Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 1 of 18

Lecture 23: Common Emitter Amplifier

Frequency Response. Millers Theorem.
Well use the high frequency model for the BJT we developed in
the previous lecture and compute the frequency response of a
common emitter amplifier, as shown below in Fig. 10.9a.

(Fig. 10.9a)

(Fig. 10.1)

2016 Keith W. Whites

Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 2 of 18

As we discussed in the previous lecture, there are three distinct

region of frequency operation for this and most transistor
amplifier circuits. Well examine the operation of this CE
amplifier more closely when operated in three frequency
regimes.

Mid-band Frequency Response of the CE Amplifier

At the mid-band frequencies, the DC blocking capacitors are

assumed to have very small impedances so they can be replaced
by short circuits, while the impedances of C and C are very
large so they can be replaced by open circuits:

(Fig. 10.19a)
where RB RB1 || RB 2 .

The equivalent small-signal model for the mid-band frequency

response is then
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 3 of 18

Well define
RL ro || RC || RL (1)
so that at the output
Vo g m RLV (2)

Using Thvenins theorem followed by voltage division at the

input we find
r r RB
V VTH Vsig (3)
r rx RTH r rx RB || Rsig RB Rsig

Substituting (3) into (2) we find the mid-band voltage gain Am to

be
V g m r RB
Am o ro || RC || RL (10.54),(4)
Vsig r rx RB || Rsig RB Rsig

High Frequency Response of the CE Amplifier

For the high frequency response of the CE amplifier of Fig.

10.19a, the impedance of the blocking capacitors is still
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 4 of 18

negligibly small, but now the internal capacitances of the BJT

are no longer effectively open circuits.

Using the high frequency small-signal model of the BJT

discussed in the previous lecture, the equivalent small-signal
circuit of the CE amplifier now becomes:

(Fig. 10.19a)
Well simplify this circuit a little by calculating a Thvenin
equivalent circuit at the input and using the definition for RL in
(1):

(Fig. 10.19b)
where it can be easily shown that Vsig is V given in (3)
r RB
Vsig Vsig (Fig. 10.19b),(5)
r rx RB || Rsig RB Rsig
while Rsig r || rx RB || Rsig (Fig. 10.19b),(6)
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 5 of 18

Millers Theorem

We can analyze the circuit in Fig. 10.19b through traditional

methods, but if we apply Millers theorem we can greatly
simplify the effort. Plus, it will be easier to apply an
approximation that will arise if we use Millers theorem.

You may have seen Millers theorem previously in circuit

analysis. It is another equivalent circuit theorem for linear
circuits akin to Thvenins and Nortons theorems. Millers
theorem applies to this circuit topology:

(Fig. 1)
The equivalent Millers theorem circuit is

(Fig. 2)
where
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 6 of 18

Zx Zx
ZA and Z B (7),(8)
v v
1 B 1 A
vA vB

The equivalence of these two circuits can be easily verified. For

example, using KVL in Fig. 1
v A i A Z x vB
v v
or iA A B (9)
Zx
while using KVL in the left-hand figure of Fig. 2 gives
v
iA A (10)
ZA

Now, for the left-hand figure to be equivalent to the circuit in

Fig. 1, then iA in (9) and iA in (10) must be equal. Therefore,
v A vB v A

Zx ZA
The equivalent impedance ZA can be obtained from this equation
as
Zv Zx
ZA x A
v A vB 1 vB
vA
which is the same as (7). A similar result verifies (8).

So, for a resistive element Rx, Millers theorem states that

Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 7 of 18

Rx Rx
RA and RB (12),(13)
vB vA
1 1
vA vB
while for a capacitive element Cx, Millers theorem states that
v v
C A C x 1 B and CB Cx 1 A (14),(15)
vA vB

High Frequency Response of the CE Amplifier (cont.)

Returning now to the CE amplifier equivalent small-signal

circuit of Fig. 10.19b, well apply Millers theorem of Figs. 1
and 2 to this circuit and the capacitor C to give

(Fig. 3)
where, using (14) and (15),
V V
C A C 1 o and CB C 1 (16),(17)
V Vo
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 8 of 18

Actually, this equivalent circuit of Fig. 3 is no simpler to

analyze than the one in Fig. 10.19b because of the dependence
of CA and CB on the voltages Vo and V.

