REW N 22 Diciembre 2012 PDF

Number 22, December 2012
MONOGRAPHIC ABOUT DIGITAL STORYTELLING
Guests Editors Introduction

Carmen Gregori Signes and Barry Pennock
Digital Storytelling as a Pedagogical Tool within a Didactic Sequence in

Foreign Language Teaching
Agustn Reyes, Eva Pich and MDolores Garca (1-18)
Aprendiendo en el aula: contando y hacienda relatos digitales personales

Gloria Londoo-Monroy (19-36)
What Educators Should Know about Teaching Digital Storytelling

Bernard R. Robin and Sara G. McNeil (37-51)
El valor de una historia digital en el context europeo de aprendizaje integrado

a travs de lengua y contenido (CLIL)
Mara Dolores Ramrez-Verdugo, Mara Victoria Sotomayor Sez (52-67)
El uso educativo de los relatos digitales personales como herramienta para

pensar el Yo (Self)
Miguel Herreros (68-79)
Multimodal Discourse Strategies of Factuality and Subjectivity in Educational

Digital Storytelling
Patricia Bou-Franch (80-91)
Playing with the Team: The Development of Communities of Practice in a

Digital Storytelling Project
Peter John Westman (92-99)
PEER REVIEW ARTICLES
Individual Innovativeness Levels of Educational Administrators

Ahmet Naci Coklar (100-110)

Digital Education Review - Number 20, December 2011- http://greav.ub.edu/der/

Digital Education Review
Number 22, December 2012
Universitat de Barcelona
Pg.de la Vall dHebron, 171
08035 Barcelona, Spain
der@greav.net
ISSN 2013-9144
Editorial Team
Editor: Jos Luis Rodrguez Illera, Universitat de Barcelona (Spain)
Associate Editor: Ana Teberosky, Universitat de Barcelona (Spain)
Elena Barber, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (Spain)
Editorial Board: Jordi Adell, Universitat Jaume I (Spain)
Fernando Albuquerque Costa, Universidade de Lisboa (Portugal)
Mario Barajas, Universitat de Barcelona (Spain)
Csar Coll, Universitat de Barcelona (Spain)
Vivien Hodgson, Lancaster University (UK)
Mnica Kaechele, Universidad Catlica de Temuco (Chile)
Pierpaolo Limone, Universit degli Studio di Foggia (Italy)
Carles Monereo, Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona (Spain)
Jordi Quintana Albalat, Universitat de Barcelona (Spain)
Jos Armando Valente, Universidade Estadual de Campinas

(Brazil)
Editorial Assistant: Nria Molas Castells, Universitat de Barcelona (Spain)

Digital Education Review - http://greav.ub.edu/der/ - Number 22, December 2012

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Digital storytelling as a genre of mediatized self-

representations: an introduction
Carmen Gregori-Signes & Barry Pennock-Speck
Departament de Filologia Anglesa i Alemanya
Facultat de Filologia, Traducci i Comunicaci
IULMA. Universitat de Valncia
Abstract
This article provides a critical review of some of the most relevant studies on
digital storytelling and proposes a genre typology that allows an initial
classification of digital storytelling into two main types: educational and social.
Digital storytelling is a multimodal emergent genre characterised by its
versatility and flexibility which has resulted in a series of subgenres. However,
the main premise here is that differentiating between social and educational
although one does not exclude the other and bearing in mind that most digital
stories may lie at the intersection of both, is the most useful way to start
labeling the massive production of digital stories available nowadays on the
Internet. The articles included in this number are mostly educational (Ramrez-
Verdugo & Sotomayor Grande, and Reyes, Pich & Garca, Londoo-Monroy) but
they all include some traces of the social type. Thus, Bou-Franch is an example
of how students interpret certain events that had social impact and that are
part of history while Westmans article involves the creation of communities of
practice among those who share the same interests. Finally, Herreros-Navarro,
although educational in essence, describes a social act in which students
intentionally choose a way to present their own identity to society using digital
storytelling.

Keywords
Digital storytelling; multimodal; education


Relatos digitales un gnero de expresin personal mediatizada:
introduccin

Carmen Gregori-Signes & Barry Pennock-Speck
Departament de Filologia Anglesa i Alemanya
Facultat de Filologia, Traducci i Comunicaci
IULMA. Universitat de Valncia
Resumen
Este artculo ofrece una revisin crtica de algunos de los estudios ms
relevantes sobre relato digital y propone una tipologa de gnero que permite
una clasificacin inicial en dos grandes tipos: educativo y social. El argumento
principal es que la diferenciacin entre lo social y educativo, aunque uno no
excluye al otro, ofrece la posibilidad de clasificar la produccin masiva de relatos
digitales disponibles hoy en da en Internet. Los artculos incluidos en este
nmero son, en su mayora, educativos (Ramrez-Verdugo y Grande Sotomayor,
y Reyes, Pich & Garca, Londoo-Godoy), aunque en todos ellos todos ellos
incluyen algunos rasgo de lo social. Bou-Franch nos habla de las estrategias
utilizadas por los estudiantes en la interpretacin de acontecimientos histricos
que tuvieron impacto social; mientras que el artculo de Westman conlleva la
creacin de comunidades de prctica entre aquellos que comparten los mismos
intereses. Por ltimo, para Herreros Navarro el relato digital es un acto social en
el que los estudiantes deben decidir como quieren que la sociedad les vea ya
que describen y exploran su o a travs del relato digital.

