last 15 curve and the pull increases with every
joints, and is now reading 2500 psi joint. Usually, the pull will drop once you
(17 Mpa), determine whether your pull will are around the curve and into straight hole.
maximize if you continue. If you have only
15 joints remaining, you should continue.
If you have 30 joints remaining, you should Pulling through the exit side vertical
probably stop. There is no clear-cut answer curve and the pull suddenly increases. If
and it is something that you must deter- you have accepted a bend in one joint that
mine onsite. is greater than allowed, it should have been
marked as a place to slow the pull. If it was
not, check your data sheet. When it is a
Pulling across the bottom of the profile bend, the torque will also increase.
and the pull suddenly increases. It is pos-
sible you have experienced a sudden hole
collapse but, more than likely, something Pulling and the pull suddenly decreases.
has happened above-ground on the oppo- Stop and contact the exit side to see if they
site side. You should immediately stop have made any adjustment and if the pipe
pulling and contact the supervisor on the was still moving when you stopped.
exit side to ask if anything unusual has hap-
pened. The person at the return pit should These are just a few of the possibilities that
have reported by this time if circulation has can occur. Accumulate the facts and base
been lost. your decision on those facts, although there
will never be a standard response to every
If circulation suddenly stopped, you have conceivable problem. You must learn from
probably experienced a hole collapse and every situation and record the experience
only additional pulling will tell you if you for future reference.
In the case of stuck pipe, the first thing you Provide the client with a schedule of events
must do is gather all the facts. Have an to demonstrate that you have the situation
open discussion with everyone involved under control. Be sincere in your dealings
and come to an agreement as to the best with your employees, your subcontractor
course. Make a list of what you need to do; or prime contractor, and your client.
determine what, if anything, you need to
mobilize; and proceed in an orderly
fashion. Meet with your supervisors and begin dis-
cussing what the course of action will be if
Prepare a report for your client that you are unsuccessful in retrieving the pipe.
includes what happened, and what your If additional right-of-way will be required,
plan is for the short term and the long term. now is the time to begin working on it.
5-9
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Notes
5-10
Chapter 6: Mud
Filtration.............................................................................................6-24
Conditions affecting filtration ............................................................................ 6-24
Time.................................................................................................................. 6-25
Control of filter cake permeability ..................................................................... 6-25
Filtration control additives................................................................................. 6-25
Clays............................................................................................................................... 6-25
Starch ............................................................................................................................. 6-25
Dispersants..................................................................................................................... 6-26
CMC ............................................................................................................................... 6-26
ii
List of Figures
List of Tables
iii
Notes
iv
Chapter 6: Mud
The main functions of a drilling fluid are line the hole with a thin, impermeable
to: filter cake to minimize fluid losses
provide geological information about
cool and lubricate the drill bit and the formation
string
protect the formation from damage or
remove cuttings and transport them to contamination
the surface transmit hydraulic power
hold cuttings in suspension when cir- partially support the weight of drill
culation is stopped pipes or pipeline.
Considerable heat is generated by the cut- lubricates, and prolongs the working life of
ting action of the bit and the drill pipe the bit, while a slick filter cake reduces the
rubbing on the sides of the wellbore. The frictional load when the pipe is pulled.
circulating drilling fluid effectively cools,
Removing cuttings
Efficiently removing cuttings from the bot- cles is up toward the surface where they
tom of the hole is essential to maximize can be removed. The units for measuring
drilling rates. As the mud ascends the annu- velocity and volume are:
lus, the natural tendency is for entrained
cuttings to settle out and sink to the bottom pump output (l/min)
of the hole. It is vital to maintain an ade-
quate annular mud velocity that exceeds annular velocity (m/min)
the settling rate of the suspended solids,
such that the resultant motion of the parti- annular volume (l/m)
A drilling fluid should be thixotropic. This You should check the sand content of the
means that when mud circulation is mud from the flow line and after being pro-
stopped, the mud should have sufficient gel cessed by all the solids control equipment
strength to hold the cuttings in suspension to verify that the sand is being released and
not being recirculated down the hole. Any
until they are transported to the surface. sand carried forward will cause serious
When circulation resumes, the mud should abrasion to pumps and equipment. When-
revert to its lower viscosity so the cuttings ever possible, do not allow the sand content
may be carried to the surface. to exceed 1%.
Inspecting the cuttings removed by the mation about the formation you are
shale shaker will provide geological infor- penetrating.
A drilling fluid must be carefully selected possible, never use a fluid that will react
to minimize formation damage. Whenever with the formation.
The role of the drilling fluid in transmitting increased. Although this will reduce the
hydraulic horsepower is becoming more hydraulic horsepower at the bit, the lower
important due to the increasing use of jet velocities will allow you to use a higher
downhole motors, turbines, and hydrauli- pump rate, resulting in increased hole
cally operated downhole equipment. cleaning. The lower velocities will also
help avoid hole washouts and irregular tra-
The bit hydraulics and pressure drop jectories, especially when drilling a
required by any downhole equipment must deviated hole.
be carefully considered when planning a
mud program. Optimum hydraulic horse- The flow properties and mud weight
power should be available to assist in greatly affect the hydraulics program and
cuttings removal while drilling hard forma- should be carefully controlled to ensure
tions. However, if the formation is very that the hydraulics of the system are within
soft, the size of jet nozzles should be the required limits.
The mud in the hole partly supports the tear on rig equipment and electrical power
weight of the casing and drill pipe because consumed are additional factors attribut-
of the buoyancy effect. Savings in wear and able to mud buoyancy.
6-2
Mud: Drilling Fluid Tests
Mud weight
Use the following procedure to measure 5. Read the mud density off the appropri-
mud weight using a mud balance (Fig. 6.1): ate scale and immediately clean the
balance.
1. Place the base (pivot) of the mud bal- 6. Use the following mathematical rela-
ance on a level surface. tionships:
2. Fill the cup (which should be clean and specific gravity = lb per ft3/62.3
dry) with the mud to be tested. Tap the
cup gently to remove trapped air. mud gradient = lb per ft3/144
mud gradient = lb per gal/19.24
3. Place the cap on the cup and rotate it
mud gradient = specific gravity/
until it is firmly in contact with the top
2.31
of the cup.
7. Calibrate the mud balance as neces-
4. Place the arm in position on the base, sary. When calibrated correctly, fresh
and move the balance weight until the water at 21C should give a reading of
arm is balanced horizontally. 1.0 (8.33 lb/gal).