However, this equivalent circuit of Fig. 3 will prove valuable for

the following approximation. Note from Fig. 10.19b that
I L I g mV I L g mV I (18)
Up to frequencies near fH and better, the current I in the small
capacitor C will be much smaller than g mV . Consequently,
from (18)
I L g mV (19)
and Vo I L RL g m RLV (20)

Using this last result in (16) and (17) we find that

g R V

V


C A C 1 m L C 1 g m RL (21)

V 1
and C B C 1 C 1 (22)
g R V g R
m L m L

Most often for this type of amplifier, g m RL 1 so that in (22)

CB C . But as we initially assumed, the current through C is
much smaller than that through the dependent current source
g mV , which ultimately led to equation (19).
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 9 of 18

Consequently, we can ignore CB in parallel with g mV and the

final high frequency small-signal equivalent circuit for the CE
amplifier in Fig. 10.19a is

(Fig. 10.19c)

where
Cin C C A C C 1 g m RL (Fig. 10.19c),(22)
Based on this small-signal equivalent circuit, well derive the
high-frequency response of this CE amplifier. At the input
Z Cin
V Vsig (23)
Z Cin Rsig
while at the output
Vo g m RLV (24)

Substituting (23) into (24) gives

Z Cin
Vo g m RL Vsig (25)
Z Cin Rsig
Since Z Cin jCin then (25) becomes
1
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 10 of 18

1
jCin g m RL
Vo g m RL Vsig Vsig (26)
1
Rsig 1 jCin Rsig
jCin
If we define
1
H (27)
Cin Rsig
then substitute this into (26) gives
Vo g m RL g m RL
(28)
Vsig 1 j f
1 j
H fH
1
where fH H (10.57),(29)
2 2 Cin Rsig

You should recognize this transfer function (28) as that for a low
pass circuit with a cut-off frequency (or 3-dB frequency) of H.
This is the response of a single time constant circuit, which is
what we have at the input to the circuit of Fig. 10.19c.

What were ultimately interested in is the overall transfer

function Vo Vsig from input to output. This can be easily derived
from the work weve already done here. Since
Vo Vo Vsig
(30)
Vsig Vsig Vsig
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 11 of 18

We can use (28) for the first term in the RHS of (30), and use (5)
for the second giving
Vo g m RL r RB
(31)
Vsig 1 j f r rx RB || Rsig RB Rsig
fH
We can recognize Am from (4) in this expression giving
Vo Am
(10.56),(32)
Vsig 1 j f
fH
Once again, this is the frequency response of a low pass circuit,
as shown below:

(Fig. 10.19d)

Comments and the Miller Effect

Equation (32) gives the mid-band and high frequency

response of the CE amplifier circuit. It is not valid for the low
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 12 of 18

frequency response near fL and lower frequencies, as shown in

Fig. 5.71b.

The high frequency, small-signal equivalent circuit models for

the BJT in a common emitter amplifier are:

It turns out that Cin in (22) is usually dominated by

C A C 1 g m RL . Even though C is usually much smaller
than C its effects at the input are accentuated by the factor
1 g m RL .

The reason that C undergoes this multiplication is because it

is connected between two nodes (B and C in Fig. 10.19a) that
experience a large voltage gain. This effect is called the
Miller effect and the multiplying factor 1 g m RL in (22) is
called the Miller multiplier.
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 13 of 18

Because of this Miller effect and the Miller multiplier, the

input capacitance Cin of the CE amplifier is usually quite
large. Consequently, from (20) the fH of this amplifier is
reduced. In other words, this Miller effect limits the high
frequency applications of the CE amplifier because the
bandwidth and gain will be limited.

Low Frequency Response of the CE Amplifier

On the other end of the spectrum, the low frequency response of

the CE amplifier and all other capacitively coupled amplifiers
is limited by the DC blocking and bypass capacitors.

This type of low frequency response analysis is rather

complicated because there is more than a single time constant
response involved. In the circuit of Fig. 10.9a there are three
capacitors involved, CC1, CC2, and CE. All three of these greatly
affect the low frequency response of the amplifier and cant be
ignored.