Palabras clave
Relatos digitales; multimodal; educacin


I. Digital Storytelling: a multimodal way of telling stories
Couldry (2008) argues that there are many different types of Digital Storytelling (DS), which, in
its broadest sense may be understood as an example of multimodal narrative. McClean (2007),
for example, focuses on the narrative power of visual effects in film while Miller (2004) centres
on the creative opportunities of interactive entertainment (cited in Lundby 2008, pp. 1). Here,
we understand DS according to the now classical model of Digital Storytelling developed by the
Centre for Digital Storytelling in California (see section 2 below) and best understood as short
multimodal stories made with inexpensive equipment and mainly about personal experiences.
According to Kaare and Luntby (2008, pp.106) these stories do not fit into formal theories of
narratives from literature and film studies using self-sourced images and told with the authors
own voice. Although some of the definitions that one finds may suggest an additive character
of DS, that is as the result of adding multimedia elements to a written or oral narrative, as Hull
and Nelson (2005, pp. 225) argue, multimodal composing is not an additive art; a multimodal
text can create a different system of signification. Scheidt (2006) adds that DS should not be
understood as a phenomenon equivalent to either oral or to written narratives: DS creates a
new composition. Lundby (2008, pp. 1) summarises its characteristics as: a) short, just a few
minutes long; b) made off the self-equipment and techniques with inexpensive productions; c)
small-scale stories, centred on the narrators own personal life and told in his or her own voice.
Robin (2006) classifies digital stories into three main types, personal narratives, documentaries,
and inform or instruct discourse (Robin, 2006), while Gregori (2011) includes a fourth type,
socio-political digital storytelling. To these, many other subtypes could be added. However for
the sake of simplification, we propose here a differentiation between two types: a) social b)
educational, which, without doubt account for the vast majority digital stories that can be found
on the Internet.
II. Classic model of Digital Storytelling originated in the Centre for Digital
Storytelling: the personal and social dimension
a. Social commitment
The model initiated by the Centre for Digital Storytelling (CDS), which is the point of departure
for most applications of DS, emerged as a celebration of the creative expression of the
common folk, of the non-professional artist (Lambert 2010 pp. 79). Lambert (2010) admits
that although the expansion of DS into a wide variety of practices such as marketing, education
technology etc., is inevitable, the result in many cases situates this type of work outside a
social change framework [] missing the point about DS entirely. Thus creations of this kind are
imbued, at best, with a thin, superficial veneer of social commitment (2009, pp.82).
The logo of the CDS claims that everyone has a story to tell. For them, the practice of digital
storytelling enables autonomous and creative intercourse among persons in an intent to
promote social change. Since their beginnings, the CDS has undergone many changes,
especially noticeable is the launch of its new website in 2012 where a great variety of
workshops are offered: Educator Workshop, The Embodied Story Workshop, Stories-for-Health
Workshop, iPhone Workshop, Snapshot Story Workshop, Facilitator In Training Workshop and a
Certificate Program. This has meant an expansion of DS to many different contexts, thus
favouring a direct or indirect confrontation with the dominant culture and representative
authorities (Lambert 2010, pp.82).
b. The democratic dimension of digital storytelling
In its origins, there was a strong democratic motivation underlying DS (Lambert 2010, Erstad
and Silseth 2008, pp. 217) since its intention was always to allow unheard voices to be heard.
Although they recognize the democratic potential of DS, authors like Couldry (2008) and Erstad
and Silseth (2008, pp. 216) express their reservations about the impact of DS in the real
world.


