392 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SUSTAINABLE ENERGY, VOL. 2, NO.

4, OCTOBER 2011

A Review of Hybrid Renewable/Alternative

Energy Systems for Electric Power Generation:
Configurations, Control, and Applications
Special Task Force of the IEEE PES Renewable Energy Technologies Subcommittee, Energy Development and
Power Generation Committee

M. H. Nehrir, C. Wang, K. Strunz, H. Aki, R. Ramakumar, J. Bing, Z. Miao, and Z. Salameh

AbstractThis paper, prepared by a special task force of the
IEEE PES Renewable Technologies Subcommittee, is a review of
hybrid renewable/alternative energy (RE/AE) power generation
systems focusing on energy sustainability. It highlights some
important issues and challenges in the design and energy manage-
ment of hybrid RE/AE systems. System configurations, generation
unit sizing, storage needs, and energy management and control
are addressed. Statistics on the current status and future trend of
renewable power generation, as well as some critical challenges
facing the widespread deployment of RE/AE power generation
technologies and vision for future research in this area are also
presented. The comprehensive list of references given at the end
of the paper should be helpful to researchers working in this area.
Index TermsEnergy management, energy storage, generation
unit sizing, hybrid energy systems, renewable power generation.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HIS century is expected to witness unprecedented growth
and challenges in power generation, delivery, and usage.
Environmentally friendly (renewable and clean alternatives)
power generation technologies will play an important role in
future power supply due to increased global public aware-
ness of the need for environmental protection and desire for
less dependence on fossil fuels for energy production. These
technologies include power generation from renewable energy
(RE) resources, such as wind, photovoltaic (PV), micro hydro
(MH), biomass, geothermal, ocean wave and tides, and clean
alternative energy (AE) power generation technologies [such as
fuel cells (FCs) and microturbines (MTs)]. RE/AE generation
sources often come in the form of customized distributed
Manuscript received September 18, 2010; revised January 06, 2011; accepted
March 29, 2011. Date of publication May 27, 2011; date of current version
September 21, 2011.
M. H. Nehrir is with Montana State University-Bozeman, Bozeman, MT
59717 USA.
C. Wang is with Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202 USA.
K. Strunz is with Technical University of Berlin, Berlin 10587, Germany.
H. Aki is with AIST, Tsukuba, 305-8569, Japan.
R. Ramakumar is with Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078
USA.
J. Bing is with NEO Virtus Engineering, Inc., Littleton, MA 01460 USA.
Z. Miao is with the University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620 USA.
Z. Salameh is with the University of Massachusetts, Lowell, MA 01854 USA.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSTE.2011.2157540
generation (DG) systems in grid-connected or standalone
configuration. FC and MT could also be considered renewable
power generation sources if their input fuel is obtained from
renewable sources. For instance, landfill gas has been used
to fuel MT, biomass can be gasified into Syngas and used as
fuel for MT and FC, or hydrogen fuel can be generated using
wind- or PV-generated electricity (through an electrolyzer) for
FC. Though not renewable, diesel generators and reciprocating
engines are also still commonly used for a wide range of power
applications, particularly in remote areas, and as backup energy
sources in some standalone systems such as a power source
for a remote telecommunication tower. The diesel engines
mature technology, relatively cheaper price, low fuel cost, and
high fuel efficiency have kept diesel generators in the market.
They are also reasonably fuel tolerant and can be considered
renewable power sources when fueled by renewable fuels such
as bio-fuel.
In general, the key drivers for the deployment of the above
energy systems are their perceived benefits, such as reduced
carbon emission, improved power quality and reliability, and in
some cases, combined heat-and-power (CHP) operation (e.g.,
for MT and FC), which will increase their overall system effi-
ciency significantly.
In the past half century, extensive research has been con-
ducted in the RE/AE area worldwide, including feasibility
studies, computer modeling, control, and experimental work,
e.g., [1][15]. As a result, the use of wind and PV power gener-
ation has become a reality and extensive work is underway on
other RE/AE generation technologies such as ocean wave and
tides, osmotic, geothermal, FC, and MT. Much work is also
needed on the more mature technologies and associated energy
storage schemes to improve their operational performance and
reliability.
Because of the intermittent nature of many RE resources
(e.g., wind, solar, ocean wave), hybrid combinations of two or
more of their relevant power generation technologies, along
with storage and/or AE power generation, can improve system
performance. For example, wind and solar energy resources in
a given area are somewhat complementary on a daily and/or
seasonalbasis.Ingeneral,hybridsystemsconvertalltheresources
into one form (typically electrical) and/or store the energy into
some form (chemical, compressed air, thermal, mechanical
flywheel, etc.), and the aggregated output is used to supply

1949-3029/$26.00 2011 IEEE

NEHRIR et al.: REVIEW OF HYBRID RE/AE SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
TABLE I
DIFFERENT RE/AE POWER GENERATION TECHNOLOGIES
AND ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES
a variety of loads. Hybridization could result in increased
reliability; however, proper technology selection and generation
unit sizing are essential in the design of such systems for
improved operational performance, and dispatch and operation
control [16][20].
Different generation sources may also help each other to
achieve higher total energy efficiency and/or improved perfor-
mance. For instance, a fuel cell/microturbine combined-cycle
system can better utilize the energy available in the fuel to
achieve a significantly higher overall system efficiency than
either source can possibly achieve [21][23], or the response
of an energy source with slower dynamic response (e.g., wind
or FC) can be enhanced by the addition of a storage device
with faster dynamics (such as a battery bank, supercapacitor,
or flywheel) to meet different types of load requirements, e.g.,
slowly varying loads and fast load transients [24][26].
Storage is an integral part of a hybrid RE/AE power gen-
eration system. Capacity-oriented energy storage technologies,
such as pumped hydroelectric systems, compressed air energy
storage (CAES), and hydrogen storage, generally do not have
fast response time and are used for long-term energy storage/re-
lease such as managing slow load variations. On the other hand,
access-oriented storage devices with fast response time, such as
batteries, flywheels, supercapacitors, and superconducting mag-
netic energy storage (SMES), are used for responding to short-
time disturbances, such as fast load transients and for power
quality issues. References [27] and [28] give a comprehensive
explanation of the performance, purpose, and promise of dif-
ferent storage technologies.
Table I gives a summary of different RE/AE power genera-
tion technologies and different energy storage schemes which
may be used in hybrid systems. Any combination of the RE/AE
power generation technologies, along with proper storage and
possibly combined with a conventional generation technology,
e.g., a diesel generator could form a hybrid energy system. For
example, a hybrid system could have any combination of wind,
PV, MH, MT, conventional diesel generator, storage battery, and
FC-electrolyzer hydrogen storage in grid-connected or stand-
alone configuration, often referred to as a microgrid.
The outputs from various generation sources of a hybrid en-
ergy system need to be coordinated and controlled to realize
their full benefits. Proper optimization techniques and control
strategies are needed for sizing and for power dispatch from
the energy sources to make the entire system sustainable to the
393
maximum extent, while facilitating maximum reduction in en-
vironmental emissions, and at the same time minimizing cost
of energy production. The optimization problem can, therefore,
be multiobjective, sometimes with conflicting objectives, and,
therefore, complex. In such cases, only a global optimal point, as
a trade-off between several local optimal points corresponding
to the different objectives, may be achieved. Such optimiza-
tion problems are difficult (if not impossible) to solve using
analytic techniques. Heuristic multiobjective optimization tech-
niques [29][31] and goal-oriented multiagent systems (MAS)
[32][34] have shown potential to solve such problems.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Hybrid
energy system configurations, unit sizing, and energy storage
systems are discussed in Section II. Energy management and
control are presented in Section III. Statistics on the current
status and future trends of renewable power generation and
sample applications of hybrid RE/AE systems and microgrids
around the world are given in Section IV. Section V presents
some critical challenges facing the widespread deployment of
RE/AE power generation technologies and vision for future
research in this area. Section VI concludes the paper.
II. HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
A. Integration Schemes
RE/AE sources have different operating characteristics; it
is, therefore, essential to have a well-defined and standardized
framework/procedure for connecting them to form a hybrid
system, or more widely a microgrid, where a local cluster of
DG sources, energy storage, and loads are integrated together
and capable of operating autonomously [35]. A robust micro-
grid should also have plug-and-play operation capability.
Adapted from the concept widely used in computer science and
technology, plug-and-play operation here means a device (a
DG, an energy storage system, or a controllable load) capable
of being added into an existing system (microgrid) without re-
quiring system reconfiguration to perform its designed function,
namely, generating power, providing energy storage capacity,
or carrying out load control. A suitable system configuration
and a proper interfacing circuit [also called power electronic
building block (PEBB)] may be necessary to achieve the
plug-and-play function of a DG system [36], [37].
There are many ways to integrate different AE power gen-
eration sources to form a hybrid system. The methods can be
generally classified into three categories: dc-coupled, ac-cou-
pled, and hybrid-coupled [38][41]. The ac-coupled scheme can
further be classified into power frequency ac (PFAC)-coupled
and high-frequency ac (HFAC)-coupled systems [42]. These
methods are briefly reviewed below.
1) DC-Coupled Systems: In a dc-coupled configuration,
shown in Fig. 1, the different AE sources are connected to a
dc bus through appropriate power electronic (PE) interfacing
circuits. The dc sources may be connected to the dc bus directly
if appropriate. If there are any dc loads, they can also be
connected to the dc bus directly, or through dc/dc converters,
to achieve appropriate dc voltage for the dc loads. The system
can supply power to the ac loads (50 or 60 Hz), or be interfaced
to a utility grid through an inverter, which can be designed and
394 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SUSTAINABLE ENERGY, VOL. 2, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2011

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a dc-coupled hybrid energy system.

controlled to allow bidirectional power flow. The dc-coupling

scheme is simple and no synchronization is needed to integrate
the different energy sources, but it also has its own drawbacks.
For instance, if the system inverter is out-of-service, then the
whole system will not be able to supply ac power. To avoid this
situation, it is possible to connect several inverters with lower
power rating in parallel, in which case synchronization of the
output voltage of the different inverters, or synchronization
with the grid, if the system is grid-connected, is needed. A
proper power sharing control scheme is also required to achieve Fig. 2. Schematic of ac-coupled hybrid energy system: (a) PFAC; (b) HFAC.
a desired load distribution among the different inverters [43].
2) AC-Coupled Systems: AC coupling can be divided into
two subcategories: PFAC-coupled and HFAC-coupled systems.
The schematic of a PFAC-coupled system is shown in Fig. 2(a),
where the different energy sources are integrated through their
own power electronic interfacing circuits to a power frequency
ac bus. Coupling inductors may also be needed between the
power electronic circuits and the ac bus to achieve desired
power flow management.
The schematic of an HFAC-coupled system is shown in
Fig. 2(b). In this scheme, the different energy sources are cou-
pled to an HFAC bus, to which HFAC loads are connected. This
configuration has been used mostly in applications with HFAC
(e.g., 400 Hz) loads, such as in airplanes, vessels, submarines,
and in space station applications [4], [44], [45]. Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of a hybrid-coupled hybrid energy system.
In both PFAC and HFAC systems, dc power can be obtained
through ac/dc rectification. The HFAC configuration can also
include a PFAC bus and utility grid (through an ac/ac or a dc/ac hand, if the main power sources generate ac (with reasonable
converter), to which regular ac loads can be connected. power quality for the grid and the connected loads), then an
3) Hybrid-Coupled Systems: Instead of connecting all the ac-coupled system is a good option. If the major power sources
DG sources to just a single dc or ac bus, as discussed previ- of a hybrid system generate a mixture of ac and dc power, then
ously, the different DG sources can be connected to the dc or ac a hybrid-coupled integration scheme may be considered. It is
bus of the hybrid system. Fig. 3 shows a hybrid-coupled system, worth mentioning that the power electronic interfacing circuits
where DG resources are connected to the dc bus and/or ac bus. in Figs. 2 and 3 can be made as modular building blocks, which
In this configuration, some energy sources can be integrated di- will give the systems more flexibility and scalability.
rectly without extra interfacing circuits. As a result, the system
can have higher energy efficiency and reduced cost. On the other B. Unit Sizing and Technology Selection
hand, control and energy management might be more compli- Component sizing of hybrid RE/AE systems is important and
cated than for the dc- and ac-coupled schemes. has been studied extensively, e.g., [7], [11], [16][18], and [46].
Different coupling schemes find their own appropriate appli- Selection of the most suitable generation technologies (i.e., suit-
cations. If major generation sources of a hybrid system generate able mix of RE/AE/conventional sources) for a particular ap-
dc power, and there are also substantial amounts of dc loads, plication is also equally important. Available application soft-
then a dc-coupled system may be a good choice. On the other ware can be used to properly select generation technologies
NEHRIR et al.: REVIEW OF HYBRID RE/AE SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
and their sizes for specific applications. For example, with the
aid of HOMER software, developed at the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL) [47], a hybrid RE/AE system can
be designed; and with the aid of the Distributed Energy Re-
source-Customer Adaption Model (DER-CAM) software, de-
veloped at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBL) [20],
[48], optimal technology selection for hybrid systems (to op-
erate as independent microgrids) can be achieved.
Unit sizing and technology selection can sometimes be as
straightforward as meeting certain simple requirements such as
using the available generation technology and not exceeding
the equipment power rating, or it can be as complex as sat-
isfying several constraints and achieving several objectives to
maximum extent at the same time. Normally, based on avail-
able statistical information about generation, load, financial pa-
rameters (e.g., interest rate), geographic factors, desired system
reliability, cost requirements, and other case-specific informa-
tion, generation technologies and their sizes can be optimized to
satisfy specific objective functions, such as minimizing environ-
mental impact, installation and operating costs, payback periods
on investment, and/or maximizing reliability. Power system op-
timization methods such as linear programming (LP) [49], in-
terior-point-method (IPM) [50], and heuristic methods such as
genetic algorithms and particle swarm optimization (PSO) can
be used for component sizing and energy management of hybrid
RE/AE systems [51][56]. These techniques are especially at-
tractive when multiple objectives are to be met, some of which
may be conflicting, e.g., minimizing cost, maximizing system
availability and efficiency, and minimizing carbon emission.
C. Storage
1) Storage Diversity: Storage technology is critical for en-
suring high levels of power quality and energy management
of stationary hybrid RE systems. The ideal storage technology
would offer fast access to power whenever needed, provide high
capacity of energy, have a long life expectancy, and is available
at a competitive cost. However, there is no energy storage tech-
nology currently available that can meet all these desirable char-
acteristics simultaneously. In this section, the different types of
energy storage devices and systems are covered without going
into the details of operation of any specific device. The opera-
tional performance and applications of energy storage devices
for advanced power applications (also, equally suited for hybrid
RE/AE power generation system applications) are, for example,
discussed in [27] and [28].