6-3
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
The Marsh Funnel (Fig. 6.2) is used to 3. With the Marsh Funnel held vertically,
measure the funnel viscosity, which is the simultaneously remove your finger and
number of seconds required for the outflow start a stopwatch. Allow the mud to run
of 946 cm3 (1 qt) from a standard Marsh into a clean, dry viscosity cup.
Funnel containing 1500 cm3 (1.6 qt) of 4. Stop the stopwatch when the level of
fluid. Use the following procedure: the mud reaches the mark on the vis-
cosity cup (946 cm3). Record this time,
1. Check the orifice of the Marsh Funnel to the nearest second, as the funnel vis-
to ensure that it is free from any cosity. Also record the temperature of
obstruction. the sample.
2. Cover the orifice with a finger and pour 5. The Marsh Funnel viscosity of fresh
a fresh mud sample through the top water at 21C should be 26 1/2 sec. If
screen until the fluid level reaches the it is not, then replace the funnel,
bottom of the screen. because it cannot be recalibrated.
6-4
Mud: Drilling Fluid Tests
The Rotational Viscom (also called Fann able, but horizontal directional drilling
Viscom) is also used to measure viscosity. (HDD) rigs are usually equipped with the
There are several types of viscoms avail- Fann VGM six-speed viscom (Fig. 6.3).
All viscoms operate on the same principle. sleeve by rotating it slightly to release
Mud is placed in the annular space between the lock and then pull the sleeve down-
two cylinders. The outer cylinder (the ward.
sleeve) is rotated at constant preset speed.
The effect of this rotation on the mud sets
Measuring YP and PV. To measure YP and
up a torque on the inner cylinder (the bob),
PV:
which itself rotates until the torque in the
restraining spring attached to the bob is
1. Pour a fresh mud sample into the metal
equal and opposite to the torque applied by
the mud movement. A numerical value is container provided with the viscom, up
given to this torque by reading a dial to the line marked in the container.
attached to the torsion spring. The instru- 2. Position the container properly on the
ment is designed and built so that the base of the viscom, and lift the base
plastic viscosity (PV) and yield point (YP) into a position such that the cylinder
values can be calculated by using the dial
sleeve is immersed in the mud up to the
readings obtained when the outer cylinder
is rotated at 600 and 300 rotary speed. mark on the sleeve.
3. With the gearing in the 600/300-rotary
Notes on use of the viscom: speed position, start the motor by put-
ting the switch into the High
Change the gears only when the motor (600 rotary speed) position. Allow the
is running. dial reading to reach a steady value,
Clean the viscom thoroughly after use. which you will record as the 600-rotary
To do this properly, remove the outer speed reading.
6-5
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
4. Move the switch to the Low position 600-rotary speed readings. PV is the
and allow the dial reading to reach a slope of the line joining the 300 and
steady value, which you will record as 600 rotary speed values (projected on
the 300-rotary speed reading. the y axis) and the intercept of the
extrapolated line is YP.
5. Obtain the PV (in cp) by subtracting
the 300-rotary speed reading from the
Gel strength. To obtain a gel strength
600-rotary speed reading. measurement:
6. Obtain the YP (in lb/100 ft2) by sub-
tracting the PV from the 300-rotary 1. Stir the same mud sample (by rotating
speed reading (Fig. 6.4). the outer cylinder at 600 rotary speed)
for 10 sec, change the gearing to the
7. Obtain the apparent viscosity (AV) by 300/600-rotary speed position, and turn
dividing the 600-rotary speed reading off the motor after 10 sec.
by 2. Thus:
2. Move the switch into the Low posi-
PV = 600 - 300
tion, note the maximum reading on the
YP = 300 - PV dial, and turn off the motor. This value
AV = 600/2 is the 10-sec initial gel in lb/100 ft2.
3. Allow 10 min to elapse and then turn
where 600 is the dial reading at
the motor on by moving the switch to
600 rotary speed and 300 is the dial
reading at 300 rotary speed. A flow the Low position. Note the maxi-
diagram of dial reading vs. rotary mum reading. This value is the 10-min
speed can be drawn using the 300- and gel in lb/100 ft2.
600
300
} 1
Fig. 6.4. Dial reading vs.
rotary speed.
} 1
1 = Plastic viscosity
2 =Yield point
6-6
Mud: Drilling Fluid Tests
The static filter-cake building and fluid loss test is the only test used for HDD, and is
control characteristics are measured using a carried out at room temperature and
filter press (Fig. 6.5). The low-temperature 100 psi differential pressure.
6
1
2
7
8
4
5 10
11
12
13
The American Petroleum Institute (API) 2. Carry out the assembly in the follow-
fluid loss is reported as that volume ing order: base cap, rubber gasket, wire
screen, one sheet of filter paper (What-
(in cm3) of filtrate lost from the filter press
man n50), and rubber gasket. Then
in 30 min. Use the following procedure: lock the cell body into the base cap by
turning clockwise until tight.
1. Before assembly, check the drain tube 3. Fill the cell with a new sample of mud
for any obstruction. Also, check the to within 1/4 in. (7 mm) of the top.
rubber gaskets. Then put on the top cap (with rubber
6-7
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
gasket) and fit the complete unit into fluid loss greater than 60, it should be
the filter press frame. Hold in place by reported as No Control.
turning the T bar on top of the stand
until it is tight. 7. Before disassembly, turn the regulator
handle counter-clockwise to isolate the
CO2 cartridge, and bleed the pressure
4. Insert a new CO2 cartridge below the
off the cell by lifting the plastic pres-
regulator. sure release valve.
5. With the measuring cylinder in place 8. Remove the cell from the frame and
below the drain tube, turn the pressure disassemble, taking care not to disturb
regulator handle clockwise until the the layer of filter cake on top of the fil-
pressure gauge shows 100 psi (689 Kp) ter paper.
and start the stopwatch as soon as the
pressure is applied. 9. Measure the thickness of the filter cake
to the nearest 1/32 in. (mm).
6. After 30 min have elapsed, note the
10. Save the filtrate for the chemical analy-
volume of filtrate in the measuring cyl-
sis described later.
inder to the nearest 0.1 cm3. This vol-
ume is the API fluid loss. If you note a 11. Clean and dry the equipment.
Sand content
Any sand not removed from the mud will 5. Pour the mixture onto the clean
have a detrimental effect on the life of the 200-mesh screen. Add more water to
mud pumps and centrifugal pump parts. the tube, agitate, and empty the con-
Thus, you should monitor the sand content
tents onto the screen.
of the mud closely. The following method
determines the percentage of sand and
6. Repeat this operation until the tube is
other coarse material (having a particle size
greater than 74 or 200 mesh) contained in clean.
the mud:
7. Wash any remaining mud off the sand
retained by the screen.