There is no doubt that DS is the result of storytelling interacting with society. McWilliam (2009,
pp. 151) argues that the discourses circulating around DS are substantively constructed,
circulated and sustained in institutions, among participants and within texts. These three basic
elements (institution, participant and the texts they produce) constitute dichotomous
parameters that reflect different uses of DS: a) public vs. private sectors; b) cultural or
economic motivations; c) expressive vs. instrumental pedagogies. These elements are
represented in a continuum and, at the same time, include other factors shared between
different institutions. The question is, however, whether digital stories surpass the limits of the
institutions in which they are created and have any impact on the making of (social and
cultural) meaning and also if they have any social consequences. That is, does DS have
implications for the sustaining, or expansion of democracy? Does it contribute to social and
cultural transformations which, as argued by Couldry (2008, pp. 46) can only happen under
complex conditions? Couldry (2008) uses the term mediation and Hjarvard (2008)
mediatization to refer to the transformative power of the media and the broader effects of DS.
Couldry differentiates between both mediation (Martin-Barbero 1993; Silverstone, 1999;
Couldry 2000) and mediatization (Hjarvard, 2004; Mazzoleni and Schulz, 2004), choosing
mediation in order to express the overall effect of media institutions existing in contemporary
societies, the overall difference media make by being there in our social world (Couldry 2008,
pp. 46)
In this vein, Westman (this number), offers an analysis of digital stories created to celebrate
grass roots cricket. The production process of the digital stories described by Westman is
different from the classical model as described by CDS (cf. section 2.3 below) by CDS in that
the stories are researched and created by project staff. Westman analyzes said stories using
Gells (1988) theory of art. He reaches the conclusion that through their creation participants
form complex communities of practice.
c. The workshop
The model introduced by the CDS with Dana Atchley, Joe Lambert and Nina Mullen, which was
further developed by Daniel Meadows (2003) in the United Kingdom is workshop-based. It
involves a 3 to 5-day workshop in which participants are provided with games and guided
through the process of telling their story (Lambert, 2010).
As digital storytelling develops, so do the techniques it employs. As Lambert (2010) explains

their:
[] emphasis over the years has been to help storytellers find the story they want or
need to tell, and then help them clearly define that story in the form of solidly written
script. For many storytellers, this process of clarification has proven to be a
transformative experience.
To this, Lambert (2010) adds that their new approach to digital storytelling incorporates new
techniques:
[.] we are helping our storytellers fully visualize their story as a finished piece before
they begin to write their script [ . ] during our group process called the Story Circle
[.] we want to help each storyteller not only find and clarify the story being told, but
also check in with them about how they feel about it, identify the moment of change in
their story, then use that to help them think through how the audience will see and hear
their story in the form of a digital story. And finally, after the Story Circle is completed,
and the storyteller has had some time alone with his or her thoughts, they can then let
all of these considerations inform them as they sit down to write.
Taught and learned from person to person the model proposed by Atchley, Lambert and Mullen
reiterates their commitment to both social change and the individual. Their logo is that
everyone has a story to tell; CDS treats stories as acts of self-discovery.


III. Educational Digital Storytelling: school-focused
We understand educational digital stories as school-focused, produced and developed within the
school context and as part of the academic curriculum which engage in formal schooling
applications of DS at primary, secondary and tertiary level. In these contexts, as expressed by
McWilliam (2009, pp.152), DS is often seen as a tool in building media literacy, narrative
development and self-presentation skills, but also means engaging students who might
otherwise be struggling socially and/or intellectually. In this number and from the point of view
of a university lecturer Bou-Franch analyses stories produced by Spanish undergraduates of
English Studies for the module History and Culture of English-speaking Countries, during the
2011 spring term. Bou-Franch points out that stories fluctuated from the discourse of factuality
to the discourse of subjectivity and argues that factuality allows students to display their
knowledge while subjectivity allows the inclusion of creativity and entertainment elements.
Barrett (2006) argues that digital storytelling fosters reflection and that reflection helps to
enhance the effectiveness of learning and:
facilitates the convergence of four student-centered learning strategies: student

engagement, reflection for deep learning, project-based learning, and the effective
integration of technology into instruction.
Along the same lines, Bendt and Bowe (2000) draw up a list of ten reasons why we should pay
more attention to storytelling:
it inspires dedication, encourages creativity to work, promotes problem solving,

embraces diversity, captivates attention, piques interest in writing, fosters group
dynamics, addresses different learning styles, creates a positive classroom climate and
incorporates the multiple intelligences.
What most authors point out is that DS has brought about an activation of more informal and
collaborative ways of learning which imply active participation between teacher and students
(Castell 2002) thus enhancing a student-centred focus in the educational context (Erstad and
Silseth 2008, pp.214); and with society (Gregori-Signes, 2011).
Reyes-Torres et al. in this number, describe a didactic sequence which uses digital storytelling
as a pedagogical tool with students of EFL. DS is seen as an adequate tool to help students
improve their language skills in specific situations within common daily interaction. The results
indicate that digital storytelling is evaluated as a positively both by teachers and students. In
particular, they point out its potential to motivate students and to help them learn from their
mistakes by improving teamwork and giving them the opportunity to get to know their
classmates better, to negotiate their ideas and to make decisions.
Along the same lines, Ramrez-Verdugo and Sotomayor Grande describe the potential of digital
storytelling to teach literary narrative in primary school. The schools where the project is carried
out use CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) as a teaching method and ICTs are
also employed as pedagogical tools. Despite the initial reluctance on the part of the teachers
involved in the project, the results seem to indicate that once teachers and students
experienced the use of DS in the classroom directly, they coincide that DS can contribute
positively in a CLIL learning context by providing the necessary means to improve linguistic,
literary, cognitive, social and cultural competences while promoting the acquisition of discipline-
specific content.
a. Student: self-reflection and agency
Erstad and Silseth (2008, pp. 214) focus on digital storytelling and agency, and affirm that on
the one hand, DS provides an opportunity for individuals to become agents and to be more
visible. On the other, they affirm:


