SEPARATION PROCESS II

(CDB 2063)

Dr Nurul Aini Amran

nurul.amran@utp.edu.my
RECAP

C) +H0
Hy (kJ/kg dry air) =(1.005 + 1.88 H) (T - T0

cS (kJ/kg dry air. K) = 1.005 + 1.88 H

vH (m3/kg dry air) = (2.83 x 10 3 + 4.56 x 10-3 H) T K

2
LETS SEE IF YOU UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT
ASSESSMENT 1
Air entering a dryer has a temperature (dry bulb temperature) of
60C and a dew point of 26.7C. Using the humidity chart,
determine the:
a) actual humidity, H
b) percentage humidity, HP
c) humid heat, cs
d) humid volume, vH

3
ASSESSMENT 1: SOLUTION

Percentage
humidity,
HP = 14%

H=
0.0225

4
ASSESSMENT 1: SOLUTION
a) Actual humidity, H
Refer Humidity Chart, given Dry bulb temperature
(air temperature = 60C, Dew Point = 26.7C)
H = 0.0225 kg H2O/kg dry air
b) Percentage humidity, HP Hp = 14%

c) Humid heat?
cS (kJ/kg dry air) = 1.005 + 1.88 H Cs = 1.047 kJ/kg dry air . K
d) Humid volume?
vH = (2.83 x 10 3 + 4.56 x 10-3 H) T K VH = 0.977m3/kg dry air

5
ASSESSMENT 2
An air stream at 87.8C having a humidity H = 0.03
kg H2O/kg dry air is contacted in an adiabatic
saturator with water. It is cooled and humidified to
90% saturation.
Determine:
a) The final values of H and T
b) For 100% saturation, what would be the values
of H and T
a. H = 0.05 kg H2O/kg dry air,
T = 42.5 C
What is the wet bulb temperature of this
b. H = 0.0505 kg H2O/kg dry air,
air stream? T = 40.5C
6
 ASSESSMENT 2: SOLUTION
Given: 87.8C, H = 0.03 kg H2O/kg dry air, 90% saturation

a)The final values of H and T

H = 0.05 kg H2O/kg dry air,
T = 42.5 C

b)For 100% saturation, what

would be the values of H
90% H=0.05
and T
H = 0.0505 kg H2O/kg dry 0.03 or 3%
air,
T = 40.5C

T=42.5 87.8

7
EXAMPLE 9.3-4
A water vapor-air mixture having a dry bulb
temperature of T = 600C is passed over a wet bulb.
The wet bulb temperature obtained is Tw = 29.5 0C.
What is the humidity of the mixture?

Solution:
The adiabatic saturation lines can also be used for wet
bulb lines with reasonable accuracy. So Tw can be
assumed to be the same as TS

8
HUMIDITY CHART

H=0.0135

60
29.5
9
 LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
describe the drying principles and its application
apply the following concept in solving problems related to drying
humidity, humid volume, humid heat
adiabatic saturation temperature
wet bulb temperature
equilibrium moisture content
constant rate and falling rate drying
differentiate the different types of drying region
predict the drying rate and drying time using empirical correlation

10
In pair, suggest the theory used in justifying why each of
these method is better than indoor drying, and when does
drying stops?

Warm air is less dense than cold air, there is more room for water
vapor in warm air as compared with cold air.
WHAT WILL HAPPEN WHEN A WET SOLID IS BROUGHT INTO
CONTACT WITH AIR?
EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT (EMC) OF MATERIALS
Equilibrium attained when solid attain a definite moisture content after
prolonged exposure to air under specified humidity and temperature of air.
Its the point where solid stops losing moisture after being contacted with air
Changes with relative humidity and temperature

UNIT = kg water/kg bone dry solid (dry basis)

= kg moisture/kg wet substance (wet basis)
= kg H2O/100 kg dry solid
= kg water/kg dry solid

13
EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT OF MATERIALS

EMC varies greatly with the type

of material
Nonporous insoluble solid tend
to have low EMC at given
humidity
Typical food or biological
material tend have high EMC
EMC of a solid decreases with
increase in temperature at given
humidity.