1. The equipment is composed of a plas-
tic cylinder containing a 200-mesh
8. Fit the funnel upside down over the
screen, a funnel that fits onto the cylin-
screen, and invert the assembly and
der, and a graduated glass tube (Fig.
6.6). place it so that the funnel outlet is
inserted into the mouth of the gradu-
2. Pour the mud into the graduated glass ated tube.
tube until it reaches the Mud to Here
mark. 9. Wash the sand off the screen with a
spray of water into the tube.
3. Add water to the graduated tube until it
reaches the Water to Here mark. 10. Allow the sand to settle. Read the vol-
ume of sand directly from the gradu-
4. Block the mouth of the tube and shake ated marks and record it as the volume
it vigorously. percent of sand in the mud.
6-8
Mud: Drilling Fluid Tests
pH
6-9
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Chemical analysis
6-10
Mud: Clay Chemistry
Clay Chemistry
The most commonly used drilling fluid is be added to water to fabricate the mud,
mud made up with water as the continuous since it is almost impossible to control or
liquid phase (a water-based mud). Various
confine mud returns.
solids are present as a result of drilling, and
others may be added to alter the character-
istics of the mud to meet operational To fully understand the effects of various
requirements.
additives on water-based mud, you must
Moreover, for HDD, environmental consid- first understand the basics of elementary
erations further limit the materials that can chemistry.
Basic chemistry
Pure substances are composed of a single ment and different structures produce
element or compound. An element is a different elements. An atom is made up of a
material made up of only a single atom. nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons of
When two or more different kinds of atoms varying numbers and different orbits or
react to form a new material, the resultant shells. The nucleus contributes most to the
material is called a compound. Thus, mass of the atom and consists of protons
sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) are ele- and neutrons. The proton is a fundamental
ments, although Cl normally appears as a particle of high mass with a positive elec-
Cl molecule resulting from the combina- trical charge. Neutrons do not have an
tion of two Cl atoms. When Na and Cl electrical charge. The mass of a proton is
react, a new material, sodium chloride almost identical to that of a neutron and far
(NaCl), is formed. This new material is a greater than the mass of an electron.
compound composed of two different kinds
of atoms. When elements or compounds
are mixed without a chemical reaction tak- In all atomic nuclei there is a surplus of
ing place so that the original materials protons, so that the nucleus always carries
retain their identity, the result is simply a a positive electrical charge that is counter-
mixture. balanced by an equal number of negatively
charged electrons, making the whole atom
An atom is the smallest particle of an ele- electrically neutral. It is the configuration
ment, exhibiting all the chemical properties of the outer shell of orbiting electrons that
of that element. Its structure determines the gives the atom most of its individual chem-
chemical and physical properties of the ele- ical properties.
The valence of an atom can be described as Atoms having given up or gained an elec-
the number of H atoms it can combine tron are no longer at zero potential and are
with, and is determined by the number of called ions. Those atoms acquiring a posi-
electrons in the outer shell. Some elements tive charge (i.e., losing electrons) become
with few electrons orbiting in the outer cations, while those atoms acquiring a neg-
shell have a tendency to lend or borrow ative charge (i.e., gaining electrons)
electrons from adjoining atoms. These ele- become anions.
ments are termed reactive and would
include H and Cl.
Clay chemistry
The earliest type of drilling mud was the minimum amount of materials added.
muddy water, which provided the early Wyoming bentonite is known chemically as
rotary drillers with considerable improve- sodium montmorillonite (Na-montmorillo-
ments in hole cleaning when compared to nite) and possesses properties that enable it
plain water. Their initial experiments in to expand and absorb large quantities of
dissolving soils and clays in the mud to water. It is these two characteristics, and its
increase viscosity were gradually refined makeup of very small particles that have a
until one type of clay was found to be ideal. huge total surface area, that govern its
This clay was Wyoming bentonite. It pro- chemical and physical reaction in drilling
duced the maximum viscosity for muds.
Montmorillonite
Clay structure consists of fine-grained other clays (Fig. 6.8). The crystal lattice
materials which, when dispersed in water, structure consists of sheets of atoms that
form particles of around 2 or less. These are much thinner and are more readily sep-
particles remain in suspension in the water, arable in water than those of other clays.
forming colloids. Thus, montmorillonite clays exhibit a
much larger surface area when added to
Montmorillonite. The structure of mont- water than do other clays. This is especially
morillonite is unique when compared with true for Na-montmorillonite.
Aluminum
+ - Silica
+ - + - + -
+ + + + + + Cations
Montmorillonite Hydration water
Silica
Aluminum
Silica
Silica + Water
Aluminum
Silica
Silica
Aluminum
Silica
Silica
Aluminum
Silica
Clay particles can associate in three ways: neutralize the charges on the platelets, with
face-to-face, edge-to-edge, or edge-to-face, the result that particles no longer associate
depending on the chemical balance. The edge-to-edge-to-face; the mud has been
linking of particles in these ways may pro- deflocculated. An example of a defloccu-
ceed simultaneously, or one type may lating chemical is lignosulphonate. Only a
predominate. Face-to-face association, or small concentration of this chemical is
aggregation, merely leads to the formation needed to fully deflocculate a low solids
of thicker plates or packets. This decreases content mud, since there is a relatively
the number of individual particles and small area on the edge of the plates where
decreases the viscosity. lignosulphonates are absorbed. Chrome
lignites are used to deflocculate muds in
Divalent exchange cations can cause aggre- high-temperature situations where ligno-
gation. This is observed when gypsum is sulphonates are ineffective.
added to a hydrated bentonite suspension.