when young people are given the opportunity to blend the informal cultural codes with more
formal ones in their own learning processes, agency might be fostered in a new way, with
implications for democratic participation.
They understand agency as the capacity to make a difference (Castor and Cooren, 2006 in
Erstad and Silseth 2008, pp. 216), which links directly to other educational uses of DS as a tool
that can help promote critical thinking and self-and group-reflection by bringing school and
society together (Gregori-Signes 2013). The concepts of agency, identity and self-expression
have become the hallmark of DS. Valkanova and Watts (2007) use it in order to promote self-
reflective language in seven year old children (Bjorgen 2010) who produce video diaries about
their own everyday classroom experiences in a science course.
In this number Herreros-Navarro analyses stories produced by secondary school students

following the principles of classical narrative theory, filmic narrative; cognitive and psychological
processes. Herreros-Navarro uses personal digital storytelling as a tool that makes students
think about their identity as human beings. Through this activity the students reflect not only
about themselves but also about the potential audience for their stories. This entails,
undoubtedly, having to decide on the public image that they want the narrative to transmit,
thus encouraging students to organize their own ideas about their own self-identity.
A similar perspective is taken by Londoo-Monroy who also analyses digital stories produced by
secondary school students. She analyses the possibilities that DS offers when formally
implemented in the curriculum. Her conclusions indicate that DS helps students modify or
change their roles. They become creators instead of consumers and thus more active. The
implementation of DS motivates learners by offering a student-centred model backed up by a
multimodal tool which helps students put into practice several competences (cf. Pennock-Speck,
2009).
IV. ICTs and Digital Storytelling

For the last decade one of the main concerns in school education has been the implementation
of information and communication technologies. DS has been reported as a more personal
approach to digital technologies while facilitating the development of student-centered learning
environments (Jonasse and Land 2000 quoted in Erstad and Silseth 2008, p. 215). DS is used
as a means to promote the development of competences such as research and writing skills,
organization skills, technology skills, presentation skills, interpersonal skills, problem-solving
skills- and in turn they develop: digital literacy, global literacy, technology literacy, visual
literacy, information literacy (cf. Robin 2006, Barrett 2006).
As argued by Gregori-Signes (2008) with the advent of new technologies and their consequent
integration within the curriculum teachers need to find attractive activities to substitute and
complement more traditional ones. DS promotes the use of Web 2.0 technology for educational
purposes while teaching students both traditional and innovative storytelling techniques.
Students learn how to combine basic multimedia tools (e.g., animations) with activities as
varied as doing research, writing and delivering presentations (cf. Robin 2005, Barrett 2006).
In this number, Robin and McNeil provide us with a blueprint for the successful creation of
digital stories within an educational context. The insights they provide are the product of years
of experience gained through teaching, giving workshops and supervising research into digital
storytelling. The article provides guidelines on every aspect of digital storytelling, that is, their
analysis, design, development, implementation and assessment.
V. Final remarks
This article has provided a critical review of some of the most relevant studies on digital
storytelling and has put forward a genre typology that allows an initial classification of digital
storytelling into two main types: educational and social. The articles in this number are mostly
about experiences with DS in educational settings as DS is still strongest in the world of
education. It is clear, however, that it is impossible to separate the two types completely;
educational stories are not divorced from the social context they are created in and stories with
a more social bent in the wider social context also have message to convey and, as such, are


partly pedagogical in nature.
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Castell, M. (2002). De la investigacin sobre el proceso de composicin a la enseanza de la

escritura. Revista Signos, 35:149-162.
Center for Digital Storytelling. http://www.storycenter.org/index1.htm. First accessed, 1 June,

2006.
Couldry, N. (2008). Digital storytelling, media research and democracy: Conceptual choices
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representations in New Media (pp. 41-60). New York: Peter Lang.
Erstad, O. & K. Silseth. (2008). Agency in Digital Storytelling. In K. Lundby (Ed.) Digital
storytelling, mediatized stories: Self-representations in new media. (pp. 213-232). New York:
Peter Lang.
Gregori Signes, C. (2008a). Integrating the old and the new: Digital Storytelling in the EFL
language classroom. Greta, 16, 1 & 2: 29-35.
Gregori-Signes, C. (2011). El relato digital desde una perspectiva socio-educativa. Jornada

<<Creando Relatos Digitales>>. Barcelona, 21 marzo 2010. Edulab, Universitat de Barcelona,
available from http://greav.net/pdf/ProgramaJornadaCreandoHistoriasDigitales, accessed 20
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WorldWide Web. Talk presented at the Conference Interdisciplinariedad, lenguas y TIC:
investigacin y enseanza. Valencia: IULMA, 2011.
Gregori-Signes, C. (2013, in press). Digital storytelling and multimodal literacy in secondary

education.
Hjarvard, S. (2004). From bricks to bytes: the mediatization of a global toy industry. In I.
Bondebjerg & Golding P. (Eds.), European culture and the media (pp. 43-63). Bristol: Intelect.
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Self-representations in new media (pp. 105-122). New York: Peter Lang.
Lambert, J. (2010). Cookbook for Digital Storytelling. New York: Digital Diner Press.
Scheidt, L. A. (2006) Adolescent diary weblogs and the unseen audience. In D. Buckingham &
R. Wilett (Eds.), Digital generations. Children, young people and new media (pp. 193-210).
London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lundby, K. (2008). Digital storytelling, mediatized stories: Self-representations in new media.