14
 FREE MOISTURE OF A SUBSTANCE
Free moisture content is the difference between given moisture content
of solid, XT and equilibrium moisture content, X*, => XT X*
(moisture in excess to EMC)
This excess moisture is removed by drying under the given percent
relative humidity
Subject to air flow
(RH 50%, 25 C

Silk, EMC = 8.5 kg Silk sample, water content =

H2O/100 kg dry material 10 kg H2O/100 kg dry
(RH air: 50% at 25oC) material

15
 THE DRYING PROCESS Things to consider:
1. Operating condition air temperature and
Rate of drying curve from experiment
air flow ( air humidity)
2. Drying time
3. EMC of material

W LS
Xt
LS
X Xt X *
Sample (solid) is placed on tray
DATA
measure weight loss of moisture W = weight of wet solid, kg wet solid
during drying at different intervals LS = kg dry solid
without interrupting the operation X = free moisture content, kg free H2O/kg dry solid
X* = EMC, kg equilibrium moisture/kg dry solid
Constant drying condition : Velocity, Xt = total water, kg total H2O/kg dry solid
humidity, temperature and direction of
air are constant
DRYING CURVES
Graph 1: Drying rate curve in terms of free Graph 2: Drying rate curve in terms of
moisture content drying rate

Measure the A = when

slope of tangents solid is hot
to the curve
A = when
solid is colder

W LS LS X
Xt R
L dX
S
LS A t A dt
X Xt X *
21.5 kg/m2 17
THE DRYING RATE Constant rate region
Surface of solid initially Starts at point C
very wet (film of
moisture)
Rate of evaporation is
independent of solid,
and similar to rate from
free liquid surface
The drying rate is
mostly dependent on
the rate of heat
transfer to the solid
Falling rate region
Insufficient water on the
solid surface
Water migration from
the solid interior to the
surface by molecular
diffusion or capillary
movement.
At point D, the surface is
completely dry
Plane of evaporation
recedes from surface
Point C to E is a long
period
DRYING CURVE CONSTANT RATE PERIOD
LS dX
R
LS X L dX A dt
R S t 2 t Ls X 1 dX
A t t
A X 2 R
A dt dt
t1 0

t
Ls
X1 X 2
ARC

FALLING RATE PERIOD

LS dX
R
A dt

SPECIAL CASE
Critical moisture
R = aX+b
L X X 2 R1
t s 1 ln
content AR1 R2 R2

R = aX L X X
t s C ln C
ARC X2
19
WHAT IF THE DRYING IN THE FALLING RATE PERIOD
DOES NOT FALL INTO ANY OF THE SPECIAL CASE?
LS X1 dX
t
A X 2 R
USE NUMERICAL
INTEGRATION!

20
WHAT IF EXPERIMENTAL DATA IS NOT AVAILABLE?
Use equation to predict the constant-rate drying
Assumptions:
i. Steady state process i.e. rate of mass transfer balances the rate of heat transfer
ii. Neglect heat transfer by conduction and radiation
iii. Heat transfer is by air convection only

Convective heat transfer from gas to surface of solid:

q h(T TW ) A
Heat needed to vaporize NA (kmol/s.m2) water:
q M A N AW A
Mass flux of water vapor from the surface:
MB
N A k y ( yw y ) k y (H w H )
MA
 WHAT IF EXPERIMENTAL DATA IS NOT AVAILABLE?
q h(T TW )
RC k y M air ( HW H )
AW W
Drying time for constant rate drying (in terms of transfer coefficients)
in
C
LS W ( X 1 X 2 ) LS ( X 1 X 2 )
t
Ah(T TW ) Ak y M air ( HW H ) h(T TW )
Rc (kgH 2O / h.m )
2
3600
W
h = 0.0204 G0.8 G, mass velocity = 2450 29 300 kg/h m2
where h is
predicted using: Velocity of air = 0.61 7.6 m/s