2) Storage Types: In analogy to data storage in computer en-
gineering, a classification in terms of access and capacity orien-
tation may also be considered for energy storage [57]. Among
the different types of storage given in Table I, supercapacitors,
flywheels, and SMES offer fast access to the stored energy,
have a very high cycle life of charge and discharge operations,
and very high round-trip efficiency on the order of 95%. How-
ever, the cost per unit of stored energy is also very high. There-
fore, all three technologies can be classified as access-oriented
and support power quality. The usage of SMES can here only
be economically justified for applications involving compara-
tively high levels of power. Batteries could also be classified
395
as high-power and/or high-energy types depending on their de-
sign. However, in general, their cycle life of charge/discharge
is shorter than the high-access energy storage devices explained
above.
A promising capacity-oriented energy storage technology is
the flow battery. In conventional batteries, chemical energy is
stored in reactants, placed near the electrodes inside the bat-
tery cell, but in flow batteries, chemical energy is stored in
the electrolyte solutions stored in two tanks outside the bat-
tery cell stacks. As the solution is pumped to circulate from
one storage tank, through a cell stack, to the second tank, ion
exchange takes place through the cell porous membrane, and
electrons flow through the load to generate electrical power.
Several different flow battery chemistries have been developed
for MW/MWh-level utility applications [58], [59]. The avail-
able electrolyte chemistries include zinc-bromine flow batteries
(ZBFB) and vanadium redox batteries (VRB). Other chemistries
are under development.
An advantage of flow batteries is that their power and en-
ergy capacity can be designed independently. A battery power
rating can be increased by increasing the cell area where en-
ergy conversion takes place, i.e., by increasing the number of
cell stacks, while its energy capacity can be increased by using
larger volume of electrolyte solutions in larger tanks. Further-
more, flow batteries can be stored and shipped completely dis-
charged as the reaction only takes place when the electrolyte
circulation pumps are turned ON.
Conventional lead-acid batteries are the least expensive for
hybrid energy system applications, but they suffer from a low
cycle life. Nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries and those
with sodium sulfur (NaS) chemistry offer significant improve-
ments over lead-acid batteries. Popular commercial applications
for Ni-MH batteries have included usage in hybrid electric ve-
hicles (HEVs) and distributed RE systems. NaS batteries have
been used in Japan in distributed energy systems and to firm
up wind energy in the grid on a large scale, up to 34 MW of
power and 245 MWh of energy [60]. The operating tempera-
ture of NaS batteries is of the order of 300 C to 350 C, which
does not make them attractive for mobile applications. This is in
contrast with zincbromine batteries that operate near ambient
temperature.
With increasing interest in electric vehicles, the development
of lithiumion batteries has received a significant boost. They
can be well designed as high-power or high-energy batteries.
While this is also possible for other battery chemistries, the
Liion type allows reaching particularly high power-to-weight
or high energy-to-weight densities. Compared with other com-
mercially available batteries, conventional Liion batteries
excel in performance with the exception of cost and life ex-
pectancy. Since the cost is relatively high, the main interest
relates to mobile applications. Through the vehicle-to-grid
(V2G) concept, Liion batteries are expected to appear as
active resources in distribution networks [61].
Hydrogen can serve as an energy carrier for capacity-ori-
ented energy storage. Hydrogen may be produced through elec-
trolysis, where water is split into its component parts of hy-
drogen and oxygen. The electrolysis can be powered from re-
newable sources. Hydrogen may also be derived through steam
396
TABLE II
CLASSIFICATION OF STORAGE FOR HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEMS
Fig. 4. Multilevel energy storage.
reforming from methane or natural gas. The amount of power
that can be provided from hydrogen depends on the size of the
fuel cell stacks. Hydrogen is flexible in that it can be stored in
tanks without disturbing self-discharging effects and can also be
used to fill the tanks of fuel cell cars quickly. In stationary appli-
cations that use electrolyzers to produce hydrogen and fuel cells
to generate electric power, the comparatively low round-trip ef-
ficiency is known to be a disadvantage.
Very popular in large-scale power systems is the usage of
pumped hydro energy storage. It relies on the availability of a
suitable geology and is, therefore, not considered further here.
Compressed air energy storage is also not considered for the
same reasons. In Table II, the storage types that can be consid-
ered for hybrid energy systems and have been discussed above
are classified. None of the technologies rely on local geology.
Whether a battery is designed for high-power or high-energy
depends on its intended application.
3) Multilevel Storage: In computer systems, the access-ori-
ented storage serves as a cache for the capacity-oriented storage.
This type of integration has allowed creating a storage system
that offers fast and frequent access to the stored medium through
the cache while also offering a high capacity of storage at a low
cost. The concept of cache control can also be designed for the
benefit of power and energy systems [57]. For the purpose of
illustration, a multilevel energy storage consisting of an access-
oriented storage serving as the cache for the parallel-connected
capacity-oriented storage is shown in Fig. 4 [62][64]. To make
sure that the access-oriented storage deals with fast fluctuations
of power, the cache control can be realized through filtering to
separate the high-frequency power fluctuations from the slowly
varying and steady-state power spectrum [64]. Alternatively,
knowledge-based control has been proposed for this purpose.
The knowledge-based system uses two neural networks to cap-
ture a set of rules [65].
While the system integration shown in Fig. 4 offers a high
level of performance in the design of hybrid energy systems, it
has been common practice to use just one storage technology.
Normally, batteries are used and designed for the intended
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SUSTAINABLE ENERGY, VOL. 2, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2011
Fig. 5. Illustration of a centralized control paradigm.
usage. For smaller-scale applications, as in single residential
hybrid energy systems, the Ni-MH battery technology would
be an appropriate candidate. For larger-scale applications
involving the compensation of power from wind farms or
multiple residences, flow batteries or NaS batteries have shown
to be practical in Japan. V2G concepts are most interesting
with Liion batteries [61].
III. CONTROLS AND ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Proper control of hybrid energy systems with multiple
RE/AE/conventional-DGs and energy storage (operating as
microgrids) is critical to achieving the highest system reliability
and operation efficiency [32]. Typically, a control (or energy
management) system needs to determine and assign active and
reactive output power dispatch of each energy source while
keeping its output voltage and frequency at the desired level.
Generally, the control structure of such systems can be classi-
fied into three categories; centralized, distributed, and hybrid
control paradigms. In all three cases, each energy source is
assumed to have its own (local) controller which can determine
optimal operation of the corresponding unit based on current
information. If multiple (and at times conflicting) objectives
need to be met, and all energy sources cannot operate optimally,
a compromised (global optimal) operating decision may be
achieved. A brief description of each control paradigm follows.
A. Centralized Control Paradigm
In a centralized control paradigm, the measurement signals
of all energy units in a group, i.e., a microgrid, are sent to a
centralized controller, as shown in Fig. 5. The centralized con-
troller acts as an energy supervisor [66], [67] and makes de-
cisions on control actions based on all measured signals and
a set of predetermined constraints and objectives. It will pri-
oritize and manage energy utilization among the various en-
ergy sources of the microgrid [68][70]. The objective functions
could be conflicting; for example, minimizing system operation
and maintenance costs and environmental impact (carbon foot-
print), and maximizing system efficiency at the same time may
be competing objectives and could make solving the problem
even more difficult. Often, multiobjective problems do not have
a single solution but a complete nondominated or Pareto set,
which includes the alternatives representing potential compro-
mise solutions among the objectives. This could make a range
of choices available to decision makers and provide them with
NEHRIR et al.: REVIEW OF HYBRID RE/AE SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
Fig. 6. Illustration of a distributed control paradigm.
the trade-off information among the multiple objectives effec-
tively [68].
The control signals are then sent to the corresponding energy
sources to output proper power. The advantage of this control
structure is that the multiobjective energy management system
can achieve global optimization based on all available infor-
mation. However, the scheme suffers from heavy computation
burden and is subject to single-point failures.