New York: Peter Lang.
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mediations. London: Sage.


McClean, S. 2007. Digital Storytelling: The Narrative Power of Visual Effects in Film.
Massachusetts: Massachussetts Institute of Technology.
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Recommended citation
Gregori, C. And Pennock, B. (2012) Digital storytelling as a genre of mediatized self-

representations: an introduction. In: Digital Education Review, 22. [Accessed:
dd/mm/yyyy] http://greav.ub.edu/der

Digital Storytelling as a Pedagogical Tool within a Didactic

Sequence in Foreign Language Teaching
Agustn Reyes Torres
agustin.reyes@uv.es
Facultad de Magisterio, Universidad de Valncia, Spain
Eva Pich Ponce
epich@us.es
Facultad de Filologa, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain
M Dolores Garca Pastor
maria.d.garcia@uv.es
Facultad de Magisterio, Universidad de Valncia, Spain
Abstract
Digital storytelling constitutes a pedagogical tool for teachers to work on
different linguistic skills while generating students interest and attention. This
study analyses the usefulness of including digital storytelling within a didactic
sequence in order to work on linguistic routines such as greetings and leave-
takings in English as a foreign language. To this aim, we have worked with first
year students in the Faculty of Education at the Universitat de Valncia to
improve their ability to adapt their language skills to specific situations within
common daily interaction. We have designed a didactic sequence consisting of
different workshops that have been put into practice in class. The sequence
ends with a final project in which students are expected to produce their own
digital stories, showing thus what they have learnt. This final production has
highlighted a clear improvement in the use of linguistic routines, as well as in
the use of more complex structures and of varied expressions used to open and
close a conversation.

Keywords
Didactic sequence; Linguistic routines; Digital storytelling; Teaching


El relato digital como herramienta pedaggica en la enseanza
de lenguas extranjeras a travs del uso de la secuencia didctica
Agustn Reyes Torres
agustin.reyes@uv.es
Facultad de Magisterio, Universidad de Valncia, Espaa
Eva Pich Ponce
epich@us.es
Facultad de Filologa, Universidad de Sevilla, Espaa
M Dolores Garca Pastor
maria.d.garcia@uv.es
Facultad de Magisterio, Universidad de Valncia, Espaa
Resumen
El relato digital representa una herramienta pedaggica que permite al profesor
trabajar distintas competencias lingsticas al mismo tiempo que suscita inters
y atencin en el alumno. Este estudio analiza la utilidad de incluir el relato
digital dentro de una secuencia didctica con el fin de trabajar expresiones y
rutinas lingsticas en ingls tales como los saludos y las formas de despedirse.
Con este objetivo hemos trabajado con estudiantes de primer ao de la
Facultad de Educacin de la Universitat de Valncia para mejorar su capacidad
de adaptar sus habilidades lingsticas a situaciones especficas en la
interaccin diaria. Hemos elaborado una secuencia didctica, con distintos
talleres, que se han puesto en prctica en el aula. Dicha secuencia termina con
un proyecto final en el que los estudiantes deben producir sus propios relatos
digitales que muestran lo que han aprendido. Esta produccin final ha puesto
en evidencia una clara mejora en el uso de las rutinas lingsticas, as como en
el uso de estructuras ms complejas y de expresiones ms variadas para
comenzar y concluir una conversacin.

Palabras clave
Secuencia didctica; Competencias lingsticas; Relato digital; Didctica


I. Introduction
This paper presents the use of digital storytelling as a part of a didactic sequence to practice
linguistic routines in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom. The aim is twofold: to
design a didactic sequence that includes digital storytelling as a pedagogical tool, and to help
students learn and practice linguistic elements such as greetings and leave-takings in daily
interaction. This proposal emerges in the context of a research project funded by the University
of Valencia.1
A didactic sequence is a group of activities designed and organized by a teacher in order to