G, mass velocity = 3900 19 500 kg/h m2

h = 1.17 G 0.37
Velocity of air = 0.9 4.6 m/s
GROUP ACTIVITY
CALCULATION FOR DRYING TIME IN THE CONSTANT RATE PERIOD

A solid with drying curve shown below is to

be dried from X1 = 0.38 kg H2O / kg dry
solid to X2 = 0.25 kg H2O / kg dry solid.
Estimate the time required for drying
Given: free moisture content X1 and X2
Find: drying time
Solution:
From drying curve (Fig 9.5-1a),
X1 t1 and X2 t2
Hence,
drying time = t2 t1

24
CALCULATION FOR DRYING TIME IN THE CONSTANT RATE PERIOD
A solid with drying curve shown below is to
be dried from X1 = 0.38 kg H2O / kg dry
solid to X2 = 0.25 kg H2O / kg dry solid.
Estimate the time required for drying
If the drying curve is not available, but
given that the rate of drying in the
constant rate period is 1.51 kg H2O /
h.m2, and that Ls/A = 21.5 kg dry solid
/m2 , calculate the drying time to dry the
sample from X1 = 0.38 kg H2O / kg dry
solid to X2 = 0.25 kg H2O / kg dry solid.
LS dX
R
A dt
t 2 tLs X 1 dX
t
A X 2 R
dt
t1 0
Drying time for constant rate period

t
Ls
X1 X 2 1.85 h
ARC
25
CALCULATION FOR DRYING TIME IN THE FALLING RATE PERIOD
Find the time for drying if a solid is to be
dried from XC = 0.195 kg H2O / kg dry
solid to X = 0.04. Take RC=1.51 kg H2O /
h.m2, and Ls/A = 21.5 kg dry solid /m2.
Assume straight line through origin
Ls X C X C
t ln
ARC X2
4.39 h

26
CALCULATION FOR DRYING TIME IN THE FALLING RATE PERIOD
Find the time for drying if a solid is to be
dried from XC = 0.195 kg H2O / kg dry LS X1 dX
solid to X = 0.04. Take Ls/A = 21.5 kg dry t
A X 2 R
solid /m2. Use numerical integration to solve
the problem X R 1/R X (1/R)av X/(1/R
)av

27
CALCULATION FOR DRYING TIME IN THE FALLING RATE PERIOD
Find the time for drying if a solid is to be
dried from XC = 0.195 kg H2O / kg dry LS X1dX
solid to X = 0.04. Take Ls/A = 21.5 kg dry t
A X 2 R
solid /m2. Use numerical integration to solve
the problem X R 1/R X (1/R)av (X)(1/R)av
0.195 1.51 0.663 0.045 0.745 0.0335
0.150 1.21 0.826 0.050 0.969 0.0485
0.100 0.90 1.111 0.035 1.260 0.0441
0.065 0.71 1.408 0.015 2.055 0.0308
0.050 0.37 2.702 0.010 3.203 0.0320
0.040 0.27 3.704 TOTAL 0.1889

LS X 1 dX
t
A X2 R
21.5 0.1889 4.06h

28
PREPARE A MIND MAP COVERING THE LECTURE
MATERIAL TODAY FOR YOUR GROUP
LECTURE 3 TUTORIAL SESSION
 RECAP PREVIOUS LECTURE
CONSTANT RATE PERIOD CONSTANT RATE PERIOD WITHOUT
W LS
Xt LS dX EXPERIMENT DATA
LS R
A dt q h(T TW )
X Xt X * EMC RC k y M air ( HW H )
FMC t
Ls
X1 X 2 AW W
ARC
LS W ( X 1 X 2 )
FALLING RATE PERIOD t
Ah(T TW )
R
LS dX LS ( X 1 X 2 )

A dt Ak y M air ( H W H )
L X X 2 R1

SPECIAL CASE
R = aX+b t s 1 ln
AR1 R2 R2
h = 0.0204 G0.8
R = aX L X X
t s C ln C
ARC X2
h = 1.17 G 0.37
If no, use numerical integration /
measure area under the graph of
I/R vs X to find t
RECAP GROUP BRAINSTORMING
Discuss how the following affects the drying process (assume no radiation and
conduction heat transfer)

AIR VELOCITY AIR TEMPERATURE

AIR HUMIDITY SOLID THICKNESS

Share your findings with the whole class

EXAMPLE: 9.6-3: PREDICTION CONSTANT- RATE DRYING

An insoluble wet granular material is dried in a pan 0.457 x

0.457 m, and 25.4 mm deep. The material is 25.4 mm deep in
the pan, and the sides and bottom can be considered to be
insulated. Heat transfer by convection from an air stream
flowing parallel to the surface at a velocity of 6.1 m/s. The air
is at 65.6 oC and has a humidity of 0.010 kg H2O/kg dry air.
Estimate the rate of drying for the constant-rate period.