After an initial increase in the viscosity
Salt clay. The effect of positively charged
(due to flocculation), the suspension will
ions, such as Ca, is to flocculate bentonite
thin to some value of viscosity that is lower
muds by disturbing the balance of charges
than the original viscosity of the suspen-
in the bentonite suspension. The presence
sion. Dispersion, the reverse of aggrega-
of negatively charged ions, such as chlo-
tion, leads to a greater number of particles
rides, will also reduce the efficiency of
and higher viscosity. Clay platelets are nor-
these types of drilling fluids by a similar
mally aggregated before they are hydrated
mechanism.
and, as they hydrate, some dispersion takes
place. The degree of dispersion depends on
the electrolyte content of the water, time, If the mud is to be mixed in salt water, ben-
temperature, the exchangeable cations on tonite will not economically provide
the clay, and the clay concentration. adequate viscosity. Also, if large salt sec-
tions will be drilled, bentonite will be
Edge-to-edge or edge-to-face association is flocculated by the salt, giving poor rheol-
a flocculation process that forms a house ogy. However, salt clay, or attapulgite, can
of cards structure. This also increases the be mixed and will provide viscosity in the
viscosity. Particle linking is governed by presence of strong electrolytes such as salt.
the forces acting on them and the availabil-
ity of particles to be linked. Anything that The structure of attapulgite consists of nee-
reduces the repelling forces between parti- dle-shaped particles of hydrous magnesium
cles, or shrinks the absorbed water layer aluminum silicate. The structure requires
(such as adding a limited quantity of diva- shearing to provide viscosity, although it
lent cations, or high temperatures) will will not provide control of filtration or
promote flocculation. water loss. If attapulgite muds are used,
some additional fluid loss control agent
Note that divalent cations (such as Ca when will be required. The most cost-effective
gypsum is added) will cause the clays to materials are starches or carboxyl methyl-
aggregate. Certain chemicals added to mud cellulose (CMC).
6-14
Mud: Clay Chemistry
Yield. The yield of a clay is defined as the general, there is little change in the viscos-
number of barrels of 15-cp mud that can be ity for large additions of clays until a
produced from 1 ton of dry clay by adding viscosity of 15 cp is reached, after which
fresh water. Fig. 6.9 shows the yield vs. there is a large increase in viscosity for
viscosity curves for a range of muds. In small increases in solids content.
60 A B C D
Viscosity in Centipoise 50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Percentage Solids by Weight Specific Gravity of Solids = 2.4
200 100 75 50 40 30 25 20 18 16 14 12 10 9 8
Yield (15 Centipoise Mud) in Barrels Per Ton
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30
Percentage Solids by Volume
10 20 30 40 50 75 100 150 200 250
Solids in Pounds Per Barrel of Mud
Fig. 6.9. Yield curves for four different clays (A through D).
Clays have an essential role to play in the hydrate the clay with fresh water and then
formulation of drilling fluids. Where there add salty water to the slurry. The overall
is no excessive formation pressure to coun- yield will be less than if just fresh water
terbalance, a low-solids, high-viscosity had been used, but an improved yield will
mud with good fluid loss control can be be achieved over that obtained by hydrating
achieved by adding high-yielding bentonite with only salty water.
to fresh water. A yield in excess of 90 bbl/
ton can be anticipated. However, if the Due to its plate-like structure, bentonite is a
makeup water contains salts or certain ions, perfect medium for deposition on the bore-
there is a marked reduction in the yield. hole wall surface, where it forms a thin,
This is caused by the cations in the makeup compressible filter cake, minimizing fluid
water that neutralize the negatively charged loss into the formation.
platelets and thus restrain them from sepa-
rating and absorbing water. One way of Attapulgite is much better suited for mix-
partially overcoming this problem is to pre- ing with salt water and gives a similar
6-15
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Rheology
Introduction
It is vital that you understand the quality of moves relative to an adjoining layer is
a drilling fluid under a wide range of oper- known as the shear rate.
ating conditions, and that you can control
the various parameters of the fluid to
ensure that it performs effectively. The For a simple fluid like water or glycerine,
drilling fluid viscosity is one such parame- shear stress is proportional to shear rate, as
ter. The science of flow and deformation of illustrated in Fig. 6.10. Such liquids are
fluids is known as rheology. classified as Newtonian. The slope of the
graph is a constant K, and since shear stress
As a fluid flows through a pipe, there is a is proportional to shear rate, it can be
layer of fluid adjacent to the pipe wall that written:
is stationary. As the point of reference
moves from the pipe wall, the velocity
increases and attains a maximum at the shear stress = K x shear rate
centerline of the pipe. The force required to
move a unit area of a layer of liquid with ss
respect to an adjacent layer is known as the K = ----- = vis cos ity
sr
shear stress. The rate at which one layer
Ss
Ss = Shear stress
Sr = Shear rate
K
Sr
6-16
Mud: Rheology
Non-Newtonian fluids
Ss
Ss = Shear stress
Sr = Shear rate
Sr
Ss
Ss = Shear stress
Sr = Shear rate
Sr
In the field, a simple test to determine vis- The resultant measurement is known as
cosity is to pour a mud sample into a Marsh funnel viscosity and is a quick test per-
Funnel and note the number of seconds it formed routinely by drilling crews (see
takes for a quart of mud to pass through it. page 6-4).
6-17
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
A more accurate instrument for measuring Because of the complexity of drilling fluids
a range of apparent viscosity is the Fann and the range of apparent viscosity that can
VGM, which is also described on page 6-4. be determined for various shear rates, a
mathematical model became necessary to
You can determine apparent viscosity in more accurately forecast the viscosity pro-
centipoise units by applying a simple for- file over a range of shear rates, given
mula to the observed readings. a minimum of basic data.
Ss
1 = Bingham YP
1 2 = Transition from plastic
to viscous flow
2 3 = Plug flow
4 = True yield
3
A = Plastic
4
B = Newtonian
B
Sr
6-18
Mud: Rheology
PV. PV is a measure of the viscosity pro- with soda ash, thus lowering the YP. In
duced by mechanical friction of the solids some cases, where the contaminant cannot
and particles present in the mud once the easily be removed by precipitation (such as
mud is flowing, plus the shearing effect of with Cl contamination) water can be added
the liquid phase. to reduce its concentration, but this action
will also lower mud weight, so great care
As solids are ground down in size, their should be exercised.
surface area increases and adds to the vis-
cosity of the mixture. To maintain an ideal
viscosity, drilled solids should be removed Gel strength. Gel strength is a measure of
at the surface by settling or mechanical sol- the electrochemical attractive forces
ids control. This subject is discussed in present in a static liquid. A typical drilling
detail later in this chapter (page 6-26). The fluid has a tendency to gel when allowed to
mud viscosity should be maintained at a stand for a while. This feature is very
sufficient level to carry cuttings to the sur- important as it allows cuttings to be held in
face and hold weighting agents in suspension when circulation is stopped.
suspension. However, excessive gel strength can cause
problems, such as:
n = 3.32 log10 x 600/300 Equation 2 Fig. 6.14 shows a comparison between the
Bingham plastic model, Power Law model,
n = Power Law Index (no units) and actual curves for shear stress/shear
rate. All three curves closely follow each
other until the lower shear rates (i.e., annu-
K = 5.11 x 300/511n Equation 3 lar shear rates) are encountered.