B. Distributed Control Paradigm
In a fully distributed control paradigm, the measurement sig-
nals of the energy sources of the hybrid system are sent to their
corresponding local controller, as shown in Fig. 6 [71][73].
The controllers communicate with one another to make com-
promised (Pareto) operating decisions and achieve global op-
timization. An advantage of this scheme is the ease of plug-
and-play operation. With this control structure, the computa-
tion burden of each controller is greatly reduced, and there are
no single-point failure problems; its disadvantage is still the
potential complexity of its communication system. Intelligent
(model-free) algorithms, such as fuzzy logic, neural networks,
genetic algorithms, and their hybrid combinations are potential
tools for solving such problems, e.g., [71][73].
A promising approach for distributed control problems is
the multiagent system (MAS) [34], [74]. MAS has been used,
for example, for power system integration, restoration, recon-
figuration, and power management of microgrids [32], [33],
[75][77]. An MAS may be distributed as coupled network of
intelligent hardware and software agents that work together to
achieve a global objective.
C. Hybrid Centralized and Distributed Control Paradigm
A more practical scheme, hybrid control paradigm, combines
centralized and distributed control schemes, as shown in Fig. 7
[78], [79]. The distributed energy sources are grouped within a
microgrid; centralized control is used within each group, while
distributed control is applied to a set of groups. With such a hy-
brid energy management scheme, local optimization is achieved
via centralized control within each group, while global coor-
dination among the different groups is achieved through dis-
tributed control. This way, the computational burden of each
controller is reduced, and single-point failure problems are mit-
igated.
A hybrid control scheme, called multilevel control frame-
work, is shown in Fig. 8 [78]. This scheme is similar to the hy-
brid control scheme discussed above with an additional super-
visory (strategic) control level. At the operational level, basic
decisions related to real-time operation are made, and actual
397
Fig. 7. Illustration of a hybrid centralized and distributed control paradigm.
Fig. 8. Illustration of a multilevel control approach to hybrid power systems.
control of each energy unit is performed based on the control
objective(s) of the unit very rapidly, e.g., within a millisecond
range. The tactical level aims to make operational decisions for
a group of local control units or the entire subsystem, with a rel-
atively higher time frame, e.g., in the range of seconds to min-
utes. Strategic decisions concerning the overall operation of the
system, e.g., system startup or shutdown, are made at the
top level [78]. Two-way communication exists among the dif-
ferent levels to execute decisions.
IV. CURRENT STATUS, FUTURE TREND, AND SAMPLE
APPLICATIONS OF RE GENERATION
In this section, a brief overview and growth statistics of past,
current, and projection into the future of renewable-based elec-
tricity generation along with some sample applications of hybrid
RE power generation systems around the world are presented.
A. Current Status and Future Trend of Renewable Power
Generation
RE/AE has been the fastest growing source of electricity
generation around the world in the past decade. According to
the projection of the U.S. Energy Information Administration
(EIA), nonhydro renewable power generation will continue its
growth well into the future. Fig. 9 shows the history, current
trend, and future projection profiles of nonhydro renewable
generation worldwide compared to total renewable and total
electricity generation [80]. Fig. 10 shows the corresponding
percentages of nonhydro renewable and total renewable genera-
tion over the total electricity generation in the same time period
shown in Fig. 9 [81]. According to these figures, nonhydro
renewable generation has had swift growth in the past decade.
398
Fig. 9. History and future projection profiles of world renewable generation
and the total electricity generation [80], [81].
Fig. 10. Percentage of world renewable generation over the total electricity
generation [80], [81].
This growth is expected to continue in the next two decades.
The nonhydro renewable electricity generation increased by
more than 220% in eight years, from 240 billion kWh in 2000
to 535 billion kWh in 2008, resulting in an annual increase of
10.54% [80]. EIA predicts that nonhydro renewable generation
will keep a high growth rate (of about 7% annually) in the next
two decades and will reach 2302 billion kWh by 2030 [81].
Fig. 11 shows the U.S. nonhydro renewable generation pro-
files (by type) between the years 2000 and 2009, and the EIAs
prediction to year 2035 [81], [82]. The RE generation has seen
its fastest growth: from 85.7 billion kWh in 2000 to 152.2 bil-
lion kWh in 2009, at an average annual increase of 6.6%. Ac-
cording to this prediction, the annual growth will be higher
through 2030, at which time about 11% of the electricity gener-
ated in the U.S. is projected to be from nonhydroelectric renew-
able sources.
At present, most nonhydroelectric renewable technologies
(with the exception of bulk wind generation) are still not
economically competitive with fossil-fuel-based generation
sources, and federal and local governmental incentives are
often a primary motive for installing renewable generation
systems.
A majority of U.S. states have set a renewable portfolio stan-
dard (RPS) which sets the goal of generating a certain per-
centage of their electricity from renewable sources. In most
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SUSTAINABLE ENERGY, VOL. 2, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2011
Fig. 11. U.S. renewable generation profiles [81], [82].
cases, the RPS set by the states is far greater than the 11% re-
newable by 2030, predicted by EIA. For instance, California has
set its RPS to 33% of its total electricity generation from re-
newables by 2030 [83]. DOE has also been very aggressive in
pushing for electricity generation from renewables and has en-
visioned a scenario of 20% electricity from wind by 2030 [84].
Even this figure is lower than many of the RPSs set by the states.
As the penetration level of renewable generation (in partic-
ular wind and solar PV) will increase in an unprecedented pace,
given the intermittent nature of the energy resources, the issues
associated with grid integration of these technologies become
more challenging. In general, control and power management
of these generation sources will be easier when they operate in-
dependently or in a microgrid setting, together with the use of
energy storage (discussed in Section II). When used in such a
manner, energy source hybridization is an effective approach
that can mitigate many of the problems associated with the in-
termittent nature of the energy resources to a certain extent and
will increase system reliability. This issue has been extensively
reported in the literature, e.g., [16][18], [20], [47], [56], [67].
The rest of this section gives an overview of some sample
applications of hybrid RE/AE systems around the world. Ex-
periences in developing hybrid RE/AE systems are indicative
of improved system performance and reliability, and reduced
system cost.
B. Sample Applications Around the World
The area of hybrid RE/AE systems implementation is very
dynamic and various demonstration projects on such systems
have been (and are currently being) conducted around the world
for different purposes, such as electrification of remote villages,
remote telecommunication units, or in the form of microgrids
for clean and secure electricity production purposes in urban
centers. Inclusion of all reported projects is beyond the scope of
this paper. In this section, seven sample applications of hybrid
RE/AE systems and microgrid test facilities (deploying hybrid
RE/AE systems) from around the world, which vary in purpose
as well as in system configuration, are briefly summarized. For
further information about these projects and their actual config-
uration, the reader is referred to the reference(s) given for each
system.
1) Utsira Island, Norway: An autonomous hybrid wind-hy-
drogen-fuel-cell system with flywheel and battery storage
NEHRIR et al.: REVIEW OF HYBRID RE/AE SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
TABLE III
EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS OF HYBRID SYSTEMS AROUND THE WORLD [85][97]
and a hydrogen engine supplies power to the island resi-
dents [85], [86].
2) Kahua Ranch, Hawaii Hydrogen Power Park, USA: This
hybrid wind-PV-electrolyzer-FC energy system was ini-
tially developed as a part of Hawaii Hydrogen Power
Park program for technology validation and research. The
system provides emission-free electricity to Kahua Ranch
located on the Hawaii Island [87].
3) Starkenburger Lodge, Austria: A completely off-grid hy-
brid PV-storage system, including a CHP-based engine,
supplies the power demand of the remote Alpine Lodge
in the Austrian Alps [88].