33
EXAMPLE :9.6-3:GIVEN

Given: A = 0.457 x 0.457 m

Deep = 25.4 mm deep
Insulated = adiabatic
Air parallel, velocity = 6.1 m/s
T = 65.6 oC
H = 0.010 kg H2O/kg dry air
Find: rate of drying for the constant-rate period,
Rc? 34
EXAMPLE :9.6-3:SOLUTION Assumption: adiabatic
Rate of drying for constant-rate period

h 0
RC (T TW C )(3600) [to express the rate per hour]
W
h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
T = temperature of air
TW = wet bulb temperature = solid surface temperature
W = latent heat at TW (J/kg)

35
1. Tw = ? Refer Humidity Chart, Tw = 28 0C, Hw =0.026

Hw
H

Tw
36
EXAMPLE :9.6-3:SOLUTION
2. Refer steam table for W,
at Tw = 280C, W = 2433 kJ/kg

3. How to obtain h, heat transfer

coefficient???

h = 0.0204 G0.8 [for parallel air flow]

37
EXAMPLE :9.6-3:SOLUTION
Mass Velocity, G = v

Density of air, = m/H

Velocity of air
= GIVEN (Total mass of dry air +
moisture)/Humid volume

vH = (2.83 x 10 3 + 4.56 x 10-3 H) T K = 0.974 m3/kg dry air

= m/H = 1 (kg dry air) + 0.01 (kg H2O) = 1.037 kg/m3

0.974

G = 22 770 kg/h m2
38
EXAMPLE :9.6-3:SOLUTION
Then, h = 0.0204 G0.8 = 62.45 W/m2 K

4. Substitute all values into Equation

h 0
RC (T TW C )(3600)
W
Rc = 3.39 kg/h m2 (drying rate for constant period)

What is the total evaporation rate for a

surface area of 0.457 x 0.457 m2 ? RCA = 0.708 kg/hr

39
TUTORIAL QUESTION 1
A batch of wet solid was dried on a tray dryer under constant drying conditions from initial
free moisture content of X1 = 0.55 to critical moisture content, XC = 0.22 kg free moisture /
kg dry solid. Thickness of the material on the tray is 25.4 mm. Only the top surface is
exposed to air flow. The drying rate during the constant rate period is 2.05 kg H2O/h.m2,
and Ls/A = 24.4 kg dry solid/m2.
Calculate the time to dry the same material from X1 = 0.45 to X2 = 0.30 if the thickness of
material is 50.8 mm, with both top and bottom surface exposed to air flow.
(Ans: 1.785 h)

(9.6-1)
 ANSWER TUTORIAL QUESTION 1
The thickness of the solid is doubled. Since both top and bottom surfaces are
exposed to air, LS/A remains the same.