reach a learning objective. The particular order of these activities and the rhythm in which they
are presented is crucial for the learning process, since the final outcome does not depend on the
content of each task, but on how all of them are arranged within the lesson (Dolz and
Schneuwly, 2006; Vil-Santasusana, 2002). Students are asked to create a dialogue between
two or three people in a specific communicative context. The goal is to assess their language
skills in order to detect their previous knowledge, and their mistakes. This information enables
the instructor to adapt and tailor the didactic sequence to the students needs and ability
throughout the following lessons. According to Dolz and Schneuwly (2006), the didactic
sequence must begin by explaining to the students the goals of the activity on which they are
going to work. The reason behind this is to motivate them, and engage them in their own
learning process. Once they have done the initial production, they are given a model of what
they are expected to create. In this case, they are shown a digital story that contains different
situations in which daily interaction in English occurs. Finally, after working on the targets set,
students are expected to produce their own digital stories showing that improvement has been
accomplished.
II. Digital Storytelling and Foreign Language Teaching: Linguistic Routines
Many scholars have long highlighted the importance of the use of digital storytelling in language
teaching and learning (Gregori-Signes, 2008; Robin, 2006; Rodrguez Illera & Londoo, 2009)
as well as the need for more research on the learning outcomes of its usage in educational
settings (cf. Barrett, 2005; Yuksel, Robin, McNeil, 2010). On the one hand, digital storytelling
not only offers language teachers the opportunity of working with all four language skills from
the very beginning, but also brings together the idea of combining the art of telling stories with
a variety of digital multimedia such as images, recorded audio narration, video and music
(Robin, 2006). This enables instructors to teach any topic in a way that can generate interest
and attention. In this particular study, digital storytelling is used to work on linguistic routines in
daily interaction in English as a foreign language. Although traditionally digital stories mainly
consist of a narration, we have also integrated a series of dialogues to provide an example of
different communicative exchanges in which a variety of language chunks are used.
On the other hand, the positive effects of digital storytelling in the foreign language classroom
are many. Hibbing and Rankin-Erikson (2003) and Boster, Meyer, Roberto and Inge (2002)
have shown that multimedia in teaching facilitates students learning and retaining new
information. Moreover, digital storytelling draws the interest of students with diverse learning
styles and can also promote group work and increase their sense of achievement. Ultimately, it
also constitutes a useful way of working on how to arrange information. As Robin (2006) points
out, students who participate in the creation of digital stories may develop enhanced
communication skills by learning to organize their ideas, ask questions, express opinions and
construct narratives (p. 712).
The digital story presented here is aimed at 1st year undergraduate students within the subject
English as a Foreign Language for Primary Education Teachers. It is based on different
sections that can either be used individually or as a whole to cover different learning points of
the didactic sequence in which it is embedded, one of them being linguistic routines. We have
conceived linguistic routines in this study as ritualised linguistic behaviour which consists of
expressions (words, phrases) usually occurring in a particular communicative situation or
context that is recurrent (Coulmas, 1981). Consequently, they are expressions that are highly

1
Research Project UV-INV-AE11-42019

predictable in form, meaning and function. Linguistic routines or formulas have been
acknowledged to highly contribute to language learning in the literature (cf. Bardovi-Harlig,
2006; Gregori-Signes & Alcantud-Daz, 2011; 2012.). These linguistic elements are essential in
everyday interaction, and, most importantly, they entail socio-cultural knowledge that members
of a determinate speech community share (Garca-Pastor, 2009; Wildner-Basset, 1984).
Therefore, they are expected to be formulated and interpreted differently in different languages.
In this paper, we have focused on a specific kind of linguistic routines, namely, greetings and
leave-takings, which perform the discursive functions of opening and ending any interaction
respectively. At a social level, greetings enable the speaker to start and/or retake and negotiate
his/her social relationship with the hearer at the same time that both convey the
conceptualization they have of the relationship, for example, in terms of social distance, power,
etc. (cf. Laver, 1981; House, 1996). Leave-taking formulae are linguistic resources participants
use to negotiate and temporarily finish their social relation, and, like greetings, they show the
conceptualization speaker and hearer have about their social bond. Thus, greetings and leave-
takings in the discourse practices of opening and closing a conversation have significant social
implications. Fostering an adequate understanding and use of these linguistic devices among
language learners is important to help them in their learning of functional or sociocultural
aspects of the target language.
Finally, the digital story created for this project follows the approach of scholars such as
Burmark (2004) and Robin (2006), who establish that these stories can be deployed by
teachers as anticipatory sets at the beginning of a lesson to introduce and develop a particular
topic. In our case, we use digital storytelling as a pedagogical tool to design, start and finish a
didactic sequence that revolves around linguistic elements and communicative acts used in daily
interaction in English such as language chunks or routines.
The concept of didactic sequence is not new, as it is a by-product of educational practice (cf.
Crookes, 2003; Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Zabala, 1997). In daily classroom practice, teachers
always have certain activities in mind that they wish to implement or actually conduct in an
ordered, structured and articulated manner to reach certain educational objectives. These
activities and the way they are implemented in the classroom setting are in accordance with the
instructional method the teacher follows. Thus, for example, for a traditional teaching method,
which involves a teacher-fronted model of the classroom and the deployment of the lecture as
the form of the lesson, the type of didactic sequence that one should expect would encompass
the following phases: a) explanation or delivery of the lesson; b) students individual study
using the textbook; c) repetition of the content that has been learnt; d) teachers assessment of
students knowledge (Zabala, 1997).
However, for a communicative-oriented teaching method that fosters student participation in