Ss
30
1 Fig. 6.14. Comparison of
Bingham and Power Law
models.
3
20 2 1 = Bingham plastic model
2 = Actual mud
3 = Power Law model
10
Sr
50 100 150
6-20
Mud: Rheology
n index. In the Power Law formula, n is a across a pipe, as indicated in Fig. 6.15. A
measure of the non-Newtonian behavior fluid with a parabolic velocity graph
that a fluid shows over a range of shear (where n = 1 in Fig. 6.15) has very poor
rates. In the case of a Newtonian liquid hole-cleaning characteristics, since cuttings
such as water, oil, or glycerine, the n value tend to move and collect in areas of low
= 1. Such liquids have a velocity profile velocity.
1 A B
200
160
120 n = 1.0
n n = 0.667
Ss = KSr n = 0.5
n = 0.25
80 n = 0.125
40
2
0
3 4 5 6
The flatter characteristic produced by liq- Table 6.1. Approximate n values of standard
uids with n values less than 1 have field muds.
excellent hole-cleaning characteristics (low Approxi-
shear rates in the annulus give high annular n value mate Mud type
viscosity, enabling cuttings to be carried to PV/YP
the surface). n is generally reduced by add- 1 0/0 Water
Weighed, dispersed
ing a viscosifier such as XC Polymer. bentonite mud contain-
0.70.8 30/15
Reducing the n value produces a more ing a high proportion
of drilled solids
pseudoplastic liquid that makes it more
Low-weight, dis-
shear thinning. This characteristic leads to persed bentonite mud
0.60.7 25/20
a lower viscosity at the bit (an area of high containing few drilled
solids
shear), which promotes increased penetra- Non-dispersed bento-
0.50.6 20/20
tion rates. Conversely, in areas of low nite/polymer mud
shear, such as in the annulus, the viscosity Non-dispersed poly-
0.40.5 10/20 mer mud
will increase, thereby improving the carry- 0.20.3 5/20 Water/xanthum gum
ing capacity of the mud. See Table 6.1 for
approximate n values of various muds.
6-21
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Ss
1
n Fig. 6.16. Power Law on log-
log paper.
K
Log Sr
300 600
One shortcoming of the standard Power Of the three models discussed, the Modi-
Law model is that it does not allow for yield fied Power Law most closely represents the
stress; i.e., the initial resistance encoun- characteristics of the majority of drilling
tered in a fluid before flow is established. muds over the whole range of shear rates.
In the Modified Power Law, yield stress is
included and is expressed as follows: Slip velocity. Slip velocity is the rate at
which cuttings settle in a stationary fluid. It
Ss = Ys + KSrn Equation 6 follows that as cuttings are being trans-
ported up the annulus, the mean velocity of
where Ys is yield stress. the particles or cuttings will be the differ-
ence between the mud annular velocity and
The yield stress is calculated from the read- the slip velocity, expressed as:
ings of a Fann VGM rotating at 300 rotary
speed; i.e., the 10-sec gel reading. Vp = Va - Vs Equation 7
6-22
Mud: Rheology
The slip velocity can be estimated using the ((3n + 1)/4n))(n/(2-n)) Equation 11
following equation:
The average velocity of mud inside the drill
Vs = 113.4 x (PD(pp - p)/Kfp)1/2 pipe is given by:
Equation 8
V = 24.5Q/(ID)2
For a particle Reynolds number above
2000, Kf is a constant at 1.5. For particle
Reynolds numbers below 2000 (i.e., for The pressure loss in the drill pipe with mud
most routine solutions): in turbulent flow is:
Reynolds number
The normally accepted flow patterns for The pressure losses in turbulent flow are
various Reynolds numbers are as follows: directly proportional to the Fanning friction
factor, f, (a dimensionless number), which
Nr < 2000laminar flow is in turn related to the Reynolds number
(also dimensionless) given by the following
2000 < Nr < 3000transition from equation.
laminar to turbulent flow
Nr > 3000turbulent flow. (Annulus) NR = 15.47(Dh - Dp)pVa/
Equation 15
It should be noted that Equations 11, 11b,
12, and 14 were developed assuming that
the mud flow pattern changes from laminar where is given by Equation 10.
to turbulent at a Reynolds number of 3000.
f is then found (usually graphically) and the
If this assumption is not correct, a new set annular pressure losses are calculated using
of equations needs to be developed for the following formula:
pressure losses in turbulent flow for both
the annulus and inside the drill pipe (the
pressure loss equations for laminar flow are PA = pVa2Lf/(93000 (Dh-Dp))
unchanged). Equation 16
Filtration
Normally, the hydrostatic pressure exerted into the formation is called filtrate, and the
by the mud in the borehole is maintained loss of filtrate from the mud is called fluid
above that of the formation pressure to pre- loss or filtration.
vent the formation fluids from passing into
the borehole. This positive differential
Controlling fluid loss and building a tough,
pressure from the borehole to the formation
thin filter cake are vital when drilling a
will, in a newly exposed section of bore-
well. Some problems that can occur as a
hole, cause an initial spurt of mud into the
result of excessive fluid losses are:
formation if it is porous and permeable.
Assuming that the distribution of particle unnecessarily thick filter cake, leading
sizes in the drilling fluid is such that the to potential stuck pipe and swab and
pores in the formation can be bridged by surge problems during trips
suitably sized particles, the bridge will then
build up by additional particles, forming loss of fluid and expensive chemicals
the porous layer of filter cake. (If the for- into the formation
mation is impermeable to the passage of
drilling fluid, then no filter cake can form.) unstable wellbore with the possibility
The fluid that passes through the filter cake of cave-ins.
There are two types of filtration encoun- Dynamic filtration is the filtration that
tered when drilling a well: static filtration occurs when the mud is flowing. Due to the
and dynamic filtration. Static filtration is the erosive effect of the moving mud, less filter
filtration that occurs when the mud is not cake is deposited under dynamic conditions
moving. This type of filtration normally than during static conditions. A state of bal-
results in an increased rate of filter cake ance is reached when the rate of filter cake
deposition. deposition and the effects of erosion are
6-24
Mud: Filtration
equal, resulting in a uniform cake thickness Other parameters that affect the rate of fil-
and a steady fluid loss. ter cake deposition are time and the mud
composition (pressure and temperature are
also factors, but not applicable to HDD).