t
Ls
X1 X 2
ARC
24.4kgdrysolid / m 2
3
(0.45 0.3)
2.05kgH 2O / m .h
1.785hours

(9.6-1)
 TUTORIAL QUESTION 2
A tile company produces 1-in. thick tiles with the
dimension of 1 ft 1 ft as one of their main
products. The tiles are dried on the top surface using
air at a wet bulb temperature of 80 F and a dry
bulb temperature of 120 F flowing parallel to the
surface at a velocity of 3.5 ft/s. The dry density of
the tile is 120lbm/ft3 and the critical free moisture
content is 0.09 lbm H2O/lbm dry solid. The latent
heat of water at the wet bulb temperature is 1. Calculate the drying rate for the constant-rate
1048.3 btu/lbm. The humidity chart for mixtures of drying region, Rc.
air and water vapor at a total pressure of 101.325 2. Calculate how long it will take to dry the tiles from
kPa (760 mm Hg) is provided in FIGURE Q2 a free moisture content of 0.2 lbm H2O/lbm dry
material to the critical moisture content
ANSWER TUTORIAL QUESTION 2 Tw = 80
T = 120
F
F
Xc = 0.09 lbm H2O/lbm dry
At Tw = 80
F, T = 120
F, H = 0.013 kg lbm H2O/lbm dry air solid
W = 1048.3 btu/lbm
A = 1 ft2
G = v v = 3.5 ft/s
dry = 120 lbm/ft3
= m/H = ___1 (lbm dry air) + 0.013 (lbm H2O) __ = 0.0679 lbm/ft3
(0.0252 + 0.0405(0.013))(120+459.67)

G = 3.5 ft/s x 0.0679 lbm/ft3 x 3600 s/h = 855.54 lbm/ft2.h

h = 0.0128(855.54)0.8 = 2.838 btu/h.ft2.F

t
Ls
X1 X 2
Hence, drying rate, ARC
Ls = dry x volume tile = 120 x 1 x 1 x (1/12)
h 0 = 10 lbm.
RC (T TW C ) 0.108 lbm/h.ft 2
W Ls/A = 10 lbm/ft2

Hence, t 10 0.2 0.09 10.19 hrs

0.108
TUTORIAL QUESTION 3
In a small textile processing unit, dyed and washed cotton yarn is dried in an
insulated chamber through which hot air is blown. Bundles of yarn are kept
suspended from the roof of the chamber through which hot air is blown. 200 Kg of
wet yarn with 1 kg water per kg yarn is taken in a batch. Air at 25oC (wet bulb
temperature =15oC) is heated to 65oC before it enters the chamber. Assume airflow
rate is large enough for its temperature and humidity to remain constant.
From the operating data it is known that the constant rate of drying under the given
conditions is 0.5 kg moisture per hour per kg of dry yarn. The critical moisture is Xc=
0.15, and the equilibrium moisture is X*=0.001. Calculate the time required for
drying the yarn to a final moisture of Xf =0.003 if the falling rate of drying is linear
in X.
ANSWER TUTORIAL QUESTION 3 Xt = 1 kg H2O/kg dry yarn
X* = 0.001 kg H2O/kg dry yarn
Xc = 0.15 kg H2O/kg dry yarn
X1 = Xt X* = 1 0.001 = 0.999 kg H2O/kg yarn T = 65 C
Tw = 15 C
Rc = 0.5 kg H2O/h. kg dry yarn
Constant drying period,
t
Ls
X1 X 2
ARC

= 0.5 kg H2O/h. kg dry yarn (0.999 0.15)

= 1.7 hours.

Falling drying period, assume R = ax (special case)

Hence total drying period,
L X X
t s C ln C
ARC X2 t = 1.7 + 1.174 = 2.874 hours.

= (0.15/0.5) ln (0.15/0.003)

= 1.174 hours.
TUTORIAL QUESTION 4
In order to test the feasibility of drying a certain foodstuff, drying data were
obtained in a tray drier with air flowing over the top surface with an area of 0.186
m2. The bone dry sample weight was 3.765 kg dry solid. Experimental data is given
below. Evaluate the data and find the value of drying rate in the constant rate
period. Next, predict the total time to dry the sample from X = 0.2 to X = 0.04.

Time (h) Weight (kg) Time (h) Weight (kg) Time (h) Weight (kg)
0 4.944 2.2 4.554 7.0 4.019
0.4 4.885 3.0 4.404 9.0 3.978
0.8 4.808 4.2 4.241 12.0 3.955
1.4 4.699 5.0 4.150

(9.7-2)
 ANSWER TUTORIAL QUESTION 4 X versus t
t W X dX/dt 0.300
LS dX
0.0 4.944 0.263
0.250
R
0.4 4.885 0.247 -0.039 The gradient = -0.049 A dt
0.8 4.808 0.227 -0.051 0.200 3.765
1.4 4.699 0.198 -0.048
( 0.049)
0.150 0.186
2.2 4.554 0.159 -0.048
3.0 4.404 0.119 -0.050
0.100 0.991 kgH 2 O/m 2 .h
4.2 4.241 0.076 -0.036 0.050