4) Fuel cells and Energy Networks of Electricity, heat, and
hydrogen, Japan (Project NEXT 21): More than 5000
PEMFCs (fueled by natural gas) were installed in resi-
dential households on an experimental basis by the end of
2009. The PEMFC units provide electricity and hot water
to the households [89][91].
5) The Kythnos Island microgrid project, Greece: The system
is a single-phase PV-storage-diesel-engine microgrid in-
stalled on the island to provide uninterruptible power to
the island residents. The system is used to test centralized
and decentralized control and power management of the
microgrid in islanded mode [92].
6) The Hachinohe microgrid project, Japan: The purpose of
this renewable-energy-based microgrid, built in the urban
city of Hachinohe, is to investigate its grid integration and
stabilization, as well as control and reliable operation in
islanded mode [93].
7) Wind2H2 Project, National Wind Technology Center
(NWTC) at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL), USA: The Wind2H2 system was initially ap-
proved for demonstration operation in March 2007. The
system produces hydrogen directly from RE sources
399
through electrolyzers. The generated hydrogen is stored
in high pressure storage tanks and can be used both as a
transportation fuel and as an energy storage medium [94].
Table III gives a list of components (generation sources, etc.)
and their capacity, storage type, integration scheme (bus types,
ac/dc/hybrid), and control paradigm (central, distributed, or hy-
brid) used in each project. Central control paradigm is applied to
all projects except the Kythnos Island Project in Greece, where
droop control is applied for load sharing among the PV inverters
of the system. The fast response function of the hybrid systems
is realized either by access-oriented energy storage devices or
by fast-acting controllable generators.
In 2008, the U.S. DOE awarded nine renewable and
distributed system integration (RDSI) projects aimed at mod-
ernizing the U.S. utility grid [95]. In addition, there are many
active microgrid demonstration projects around the world inte-
grating RE/AE and conventional energy sources. The detailed
descriptions of several such projects appear in [96] and [97].
V. CHALLENGES AND VISION FOR THE FUTURE OF RE/AE
POWER GENERATION TECHNOLOGIES
In this section, a partial list of challenges facing the wide-
spread deployment of RE/AE power generation technologies
and future visionary research areas are presented.
A. Challenges
Despite their significant benefits to the environment and great
long-term potential for sustainable energy development, hybrid
RE/AE systems are currently in an economic disadvantage posi-
tion because of their high installation costs compared with tra-
ditional electricity generation technologies. In the majority of
cases, the incentives from federal and state governments and
400
local utilities are necessary to make a hybrid system economi-
cally viable, which, in turn, makes the incentive policies so crit-
ical to the widespread deployment of such systems [98].
Energy storage is necessary for standalone hybrid RE/AE
systems to have continuous, reliable power supply with desired
power quality. Energy storage is also one of the enabling
technologies to accommodate grid-scale renewable generation
sources into power systems at high penetration. Among the dif-
ferent energy storage techniques discussed in Section II-C, only
pumped hydroelectric storage and underground CAES are the
two technologies which can provide a competitive system cost
[99]. However, they are heavily geographically constrained and
only suitable for large grid-scale energy storage applications.
On the other hand, batteries are the most common energy
storage technologies for distributed hybrid RE/AE systems.
Though the requirement of energy density and specific energy
are not so critical to stationary energy storage applications,
system cost and durability are still the key barriers for battery
storage systems. Moreover, it is a very challenging task to accu-
rately gauge and estimate the state of charge (SOC) and state of
health (SOH) of batteries [100][105], in particular, as electric
vehicles are being put on the road around the world. Therefore,
new battery technologies deserve more research attention and
efforts to improve their durability and performance, and lower
their cost.
B. Vision for the Future
A partial list of the future research topic areas, which can im-
pact RE/AE power generation and management, is given below:
1) Energy Management and Standardization: As the deploy-
ment of hybrid RE/AE systems in the form of independent
microgrid increases, the need for real-time energy manage-
ment of such systems, and robust communication between
the individual energy sources of the microgrid, become
important tasks and, therefore, deserve further attention.
Furthermore, systematic approaches and standardization,
e.g., IEEE Standard 1547 [106] and IEC 61850 [107],
are needed for efficient and safe deployment of such
systems.
2) DC Distribution: With the development of modern equip-
ment and household appliances that use dc voltage, several
researchers have explored the virtue of dc Microgrid for
localized loads and the idea of completely rewiring homes
to run on dc, e.g., [108], [109]. This venue deserves
further attention to explore its technical and economic
feasibility.
3) New Semiconductor Devices: The rugged electronic power
switching technology using silicon carbide and gallium ni-
tride semiconductors is rapidly advancing [110]. Devices
made out of these materials can be operated at much higher
frequencies, and such operations can lead to compact in-
verters, choppers, and other interface systems, which can
enhance the overall performance of hybrid RE/AE sys-
tems. As these devices become available, research efforts
are needed to integrate them into the evolving hybrid sys-
tems.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SUSTAINABLE ENERGY, VOL. 2, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2011
4) Excitonic Solar Cells: This class of solar cells uses Ti-
tania nanotube arrays [111], [112], and shows considerable
promise to harness a larger fraction of the solar spectrum.
The availability of this class of devices should be closely
monitored for potential use in RE/AE systems.
5) Nanotechnology: In general, the application of nanotech-
nology to improve various components of hybrid systems
should be a constant topic of research and investigation.
6) Hydrogen: Last but not least, the production of hydrogen
and hydrogen economy should be a constant future re-
search topic. A breakthrough in this area could revolu-
tionize the way we live.
VI. CONCLUSION
This paper provides a summary of available approaches and
those currently under research for optimal design of hybrid
RE/AE energy systems. Different approaches for system con-
figuration, unit sizing, and control and energy management of
hybrid systems are presented. Current status and future trends
of RE Power Generation, the challenges facing the widespread
deployment of RE/AE systems, and research vision for the
future of RE/AE power generation technologies have been
discussed. The comprehensive list of references at the end of
the paper is aimed to help interested researchers in the design
and power management of hybrid RE/AE energy systems with
focus on energy sustainability.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the valuable contributions
of Dr. Z. Jiang to the Control and Energy Management part of
the paper and his input to the general structure of the paper. The
help and comments provided by C. Colson and A. Pourmousavi
(Ph.D. students in the Electrical and Computer Engineering De-
partment at Montana State University) during the preparation of
the paper is also acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] R. Ramakumar, H. J. Allison, and W. L. Hughes, Prospects for tapping
solar energy on a large scale, Solar Energy, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 107115,
Oct. 1974.
[2] R. Ramakumar, H. J. Allison, and W. L. Hughes, Solar energy con-
version and storage systems for the future, IEEE Trans. Power App.
Syst., vol. PAS-94, no. 6, pp. 19261934, Nov./Dec. 1975.
[3] S. Hozumi, Development of hybrid solar systems using solar thermal,
photovoltaics, and wind energy, Int. J. Solar Energy, vol. 4, no. 5, pp.
257280, 1986.
[4] S. Rahman and K. Tam, Feasibility study of photovoltaic-fuel cell
hybrid energy system, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 3, no. 1,
pp. 5055, Mar. 1988.
[5] H. Gabler and J. Luther, Wind-solar hybrid electrical supply systems:
Results from a simulation model and optimization with respect to en-
ergy payback time, Solar Wind Technol., vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 239247,
1988.
[6] P. Tu, S. M. Hock, R. W. Thresher, and T. J. McCoy, Potential of
hybrid wind energy systems for utility system applications, Amer. Soc.
Mech. Eng., Solar Energy Division (Publication) SED, vol. 12, p. 5,
1992.