The text presents an approximate solution in which the low

frequency response is modeled as the product of three high pass
single time constant circuits cascaded together so that
Vo j j j
Am (33)

Vsig j p1 j p 2 j p 3
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 14 of 18

(Fig. 10.7)
So there isnt a single fL as suggested by Fig. 10.1 but rather a
more complicated response at low frequencies as we see in Fig.
10.7 above. Computer simulation is perhaps the best predictor
for this complicated frequency response, but an approximate
formula for fL is given in the text as
1 1 1 1
f L f p1 f p 2 f p 3
2 CC1RC1 CE RE CC 2 RC 2
(10.20),(34)
where RC1 , RE , and RC 2 are the resistances seen by CC1 , CE , and
CC 2 , respectively, with the signal source Vsig 0 and the other
two capacitors replaced by short circuits.

Example N23.1. Compute the mid-band small-signal voltage

gain and the upper 3-dB cutoff frequency of the small-signal
voltage gain for the CE amplifier shown in Fig. 10.9a. Use a
2N2222A transistor and the circuit element and DC source
values listed in text Example 10.4. Use 10 F blocking and
bypass capacitors.
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 15 of 18

The circuit in Agilent Advanced Design System appears as:

V_DC
SRC2
Vdc=10.0 V
AC

AC R
AC1 R2
Start=100 Hz R=8 kOhm
Stop=1.0 MHz
Step=100 Hz
vo

C R
C2 R4
vi C=10 uF R=5 kOhm
V_AC R C R
SRC1 R3 C1 R1
Vac=polar(1,0) V R=5 kOhm C=10 uF R=100 kOhm ap_npn_2N2222A_19930601
Freq=freq Q1

I_DC C
SRC4 C3
Idc=1 mA C=10 uF

V_DC
SRC3
Vdc=-10.0 V

From the results of the ADS circuit analysis

VCB 2.03 V 400 mV 2.43 V
VBE 0.4 V 1.02 V 0.62 V

From Fig. 9 in the Motorola 2N2222A datasheet (see the

previous set of lecture notes)
For VCB 2.43 V Ccb C 5.8 pF.
For VBE 0.62 V Ceb C 20 pF.
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 16 of 18

IC 1 mA
gm 0.04 S
VT 25 mV

The unity gain frequency, fT, is a hugely important high

frequency specification for a transistor. fT (or T) is the
frequency at which the gain of the transistor operating as an
amplifier is one (0 dB):

From (10.41),
gm 0.04
fT 246.8 MHz
2 C C 2 20 pF 5.8 pF
This value agrees fairly well with the datasheet value of 300
MHz.

0 265 from the ADS parts list for this 2N2222A transistor.
Therefore,
0 265
r 6,625
gm 0.04
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 17 of 18

From the 2N2222A datasheet, the nominal output resistance at

IC = 1 mA is ro 50 k.

What about rx? Its so small in value (~ 50 ) that well easily

be able to ignore it for the Am calculations compared to r (which
is 6,625 as we just calculated). From (4),
g m r RB
Am ro || RC || RL
r rx RB || Rsig RB Rsig
2,898.6 RL
0.02327 0.9524
V
Therefore, Am 64.24
V
or in decibels Am 20 log10 Am 36.2 dB

From ADS:
m3 m1 m2
freq= 400.0 Hz freq= 6.300kHz freq= 84.40kHz
dB(vo)=33.632 dB(vo)=36.053 dB(vo)=33.046
40 m1
m3 m2
35

30
dB(vo)

25

20

15

10
1E2 1E3 1E4 1E5 1E6
freq, Hz
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 23 Page 18 of 18

From this plot, ADS computes a mid-band gain of Am 36.05

dB, which agrees closely with the predicted value above.

1
From (29), fH
2 Cin Rsig
where from (22)

Cin C C 1 g m RL 20 5.8 1 0.04 2,898.6 pF
20 678.3 698.3 pF
while from (6)
Rsig r || rx RB || Rsig
Because RB || Rsig 100 k || 5 k 4,761.9 is so much larger
than rx (on the order of 50 ), we can safely ignore rx. Then,
Rsig 6,625 || 4,762 2,771

Therefore,
f H 2 698.3 1012 2,771 82.25 kHz
This agrees very closely with the value of 84.40 kHz predicted
by the ADS simulation shown above. Notice that this frequency
is dramatically smaller than the unity-gain frequency of the
transistor fT 250 MHz.

[Add a short discussion on the gain-bandwidth product Am f H .]