5.0 4.15 0.052 -0.030 0.000

7.0 4.019 0.017 -0.017 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0

9.0 3.978 0.006 -0.005

12.0 3.955 0.000 -0.002
Constant drying period, Falling drying period, assume R=ax,
R versus X
1.2 t
Ls
X1 X c t
Ls X C X C
ln
ARC ARC X2
1
3.765
(0.2 0.12) 3.765 0.12 0.12

0.8
0.186(0.991) ln
0.6 0.186 0.991 0.04
1.62 hours
0.4 2.69hours
0.2
Total drying period = 4.31 hours
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
(9.7-2)
 Assumptions:
For every batch, tea leaves are distributed
evenly on a single drying tray in the drying
TUTORIAL QUESTION 5 cabinet.
Hot air from the blower flow perpendicular to
For the drying process in a local black tea manufacturing the tea leaves.
company, the optimum drying period is 1.5 hours and the Constant drying rate occurs for the production
free moisture to be removed is 30% of the initial feed of good quality tea and the equilibrium
moisture content. Batch drying process is conducted inside a moisture content, X* = 0.05 kg H2O/kg bone
drying cabinet (width = 5 m, length = 5 m and height 0.5 dry solid.
m). Electric blowers are mounted on the upper part of the The drying cabinet is considered to be
cabinet to dry the tea leaves in the drying cabinet. The insulated.
initial free moisture content for tea leaves is 0.4 kg H2O/kg Latent heat of vaporization, w = 2442
dry solid. The drying cabinet is operated at 51 C and has a kJ/kg.
humidity of 0.01 kg H2O/ kg dry air. The company produces Humid volume, vH (m3/kg dry air) = (2.83 x
500 kg of dry black tea per batch. 10-3 + 4.56 x 10-3 H) T
1. Calculate the required velocity of air flow for the Heat transfer coefficient, h (W/m2.K) = 1.17
process G 0.37
2. Using the same operating conditions, estimate the amount of green tea produced (kg) per batch, if the final
free moisture content of the green tea is 0.25 kg H2O/kg dry solid. The initial free moisture content for
green tea leaves is 0.4 kg H2O/kg dry solid.
ANSWER TUTORIAL QUESTION 5 Ls = 500 kg dry solid
t = 1.5 hours
X1 = 0.4 kg H2O/kg dry solid
A) Calculate X2 Hence, T = 51 C
H = 0.01 kg H2O/kg dry solid
X2 = 0.7Xt1 X* h
RC (T TW oC ) 1.8 kg/m 2 .h
= (0.7 (0.4 + 0.05)) 0.05 W
= 0.265
At T = 51C, H = 0.01 kg H2O/kg dry solid,
Assume operation in constant rate region Tw = 25 C, W = 2442.31 kJ/kg
(based on data limitation),

t s X1 X 2
L
h
R (1.8 kg/m 2
.h)(2442.31 kJ/kg)
c W

ARC T TW 51 - 25
LS 46.97 J/m 2 .o C
Rc ( X1 X 2 )
At
500kg
2
(0.4 0.265) h= 1.17G0.37, hence G = 21584.79 kg/m2.h
25m (1.5hr )
1.8 kg/m 2 .h G=v
V = 5.53 m/s
QUESTION?

50
DRYING IN THE CONSTANT-RATE PERIOD
surface of solid is initially very wet
continuous film of water (unbound water)
exists on drying surface
rate of evaporation & drying is independent of
solid
rate same as the rate from a free liquid surface C B
For porous solid
D A
most of the water is supplied from interior
E
of solid X
The constant period continues until water
supply is as fast as evaporation
Surface temperature is same as the wet bulb
temp. 51
DRYING IN THE FALLING RATE PERIOD
insufficient water on surface to maintain continuous
film of water
wetted area continually decreases in first falling-rate
period, until completely dry (at Point D)
second falling-rate period begins at point D
evaporation slowly diminishes from surface
In falling rate period moisture removal small but time
required long
C B

A
D

E
52
X