[7] Ramakumar and W. L. Hughes, Renewable energy sources and rural
development in developing countries, Special Issue on Energy Related
Studies, IEEE Trans. Educat., vol. E-24, no. 3, pp. 242251, Aug. 1981.
NEHRIR et al.: REVIEW OF HYBRID RE/AE SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
[8] C. V. Nayar, S. J. Phillips, W. L. James, T. L. Pryor, and D. Remmer,
Novel wind/diesel/battery hybrid energy system, Solar Energy, vol.
51, no. 1, pp. 6578, Jul. 1993.
[9] R. Yokoyama, K. Ito, and Y. Yuasa, Multiobjective optimal unit sizing
of hybrid power generation systems utilizing photovoltaic and wind en-
ergy, Trans. ASME J. Solar Energy Eng. , vol. 116, no. 4, pp. 167173,
Nov. 1994.
[10] S. Gomaa, A. K. A. Seoud, and H. N. Kheiralla, Design and analysis
of photovoltaic and wind energy hybrid systems in Alexandria, Egypt,
Renew. Energy, vol. 6, no. 56, p. 643, Jul./Sep. 1995.
[11] R. Ramakumar, I. Abouzahr, K. Krishnan, K. Ashenayi, and K. , De-
sign scenarios for integrated renewable energy systems, IEEE Trans.
Energy Convers., vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 736746, Dec. 1995.
[12] V. Tiangco, P. McCluer, and E. Hughes, Investigation of geothermal
energy technologies and gas turbine hybrid systems, Trans.
Geothermal Resources Council, vol. 20, pp. 195201, 1996.
[13] C. V. Nayar, Stand alone wind/diesel/battery hybrid energy systems,
Wind Eng., vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 1319, 1997.
[14] B. Wichert, PV-diesel hybrid energy systems for remote area power
generationA review of current practice and future developments,
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 209228, Sep. 1997.
[15] S. R. Vosen and J. O. Keller, Hybrid energy storage systems for stand-
alone electric power systems: Optimization of system performance and
cost through control strategies, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 24, no.
12, pp. 11391156, Dec. 1999.
[16] W. D. Kellogg, M. H. Nehrir, G. Venkataramanan, and V. Gerez, Gen-
eration unit sizing and cost analysis for stand-alone wind, photovoltaic,
and hybrid wind/PV systems, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 13,
no. 1, pp. 7075, Mar. 1998.
[17] R. Chedid, H. Akiki, and S. Rahman, A decision support technique for
the design of hybrid solar-wind power systems, IEEE Trans. Energy
Convers., vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 7683, Mar. 1998.
[18] B. Borowy and Z. Salameh, Methodology for the optimally sizing
the combination of a battery bank and PV array in a wind/PV hybrid
system, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 367375,
Jun. 1996.
[19] F. Giraud and Z. M. Salameh, Steady-state performance of a grid-
connected rooftop hybrid wind-photovoltaic power system with battery
storage, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 17, Mar.
2001.
[20] C. Marnay, G. Venkataramanan, M. Stadler, A. S. Siddiqui, R. Fire-
stone, and B. Chandran, Optimal technology selection and operation
of commercial-building microgrids, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 23,
no. 3, pp. 975982, Aug. 2008.
[21] A. F. Massardo, C. F. McDonald, and T. Korakianitis, Microtur-
bine/fuel-cell coupling for high-efficiency electrical-power genera-
tion, Trans. ASME, J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power, vol. 124, no. 1, pp.
110116, Jan. 2002.
[22] F. Jurado, Study of molten carbonate fuel cell-microturbine hybrid
power cycles, J. Power Sources, vol. 111, no. 1, pp. 121129, Sep.
2002.
[23] C. M. Colson and M. H. Nehrir, Evaluating the benefits of a hybrid
solid oxide fuel cell combined heat and power plant for energy sustain-
ability and emissions avoidance, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol.
26, no. 1, pp. 140148, Mar. 2011.
[24] A. Roy, S. B. Kedare, and S. Bandyopadhyay, Optimum sizing of
wind-battery systems incorporating resource uncertainty, Appl. En-
ergy, vol. 87, no. 8, pp. 27122727, 2010.
[25] C. Wang and M. H. Nehrir, Load transient mitigation for stand-alone
fuel cell power generation systems, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol.
22, no. 4, pp. 864872, Dec. 2007.
[26] P. Thounthong, S. Rael, and B. Davat, Analysis of supercapacitor as
second source based on fuel cell power generation, IEEE Trans. En-
ergy Convers., vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 247255, Mar. 2009.
[27] P. F. Ribeiro, B. K. Johnson, M. L. Crow, A. Arsoy, and Y. Liu, En-
ergy storage systems for advanced power applications, Proc. IEEE,
vol. 89, no. 12, pp. 17441756, Dec. 2001.
[28] Electricity Energy Storage Technology Options, A white Paper primer
on Applications, Costs, and Benefits EPRI Publication 1020676, Dec.
2010.
[29] K. Y. Lee and M. A. El sharkawi, Modern heuristic optimization tech-
niques, in Theory and Application to Power Systems. Piscataway,
NJ: IEEE Press-Wiley, 2008.
[30] Y. del Valle, G. K. Venayagamoorthy, S. Mohagheghi, J.-C. Hernandez,
and R. G. Harley, Particle swarm optimization: Basic concepts, vari-
ants and applications in power systems, IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput.,
vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 171195, Apr. 2008.
401
[31] M. R. Al-Rashidi and M. E. El-Hawary, A survey of particle swarm
optimization applications in electric power systems, IEEE Trans.
Evol. Comput., vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 913918, Aug. 2009.
[32] A. L. Dimeas and N. D. Hatziargyriou, Operation of a multiagent
system for microgrid control, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 20, no.
3, pp. 14471455, Aug. 2005.
[33] Z. Yang, C. Ma, J. Q. Feng, Q. H. Wu, S. Mann, and J. Fitch, A
multi-agent framework for power system automation, Int. J. Innova-
tion Energy Syst. Power, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 3945, Nov. 2006.
[34] , G. Weiss, Ed., Multiagent Systems: A Modern Approach to Dis-
tributed Artificial Intelligence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999.
[35] R. Lasseter, A. Abbas, C. Marnay, J. Stevens, J. Dagle, R. Guttromson,
A. S. Meliopoulos, R. Yinger, and J. Eto, Integration of Distributed
Energy Resources: The CERTS Microgrid Concept California Energy
Commission, P500-03-089F, Oct. 2003.
[36] R. H. Lasseter and P. Piagi, Control and Design of Microgrid
Components: Final Project Report PSERC Publication 0603,
Jan. 2006.
[37] H. Louie and K. Strunz, Superconducting magnetic energy storage
(SMES) for energy cache control in modular distributed hydrogen-
electric energy systems, IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., vol. 17, no.
2, pp. 23612364, Jun. 2007.
[38] K. Agbossou, M. Kolhe, J. Hamelin, and T. K. Bose, Performance
of a stand-alone renewable energy system based on energy storage as
hydrogen, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 633640,
Sep. 2004.
[39] K. Agbossou, R. Chahine, J. Hamelin, F. Laurencelle, A. Anourar,
J.-M. St-Arnaud, and T. K. Bose, Renewable energy systems based
on hydrogen for remote applications, J. Power Sources, vol. 96, pp.
168172, 2001.
[40] S.-H. Ko, S. R. Lee, H. Dehbonei, and C. V. Nayar, Application of
voltage- and current-controlled voltage source inverters for distributed
generation systems, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 21, no. 3, pp.
782792, Sep. 2006.