Time
After the initial spurt of mud has filtered t1 = time interval for fluid loss Q1
into the formation, the volume of filtrate Q in min
passing through the filter cake is directly
proportional to the square root of the time t t2 = time interval for fluid loss Q2
in seconds. By using the following formula in min
on observed laboratory tests, you can pre-
dict fluid losses: For example, if the fluid loss is 4 cm3 after
7.5 min, the calculated fluid loss Q2 after
t 30 min will be:
Q 2 = Q 1 ---2
t1
30
Q 2 = 4 -------
where: 7.5
Permeability of the filter cake is largely a ture. Under compression, these platelets are
function of the size, shape, and distribution progressively spread within the filter cake,
of solid particles. Larger spherical particles thereby reducing its permeability.
tend to compact and create incompressible
filter cakes. Colloidal particles below 2 If a mud is flocculated, it will be necessary
give a better control of permeability. The to adequately disperse it to achieve a thin,
best results are obtained with bentonite compressible filter cake. Filtrate can easily
because of its colloidal, platelet-like struc- pass around flocculated groups of particles.
Clays. The fundamental fluid loss control Regular bentonite treatments are necessary
agent for most water-based drilling fluids is when solids control equipment is being
bentonite with a wide distribution of parti- used, because some smaller particle sizes
are removed with the larger drilled solids.
cle sizes down to less than 1 . The
colloidal, platelet-like structure is per-
Starch. Starch is a very popular mud addi-
fectly adapted to the production of a
tive that reduces fluid loss. In warm water,
compressible filter cake, and is further the starch expands and absorbs some of the
assisted by the water of hydration sur- water, forming small, amorphous masses
rounding each molecule. that plug the passages in the filter cake.
6-25
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Solids Control
Introduction
Controlling and removing drilled cuttings drilling reactive shales containing Na-
from the circulating mud is very important montmorillonite, because as the particles
in all drilling operations. A correctly hydrate, disperse, and then flocculate, there
designed system must be able to process is a significant increase in viscosity.
the full flow of mud from the hole at all
times. Since the particles sizes can vary Some mud systems display a better toler-
from colloidal clays of less than 2 up to ance to solids content than others, as
rocks weighing a few pounds, a range of illustrated in Fig. 6.9. Mud A has a constant
specialized equipment is necessary to meet viscosity with an increasing solids content
this requirement. until the critical point is reached, after
which, for a small increase in solids con-
The primary objective of any solids control tent, there is a disproportionately large
program is to remove all the cuttings on the increase in viscosity. Mud D displays simi-
first circulation. If this is not achieved and lar characteristics, but because it has a
cuttings are recycled, they will be ground greater solids tolerance, the increase in vis-
by the drill bit into progressively smaller cosity due to increased solids content is
particles until they cannot be effectively delayed relative to Mud A.
removed by the solids control equipment.
When these fine solids below 2 accumu- All muds will follow this characteristic
late in the mud, they give rise to high curve, and unless the solids content is
viscosity, poor filtration, and increased reduced by removal or dilution, they will
chemical treatment and dilution costs. The reach their own critical point and become
condition is particularly exacerbated when unpumpable.
6-26
Mud: Solids Control
The first indication of a solids problem will solids content, and suitable for use on a
often be an increase in flow line viscosity. weighted mud, is by solids retort. This
There are two methods of estimating the method produces results that are approxi-
solids content of a mud. The first is with a mate at best, since this instrument was
nomograph, as shown in Fig. 6.17. How- designed to measure oil and not solids. The
ever, remember that this nomograph is not solids measured in this way include soluble
suitable when the mud is weighted with salts, barite, commercial chemicals, and the
barite. The second method of measuring drilled solids.
0 120
220 24
25 000 200 22 115
180 20
160 18
50 000 16 110
140
14
120
12
75 000 100 105
10
80 8
60 6
100 000 100
40 4
20 2
125 000 0 0 95
(lb/bbl)
(Volume %)
150 000 90
175 000 85
200 000 80
)
e nt
nt
/g ht
m
de
um te
te
(lb ig
)
pp
%
al
In
e
ol on
on
t(
w
en
c
sc
ud
il
nt
lid
O
M
(v
co
So
e
rid
lo
Ch
6-27
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Fig. 6.18 shows mud weight vs. percent a mud weight of 12 lb/gal, the solids con-
solids content and indicates the range of tent can vary from 13 to 27.5%. The ideal
percent solids content that can be present operating zone is in the shaded area.
for a given mud weight. For example, with
60
50
Percent solids
40
10
0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Mud weight (ppg)
Fig. 6.19 shows a possible solids size dis- any chain is as strong as its weakest link, it
tribution in a mud prior to being processed is essential that each separating device
by solids control equipment. The effective operate efficiently at full flow conditions.
operating range of each of the commonly Failure to meet this requirement will result
available separating devices is shown. The in increased mud costs because of the addi-
solids removal system can be compared to tional dilution required to maintain mud
a chain composed of numerous links. Since properties.
5
100
80
3 Fig. 6.19. Particle size
distribution.
Percent solids
60
1 = Desilter
2 = Centrifuge
40
2 3 = Desander
4 = Screens
1
20 5 = Screens
0
0 2 20 50 100 200 500 1000
Particle size ()
6-28
Mud: Solids Control
Table 6.2 illustrates the range of cuttings fication, and the equipment best suited for
that are typically encountered, their classi- their removal.
The standard used for measuring particle required on a typical onshore or offshore
size is the micron, which is a thousandth of drilling rig is covered in the following
a millimeter or 1/25,400 of an inch. The sections.
level of mechanical separation equipment
Shale shakers
This is the first and most important solids aration, reducing screen life, and increasing
control device that the return mud encoun- mud losses.
ters. Normally, you will have two or three
shale shakers onsite and they should be
Position of vibrator. The vibrator on multi-
capable of handling at least 1300 gal/min
ple deck shakers is generally balanced at
of weighted drilling mud through 20- or
the center of gravity, thus imparting a cir-
30-mesh screens. Shakers are classified by cular vibratory motion. This greatly
screen arrangement, location of vibrator, improves cuttings transport down the
capacity, and screen type. screen. In the case of a vibrator located
above the screen, the motion is less regular
and this aggravates the buildup of cuttings
Screen arrangement. For most soft-rock
on the discharge end of the screen.