the classroom and the use of more interactive lesson forms, the kind of didactic sequence that
the teacher may employ is likely to be more complex with a focus on learner needs, interests
and motivation, among other things (ibid.). The didactic sequence developed for this study has
been conceived within a communicative approach to language teaching with the teacher as its
deviser, that is, the organiser of the group of activities proposed, their arrangement and their
implementation in the classroom, and the students as its receivers. As stated by Richards and
Rodgers (2001), the teacher has therefore the central role of selecting, adapting, and/or
creating the tasks themselves and then forming these into an instructional sequence in keeping
with learner needs, interests, and language skill level (p. 236). These characteristics of the
didactic sequence are part of the mainstream definition of this concept, which stands in stark
contrasts with more discursive definitions, whereby a didactic sequence is seen to emerge from
the interaction between teacher, students and the pedagogical situation that ensues in the
classroom (see Aldemar, 2007).
Following the features of a didactic sequence as generally understood, the didactic sequence
outlined in this paper also reflects a continuous interaction between oral and written production
modes, and listening and reading skills (cf. Camps, 1994). Additionally, such interaction needs
to emerge in the context of a discourse genre, and all these elements need to be embedded
within an in-class project (Camps, 1994; 2003; Dolz & Schneuwly, 2006). In our didactic
sequence the interaction between the five skills (reading, speaking, listening, writing, and
spoken interaction) in the activities proposed surfaces in the context of ordinary conversation
and storytelling in English as a foreign language. The project that shapes all these elements


consists of the use of digital storytelling to practice linguistic routines in the target language.
Lastly, the didactic sequence presented in this study also follows the general structure
established for this didactic device in the literature: an initial or preparatory stage, which
usually contains production on the part of the students, a longer production phase, and the
evaluation of learning outcomes at the end and throughout the sequence (Camps, 1994; 2003;
Dolz & Schneuwly, 2006; Zabala, 1997). Nevertheless, we have adopted Dolz and Schneuwlys
(2006) model of didactic sequences in this research, since, inter alia, it places emphasis on
communication. An explanation of the didactic sequence designed for this study according to
this model is provided in the following paragraphs.
III. The Didactic Sequence
a. Participants and General Description
As already mentioned, the participants in this study are first-year students of the Faculty of
Education at the University of Valencia enrolled in the course English as a Foreign Language for
Primary Education Teachers. These students need to take this course to fulfill the requirement
of the four-year degree established by the Spanish Ministry of Education in order to become
primary school teachers. We have worked with two different classes (Group A and Group B) of
thirty students each (and within each class we arranged students in 10 groups of three). Group
A was a rather homogeneous group of 19 female and 11 male learners, aged 18-22. With the
exception of five students, all of them had just finished high school and were supposed to have
an intermediate level of English, i.e., a B1 level in the Common European Framework of
Reference (Council of Europe, 2001). Group B, by contrast, was more heterogeneous, since it
was composed of 21 female and 9 male students, and the age difference among the students
was more pronounced. There were 10 older students, aged 35-44, and 20 students, aged 18-
25.
In both groups, students level of English varied significantly. While 70% had a solid
intermediate level as far as reading and understanding written English are concerned, their
writing, listening and speaking abilities in this language corresponded to a beginner level. In the
case of the older students, although they had not taken English lessons for many years, it was
remarkable that their motivation was higher, and so they put more effort and dedication than
the younger lot. Consequently, their work was among the best.
As a first step, we evaluated students command of English regarding the use of greetings and
leave-takings as expressions to start and close a conversation. Students were asked to make a
list of all the different ways they knew to say hello and good-bye in English. As already
mentioned, these expressions are part of the linguistic routines native speakers use on a daily
basis. Being acquainted with these linguistic resources reflects a basic level of English, since
these linguistic elements are necessary to initiate or establish any interaction. This activity
allowed the instructor to be aware of the repertoire learners already had in the foreign
language. Moreover, we also asked students to write a short dialogue for two different
situations in order to assess their ability to use the target language in context.
Situation A: You are having a coffee with your sister in

Starbucks and then you see a friend. You introduce your sister
to your friend.
Situation B: You are at home and your mobile phone rings. Its
your friend. He or she wants to ask you for another friends
mobile phone number.
Table 1. Situations provided to the students for their dialogues
This assignment was meant to function as a linguistic needs analysis (Richards, 1990), helping
both teachers and students to detect the aspects of the foreign language on which they need to
work. Most importantly, it allowed us to adapt subsequent activities according to the students
mistakes throughout the didactic sequence. In this particular study, we observed that the