[41] F. A. Farret and M. G. Simes, Integration of Alternative Sources of
Energy. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006.
[42] M. H. Nehrir and C. Wang, Modeling and Control of Fuel Cells:
Distributed Generation Applications. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE
Press-Wiley, 2009, ch. 9.
[43] C. K. Sao and P. W. Lehn, A transformerless energy storage
system based on a cascade multilevel PWM converter with star
configuration, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 16211630,
Sep./Oct. 2008, , "Control and Power Management of Converter
Fed Microgrids," IEEE Trans. Power Systems, Vol. 23, No. 3,
pp. 1088-1098, August 2008..
[44] P. K. Sood, T. A. Lipo, and I. G. Hansen, A versatile power converter
for high-frequency link systems, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol.
3, no. 4, pp. 383390, Oct. 1988.
[45] H. J. Cha and P. N. Enjeti, A three-phase AC/AC high-frequency link
matrix converter for VSCF applications, in Proc. IEEE 34th Annu.
Power Electronics Specialist Conf. 2003 (PESC03), Jun. 2003, vol. 4,
no. 1519, pp. 19711976.
[46] D. B. Nelson, M. H. Nehrir, and C. Wang, Unit sizing and cost analysis
of stand-alone hybrid wind/PV/fuel cell power generation systems,
Renew. Energy, vol. 31, pp. 16411656, 2006.
[47] Homer, National Renewable Energy Laboratory [Online]. Available:
https://analysis.nrel.gov/homer/
[48] DER-CAMDistributed energy resources customer adoption model,
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory [Online]. Available: http://
der.lbl.gov/dercam.html
[49] J. K. Kaldellis and G. Th. Vlachos, Optimum sizing of an autonomous
winddiesel hybrid system for various representative wind-potential
cases, Appl. Energy, vol. 83, pp. 113132, 2005.
[50] S. Granville, Optimal reactive dispatch through interior point
methods, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 136146, Feb.
1994.
[51] E. Koutroulis, D. Kolokotsa, A. Potirakis, and K. Kalaitzakis,
Methodology for optimal sizing of stand-alone photovoltaic/wind-
generator systems using genetic algorithms, Solar Energy, vol. 80,
pp. 10721088, 2006.
[52] H. Yang, W. Zhou, L. Lu, and Z. Fang, Optimal sizing method
for stand-alone hybrid solar-wind system with LPSP technology
by using genetic algorithm, Solar Energy, vol. 82, pp. 354367,
2008.
[53] O. Ekren and B. Y. Ekren, Size optimization of a PV/wind hybrid
energy conversion system with battery storage using response surface
methodology, Appl. Energy, vol. 85, pp. 10861101, 2008.
402
[54] A. K. Kaviani, G. H. Riahy, and S. H. M. Kouhsari, Optimal de-
sign of a reliable hydrogen-based stand-alone wind/PV generating
system, considering component outages, Renew. Energy, vol. 34, pp.
23802390, 2009.
[55] L. Wang and C. Sigh, Multicriteria design of hybrid power
generation systems based on modified particle swarm optimization
algorithm, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 24, no. 1, pp.
163172, Mar. 2009.
[56] S. A. Pourmousavi, M. H. Nehrir, C. M. Colson, and C. Wang, Real-
time energy management of a stand-alone hybrid wind-microturbine
energy system using particle swarm optimization, IEEE Trans. Sus-
tain. Energy, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 193201, Oct. 2010.
[57] K. Strunz and H. Louie, Cache energy control for storage: Power
system integration and education based on analogies derived from com-
puter engineering, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 1219,
Feb. 2009.
[58] P. Patel, Batteries that go with the flow, IEEE Spectrum, vol. 47, no.
5, p. 18, May 2010.
[59] S. A. Lone, M. ud-Din Mufti, and S. J. Iqbal, Incorporation of a redox
flow battery in a wind-diesel power system for simultaneous frequency
and voltage control, Wind Eng., vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 179195, 2008.
[60] Electricity Storage Association 2004 [Online]. Available: http://www.
electricitystorage.org
[61] B. Roberts, Capturing grid power, IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 7,
no. 4, pp. 3241, Jul./Aug. 2009.
[62] K. Strunz and E. K. Brock, Stochastic energy source access man-
agement: Infrastructure-integrative modular plant for sustainable hy-
drogen-electric co-generation, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 31, no.
9, pp. 11291141, Aug. 2006.
[63] W. Gao, Performance comparison of a fuel cell-battery hybrid pow-
ertrain and a fuel cell-ultracapacitor hybrid powertrain, IEEE Trans.
Veh. Technol., vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 846855, May 2005.
[64] H. Louie and K. Strunz, Superconducting magnetic energy storage
(SMES) for energy cache control in modular distributed hydrogenelec-
tric energy storage systems, IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., vol. 17,
no. 2, pp. 23612364, Jun. 2007.
[65] C. Abbey, K. Strunz, and G. Joos, A knowledge-based approach for
control of two-level energy storage for wind energy systems, IEEE
Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 539547, Jun. 2009.
[66] F. Valenciaga and P. F. Puleston, Supervisor control for a stand-alone
hybrid generation system using wind and photovoltaic energy, IEEE
Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 398405, Jun. 2005.
[67] C. Wang and M. H. Nehrir, Power management of a stand-alone wind/
photovoltaic/fuel-cell energy system, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers.,
vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 957967, Sep. 2008.
[68] K. Miettinen, Nonlinear Multiobjective Optimization. Boston:
Kluwer, 1998.
[69] A. M. Azmy and I. Erlich, Online optimal management of PEM fuel
cells using neural networks, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 29, no. 2,
pp. 10511058, Apr. 2005.
[70] M. A. Abido, Environmental/economic power dispatch using multi-
objective evolutionary algorithms, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 18,
no. 4, pp. 15291537, Nov. 2003.
[71] J. Lagorse, M. Simoes, G. Miraoui, and Abdellatif, A multiagent
fuzzy-logic-based energy management of hybrid systems, IEEE
Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 45, no. 6, pp. 21232129, Nov./Dec. 2009.
[72] A. Hajizadeh and M. A. Golkar, Fuzzy neural control of a hybrid
fuel cell/battery distributed power generation system, IET Renewable
Power Generation, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 402414, 2009.
[73] H. Ko and J. Jatskevich, Power quality control of wind-hybrid power
generation system using fuzzy-LQR controller, IEEE Trans. Energy
Convers., vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 516527, Jun. 2007.
[74] H. M. Kelash, H. M. Faheem, and M. Amoon, It takes a multiagent
system to manage distributed systems, IEEE Potentials, vol. 26, no.
2, pp. 3945, Mar./Apr. 2007.
[75] Z. Toroczckai and S. Eubank, Agent-based modeling as a decision-
making tool, The Bridge, Publication of the National Engineering
Academy, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 2227, 2005, Winter.
[76] K. Huang, D. A. Cartes, and S. K. Srivastava, A multiagent-based al-
gorithm for ring-structured shipboard power system reconfiguration,
IEEE Trans. Syst., Man, Cybern. C, Appl. Rev., vol. 37, no. 5, pp.
10161021, Sep. 2007.
[77] T. Nagata and H. Sasaki, A multi-agent approach to power system
restoration, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 457462, May
2002.
[78] M. E. Torres-Hernandez, Hierarchical Control of Hybrid Power Sys-
tems, Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, 2007.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SUSTAINABLE ENERGY, VOL. 2, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2011
[79] Z. Jiang and R. Dougal, Hierarchical microgrid paradigm for integra-
tion of distributed energy resources, in Proc. IEEE Power Engineering
Society General Meeting, Pittsburgh, PA, Jul. 2024, 2008.