drilling, the multiple deck arrangement of
parallel screens is preferred. This allows
you to use very coarse 12-, 20-, or 30-mesh Screen type. The type of screen support is
screens on top to remove the larger cut- another important feature to consider when
tings, cavings or mud balls. This reduces selecting shale shakers. The bottom-sup-
the load on the fine screens below, which ported system used on most rig shakers is
improves separation efficiency and stronger than the top-supported system. If
increases screen life. you use fine mesh screens, you will also
need a backup screen of coarse plastic or
stainless steel mesh. The shaker screens
In more hostile offshore environments, made to API specifications have square
older styles of shakers installed on floating openings, although rectangular-shaped
rigs have proved to be very inefficient, and openings permit the use of heavier gauge
large volumes of mud have been lost wire with resulting improvements in screen
because of the rig pitching during bad life. A slight decrease in separation effi-
weather. The screens of these older-design ciency will be experienced with rectangular
shakers were prone to binding with larger screens, but this is offset by the increased
cuttings and mud balls, thus impeding sep- fluid capacity of these screens.
6-29
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
Screen selection is largely a matter of expe- Table 6.3. Mesh size and equivalent US
rience. A good guideline is to use the screen grade.
finest-mesh screen that will give minimum Mesh size US screen
mud losses. See Table 6.3 for commonly () grade
available mesh sizes.
762 20
541 30
381 40
234 60
177 80
104 150
74 200
44 325
Sand traps
Sand traps or settling pits are included in trying to close the dump valve with an
this section because of their vital impor- accumulation of sand on the seat. Drilling
tance in the chain of solids control is not paused when the mud engineer clears
equipment. Anyone who has struggled to this blockage and, consequently, large
dump several feet of accumulated silt and quantities of clean mud can be lost when
sand from these traps will appreciate their circulation is prematurely resumed. Ideally,
importance. you should clean out these tanks during a
round trip when more time is available.
Sand traps should have as large an area as
possible and should not be used as suction
compartments, as this disturbs the settling During periods of high penetration, check
action of the solids. The base of the tanks the tanks more frequently and dump as
should be angled at about 45 toward a required to avoid solids contamination of
large dump valve. These tanks should not the mud. In this case, you should stop all
be dumped during connections unless it is drilling and circulation and do not resume
unavoidable, as difficulties can occur when until the dump gates are properly sealed.
Desander
Removing solids by gravity settling has used, the principle remains the same and is
long been an accepted practice in the indus- governed by Stokes Law, which states that
try. The methods vary from normal gravity the settling rate of a solid above clay size is
settling pits or ponds, to cone-type a function of the acceleration due to grav-
mechanical equipment where higher gravi- ity, particle size, specific gravity of the
tational forces are developed to improve particle, specific gravity of the liquid
settling (Fig. 6.20). Whatever method is phase, and viscosity of the liquid phase.
6-30
Mud: Solids Control
2 5
1 6
9
10
11
6-31
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
For any given mud, one of the parameters either discard colloidal material or recover
that can be changed to increase the settling barite.
rate is the acceleration due to gravity in
mechanical cone-type equipment: The whirling stream of mud entering near
the top of the cone is directed downward
Vs = 2GD2(Pc - Pm)/92.6 toward the apex of the cone (and under-
flow) by a vortex finder extending into the
cone body from the top. The larger and
where:
heavier particles settle to the outside by
centrifugal force and migrate down the
Vs = settling velocity (ft/sec)
cone to the underflow, where they are dis-
G = acceleration due to gravity carded. The smaller, lighter particles and
the liquid fraction reverse their direction,
(ft/sec2) moving up the vortex finder pipe and back
D = largest cutting diameter (in.) into the mud system.
Desilter
Generally, a 4-in. cone is used for desilting. thinner filter cake in water-based drill-
It is important to link the cones in parallel ing fluids, minimizing the possibility
so that their capacity can match the volume of differential wall sticking
of mud being circulated.
reduced drill pipe torque due to better
filter cake characteristics
In a well-designed 4-in. cone, the median
cut is about 40 . It is very important in reduced amount of water dilution
desilting not to get a cut low enough to required for solids control, minimizing
remove the finer clays, which contribute to the amount of chemical additions,
good wall-building characteristics in the especially where low weights and fluid
mud. loss control are important
minimum mud weights with less liquid
Some important advantages to the proper loss than is possible by discarding
desilting of drilling fluids are: whole mud
6-32
Mud: Solids Control
longer bit life obtained by removing increased parts life on mud pumps and
abrasive drilled solids and sand related equipment.
increased penetration rates
Mud cleaner
Mud cleaners are of particular value when The mud cleaners are an excellent solids
drilling large-diameter holes with weighted control tool and will result in considerable
drilling muds. The desilter will perform an savings if you give careful attention to their
efficient job in removing the sand- and silt- installation and continued operation. A
sized particles that pass through the pri- capacity of 800 to 900 gal/min is required
mary shale shaker. However, the desilter
of any mud cleaner to be effective. How-
may discharge large amounts of the
coarsely ground fraction of barite and liq- ever, like all other hydrocyclone equip-
uid mud, so using it may get expensive. ment, they are susceptible to alternations in
the feed pressure to the cones.
The mud cleaner passes the underflow
from the cones through a vibrating screen.
If the shakers are bypassed for any reason,
All of the liquid is returned to the active
mud system, while the drilled solids are the accumulation of large cuttings will rap-
discharged. The median particle size cut is idly plug the cones and render them
determined by the grade of screen mesh inoperative. This must be avoided. You
used. If screen life is acceptable, the should pay particular attention to ensure
200-mesh screen is preferred. that the shakers are not bypassed.
Centrifuges
The decanting centrifuge also works on the You should use a centrifuge on a weighted
same principle as the hydrocyclone, except mud system when you observe increases in
that the cone is installed in the horizontal viscosity and gel strength. However, if the
plane and rotates at high speed (Fig. 6.21). fine particles are removed by the centri-
Inside the cone, a screw conveyor mounted fuge, you will have problems with fluid
on a hollow spindle is installed. The con- loss control and will need to add fresh
veyor rotates in the same direction as the chemicals. In certain mud systems, you
outer cone but at a slightly lower speed. need to compensate for this loss to main-
Mud is injected through the hollow spindle tain mud parameters, and add bentonite to
of the conveyor, where it is thrown outward restore the wall-building quality of the
into the annular ring of mud called the mud.
pond. The level of the pond is determined
by the height of the discharge ports at the
larger flanged end of the cone. As solids The dilution water added at the centrifuge
settle against the inner wall of the cone is discharged with the rest of the effluent,
because of centrifugal force, the action of but treatment will be required to maintain
the screw conveyor pushes them along the the original balance of the system.
cone toward the smaller end. They are dis-
charged at the small end as dried particles,
while the liquid is discharged at the larger The operation of the centrifuge can be
flanged end through the discharge port. changed such that in the case of an
unweighted mud, or an inhibitive or oil-
It is important when operating the centri- based mud where the liquid phase is very
fuge to dilute the mud with water at a expensive, the liquid discharge can be
predetermined rate to reduce the viscosity saved and the underflow discarded. In this
and maintain the separation efficiency of case, the only liquid loss is that adhered to
the machine. the underflow solids.
6-33
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
2 3
@@@@@@@@@@@@
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1
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5 4
1 Feed in
2 Bowl rotates, creating high centrifugal force
3 Conveyor rotates same direction as bowl, but at slightly
lower speed to convey coarse solids
4 Coarse solids discharge (underflow)
5 Clay liquid discharge (effluent)
6-34
Appendix A: Units and Abbreviations
A-2
Appendix B: Glossary
back reaming enlarging the hole from the exit side of the crossing
ball up clay material filling all the areas between the reamer teeth
or cutter blades, so that the inserts make no contact with
the formation
Barlow formula formula used for calculating hoop stress
barrel reamer reamer with a center shaft mounted concentrically in a
cylinder of pipe with a wide range of diameters and
lengths
beam solid with a length at least five times its height
bentonite sodium montmorillonite; expandable clay material that
can absorb large quantities of water
Bingham plastic model mathematical model to express plastic flow
bottom limit horizontal line denoting the base of the maximum allow-
able ground cover above a pipeline
bottoms up measure of the time required to displace a known quan-
tity of fluid from the bottom of a hole to the surface
breakover bend through which the pipe must pass from its horizon-
tal position on the rollers to its alignment with the hole
(also: overbend)
bullet-nose reamer same as a barrel reamer, only with weld cap ends
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
catenary path that the pipe must follow to limit the stresses in the
pipe and load on the cranes or sidebooms
cation atom that has acquired a positive charge by losing an
electron
centralizer tool run in front of the primary cutter to hold the cutting
assembly up in the center of the hole
chisel teeth used when encountering cobbles or boulders embedded
in normal soils
Class Location class of a pipeline section as per applicable code
colloid particle 2 m or less in size
compound material made up of two or more different kinds of atoms
compressive stress measure of the maximum compression of a material
before it experiences failure
Construction Type type of construction for a pipeline section
conventional hole opener cast hole opener designed for use in rock; has a center
shaft with three to six arms onto which are mounted
roller cones
core buster set of blades in front of the hole opener designed to keep
rock pieces from accumulating in the hole opener, and to
centralize the hole opener
cradle pipeline roller attached to lifting equipment
critical velocity velocity of a fluid at which there is a transition from one
flow pattern to another
cutter sets numbered teeth sets that are fitted onto hole openers
cuttings formation materials removed from the hole and sus-
pended in the drilling fluid
B-2
Glossary
elastic instability collapse of a body even though the load applied to the
body does not create stresses in excess of yield
elastic limit maximum stress under which a specimen may be sub-
jected and return to its original length upon load release
electron part of an atom with a negative electrical charge
element material made up of a single atom, or atoms of only one
kind
entry angle angle of entry of drilling tool into the ground; maximum
of 18 and minimum of 6
entry point point where the drill pipe enters the ground in front of the
rig
entry side side where drilling tool enters the ground
equivalent weight an atoms atomic weight divided by the charge of the ion
it forms during dissociation
exclusion area area delimited by vertical lines from the banks and the
lowest of river bottom, scour level and dredging area,
plus minimum pipeline cover
exit angle angle of pipeline exit from the ground; maximum of 12
and minimum of 4
exit point target expressed in distance from entry, elevation, and a
position left or right or directly on a centerline
Fann Viscom device used to measure fluid viscosity (also: Fann VGM)
filter cake lining on the wall of the bored pathway
filtrate fluid that passes through the filter cake into the formation
filtration loss of filtrate from the mud (also: fluid loss)
fishing retrieving tools from the hole following a tool failure
floater blunt-nosed assembly on the end of the drill string; used
to push the assembly through a pre-reamed pathway
without sidetracking
flocculation process of clay particle association, arranged either edge-
to-edge or edge-to-face
fly cutter reaming device that has a center shaft with three or four
spokes
forward reaming enlarging a hole from the entry side
fragile gel gel with a small difference in readings between the 10-
sec and 10-min gel strengths; desirable gel condition
B-3
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
gravel shield reamer unconventional bottomhole assembly used for rock and
gravel crossings
ground pressure weight of the ground on top of the pipeline
G-Total accelerometer reading that detects movement of the
probe during forward and reverse current applications
inclination angle between the vertical and the axis of the borehole at
a chosen distance from entry
inside diameter internal diameter of a pipe
ion atom having given up or gained an electron that is no
longer at zero potential
B-4
Glossary
B-5
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
proportional limit on a strain vs. stress curve, the point at which the plot is
no longer linear
proton part of an atom with high mass and a positive electrical
charge
pullback pipeline installation
punchout point at which the drill string exits the ground
B-6
Glossary
static equilibrium when, at any point x, the moment of all forces applied to
a beam, either at the right or left of that point x, values
are equal
static filtration filtration that occurs when the mud is not flowing
Stokes Law states that the settling rate of a solid above clay size is a
function of the acceleration due to gravity, particle size,
specific gravity of the solids particle, specific gravity of
the liquid phase, and viscosity of the liquid phase
strain amount by which a dimension of a body changes when
the body is submitted to a load, divided by the original
value of the dimension
stress force per unit area
B-7
Horizontal Directional Drilling Training Program
water-based mud mud made up with water as the continuous liquid phase
wireline leak electrical drain not yet large enough to stop probe
operation
wireline open zero continuity between the interface and the probe
wireline short electrical spike causing the amp needle to move to maxi-
mum or blow the power fuse
yield (of a clay): the number of barrels of 15-cp mud that can
be produced from 1 ton of dry clay by adding fresh water
yield point measure of the electrochemical resistance to flow as a
result of the electrical interaction between the surface of
adjacent particles
yield stress initial resistance encountered in a fluid before flow is
established
Youngs modulus modulus of elasticity; ratio of unit stress to unit strain
within the proportional limit
B-8