[80] International Energy Outlook 2010 Energy Information Administra-
tion, the U.S. Department of Energy, Report #:DOE/EIA-0484(2010),
Jul. 27, 2010, release date.
[81] International energy statistics EIAs Portal for Detailed Country and
Regional Energy Data [Online]. Available: http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/
cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm, Data retrieved on Dec. 21, 2010
[82] Annual Energy Outlook 2010 Energy Information Administration, the
U.S. Department of Energy, Report #:DOE/EIA-0383(2010), May 11,
2010, release date.
[83] State Activities and Partnerships: States With Renewable Portfolio
Standards, U.S. DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable En-
ergy [Online]. Available: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/states/maps/re-
newable_portfolio_states.cfm
[84] 20% Wind Energy by 203: Increasing Wind Energys Contribution to
U.S. Electricity Supply, U.S. DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Re-
newable Energy, DOE/GO-102008-2567, Jul. 2008.
[85] T. Nakken, L. R. Strand, E. Frantzen, R. Rohden, and P. O. Eide, The
utsira wind-hydrogen systemOperational experience, in Proc. Eur.
Wind Energy Conf., Athens, Greece, 2006.
[86] O. Ulleberg, Renewable energy hydrogen systems modeling and soft-
ware development Nordic Hydrogen Seminar, 2006.
[87] Hawaii Natural Energy Institute, University of Hawaii at Manoa,
Hawaii Hydrogen Power Park [Online]. Available: http://www.hnei.
hawaii.edu/hhpp.asp
[88] M. Landau and H. Deubler, 10 years PV hybrid system as an energy
supply for a remote alpine lodge, in Proc. 4th Eur. PV-Hybrid and
Mini-Grid Conf., Glyfada, Greece, 2008.
[89] H. Aki, S. Yamamoto, J. Kondoh, T. Maeda, H. Yamaguchi, A. Murata,
and I. Ishii, Fuel cells and energy networks of electricity, heat, and
hydrogen in residential areas, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 31, no. 8,
pp. 967980, 2006.
[90] H. Aki, Y. Taniguchi, J. Kondoh, I. Tamura, A. Kegasa, Y.
Ishikawa, S. Yamamoto, and I. Sugimoto, The operation result
of the demonstration of energy networks of electricity, heat,
and hydrogen at an apartment building in 2007, 2008 American
Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, Summer Study on
Energy Efficiency in Buildings, 2008.
[91] Japan Fuel Cell Association, Number of Applications of Fuel Cell
Subsidy by Prefectures in Fiscal Year 2009 (in Japanese) Mar. 2010
[Online]. Available: http://www.fca-enefarm.org/subsidy21/down-
load/pdf/todofuken.pdf
[92] N. Hatziargyriou, H. Asano, R. Iravani, and C. Marnay, Microgrids:
An overview of ongoing research, development, and demonstration
projects, IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 7894, Jul./Aug.
2007.
[93] Y. Kojima, Operation results of the hachinohe microgrid project, in
Proc. 2009 Microgrid Symp., San Diego, CA.
[94] K. W. Harrison, G. D. Martin, T. G. Ramsden, W. E. Kramer, and F.
J. Novachek, The Wind-to-Hydrogen Project: Operational Experience,
Performance Testing, and Systems Integration Tech. Rep. NREL/TP-
550-44082, Mar. 2009, [N8].
[95] DOE Selects Projects for up to $50 Million of Federal Funding to
Modernize the Nations Electricity Grid, DOE News Release, Apr. 21,
2008 [Online]. Available: http://www.oe.energy.gov/Documentsand-
Media/4.21.08_Renewable_Distributed_Systems_Awards.pdf
[96] B. Kroposki, R. Lasseter, T. Ise, S. Mororzumi, S. Papathanassiou,
and N. Hatziargyriou, A look at microgrid technologies and testing
projects from around the world, IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 6, no.
3, pp. 4053, May/Jun. 2008.
[97] R. Lasseter, A. Akhil, C. Marnay, J. Stephens, J. Dagle, R. Guttromson,
A. S. Meliopoulous, R. Yinger, and J. Eto, Consortium for Electric
Reliability Technology Solutions Lawrence Berkeley National Labo-
ratory Rep. LBNL-50829, Apr. 2002, White Paper on Integration of
Distributed Energy Resources, The CERTS MicroGrid Concept.
[98] Y. Zhou, L. Wang, and J. D. McCalley, Designing effective and effi-
cient incentive policies for renewable energy in generation expansion
planning, Appl. Energy, vol. 88, no. 6, pp. 22012209, Jun. 2011.
[99] S. M. Schoenung, Long- vs. Short-Term Energy Storage Technolo-
gies Analysis: A Life-Cycle Cost Study: A Study for the DOE Energy
Storage Sandia National Laboratories, Sandia Rep. SAND2003-2783,
Aug. 2003.
[100] M. Coleman, W. G. Hurley, and C. K. Lee, An improved battery char-
acterization method using a two-pulse load test, IEEE Trans. Energy
Convers., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 708713, Jun. 2008.
NEHRIR et al.: REVIEW OF HYBRID RE/AE SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
[101] G. Plett, Extended Kalman filtering for battery management systems
of LiPB-based HEV battery packs. Part 3. State and parameter estima-
tion, J. Power Sources, vol. 134, no. 2, pp. 277292, 2004.
[102] S. Rodrigues, N. Munichandraiah, and A. Shukla, A review of
state-of-charge indication of batteries by means of ac impedance
measurements, J. Power Sources, vol. 87, no. 1/2, pp. 1220, 2000,
12.20.
[103] I. L.-S. Kim, A technique for estimating the state of health of lithium
batteries through a dual- sliding-mode observer, IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 10131022, Apr. 2010.
[104] C. R. Gould, C. M. Bingham, D. A. Stone, and P. Bentley, New battery
model and state-of-health determination through subspace parameter
estimation and state-observer techniques, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol.,
vol. 58, no. 8, pp. 39053916, Oct. 2009.
[105] J. P. Christophersen, Battery State of Health Assessment Using Near
Real-Time Impedance Measurement, Ph.D. Dissertation, Montana
State Univ.-Bozeman, Bozeman, MT, 2011.
[106] Interconnecting Distributed Resources With Electric Power Systems,
IEEE Standard Series 1547.
403
[107] Communication Networks and Systems in Substations, IEC 61850 Se-
ries.
[108] D. Salomonsson and A. Sannino, Low-voltage dc distribution system
for commercial power systems with sensitive electronic loads, IEEE
Trans. Power Del., vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 16201627, Jul. 2007.
[109] H. Kakigano, Y. Miura, and T. Ise, Low-voltage bipolar-type DC mi-
crogrid for super high quality distribution, IEEE Trans. Power Elec-
tron., vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 30663075, Dec. 2010.
[110] K. Shenai, High-power robust semiconductor electronics technolo-
gies in the new millennium, Microelectron. J., vol. 32, no. 56, pp.
397408, 2001.
[111] G. K. Mor, H. E. Prakasam, O. K. Varghese, K. Shankar, and C. A.
Grimes, Vertically oriented Ti-Fe-O nanotube array films: Toward
a useful material architecture for solar spectrum water photoelectrol-
ysis, Nano Lett., vol. 7, pp. 23562364, 2007.
[112] K. Shankar, K. Shankar, J. Bandara, M. Paulose, H. Wietasch, O. K.
Varghese, G. K. Mor, T. J. LaTempa, M. Thelakkat, and C. A. Grimes,
Highly efficient solar cells using TiO2 nanotube arrays sensitized with
a donor antenna dye, Nano Lett., vol. 8, pp. 16541659, 2008.