majority of the learners showed difficulties using basic linguistic routines in a simple
conversation. Some of their most common mistakes are listed in table 2.
Functional mistakes on greetings:
Example 1: -Hi, who is?
-I am Peter.
Example 2: -Hello, Im nice to meet you
-And you.
Example 3: -I niece to meet you
-Enchanted or I too
Functional mistakes in introducing someone:
Example 1: -Do you meet my sister?
Example 2: -Im go to introduce you
Example 3: -Do you meet she?
Grammar and sentence structure mistakes:
Example 1: -Do you have the Peters mobile phone number?
Example 2: -Im seeing TV.
Example 3: -I dont see you for a long time
L1 interfering effects:
Example 1: -Hello, Maria. Say me.
Example 2: -No, I havent the Pablo telephone number.
Example 3: -Whats happens?
Table 2 Common mistakes made by the students
As we can see in Table 2, students initial production highlighted not only the problems they had
when dealing with linguistic routines, but also how they often used literal translation in order to
convey their attempts to greet someone and to communicate in different situations. Thus, this
first production enabled the teacher to circumscribe students capacities and their main
difficulties, and to adjust the following workshops to the students needs. It constituted an
invaluable way of pointing out both to the teacher and the students the path they needed to
follow in order to achieve the teaching-learning objectives.
Students awareness of the learning process is essential in a didactic sequence (Dolz and
Schneuwly, 2006). This is why, after the dialogues had been written, students were asked to
discuss the difficulties they had found when writing them and the mechanisms they had used in
order to overcome these difficulties. The discussion lead to the establishment of different
learning objectives to work on during the following workshops. Therefore, students were
completely involved in the development of the didactic sequence, and contributed to set the
linguistic objectives and the contents of the activities. This provided them with a sense of
responsibility for their learning and academic awareness, which has been strongly encouraged
recently in the European context (Council of Europe, 2001; 2003).
At this stage, students were also told the aims of the project, i.e. the final task they would have
to carry out in groups at the end of the sequence. They had to create and display a digital story
consisting of an introduction, a conflict and a resolution, and containing both a narrative and a
dialogue in which they used daily linguistic routines. The explanation of this objective gave a


purpose to the whole set of workshops planned.
Certainly, it is important to introduce a context which allows students to use the language for a
real purpose and, as they are more likely to be engaged in this kind of task, it may motivate
them further in their language learning process. The different activities planned for the
workshops are therefore no longer viewed as mere linguistic tasks; but they acquire a larger
and more significant purpose in relation to the final project that the students need to create.
This final production allows them to put into practice and to integrate what they have learnt
throughout the sequence. It creates a space where they can use both the linguistic elements
they already knew, and the ones they have learnt. By comparing their initial productions with
the final outcome, students and teacher can also gain awareness of the learning that has taken
place and whether the workshops have been efficient. Moreover, working in groups on a digital
story can develop students collaborative skills, as they have to plan, negotiate and make
decisions.
In order to help them visualize better the project they were expected to carry out, we made
them watch three episodes of the digital story we had created. Thus, our digital story was used
both as a model for the students of what they had to produce, and as a tool within the
workshops in order to study and practice linguistic routines and other aspects of the target
language. Our digital story consists of different episodes displaying everyday situations such as
introducing oneself and others, talking to someone at a party, going out for dinner, talking on
the phone, chatting on the internet, saying good-bye at the airport, asking for directions, etc.
Each episode takes approximately two minutes and allows the teacher to focus on different
aspects of the language. The episodes can be used independently or as a part of a whole story,
depending on the aims of the instructor and the students needs. The main protagonists of our
digital story are a Spanish young man, called Nacho, and an English speaking woman called
Sarah. The story shows how these two young characters meet, fall in love and are separated
when Sarah has to go back to London. The digital story makes use of communicative situations
that students are likely to encounter in real life and that may be appealing to them. By
presenting two characters of different nationalities it also attempts to foster intercultural
awareness and it highlights the importance of the English language as a significant
communicative medium across cultures (Crystal, 2003).
The digital story has been specifically designed for the students, which means that the language
used has been selected and graded. It is thus adapted to their level of competence. As Dolz and
Schneuwly (2006) indicate, the model used in a didactic sequence does not need to be based on
authentic language samples, as its main purpose is to function as an example of what the
students themselves have to produce. The document must therefore be exemplary, accessible
and adequate in length. Moreover, by combining sound and vision, digital storytelling provides a
full and stimulating context from which the meaning can be inferred. It thus fulfils a
psychological, linguistic, cognitive, socio-cultural, and pedagogical function.
b. The workshops
Once students had become familiar with the kind of work they were expected to produce at the
end of the sequence, the set of workshops intended to guide them towards this goal began. In
these workshops, students were able to work on the general and specific problems that had
appeared in their initial production and the instructor provided them with the tools they needed
to learn from their mistakes and overcome their initial difficulties.
i. Workshop 1
In workshop 1 students watched episodes 2 and 3 of the digital story. Before, we had asked
them to pay special attention to linguistic routines. The first activity was to identify the
greetings used by the two speakers who take part in the conversation in episode 2: Sarah and
Nacho. Since the situation is similar to the one in the task given to students for their initial
production (Table 1), they were already familiar with it. Kimberley lives in Valencia and her
sister Sarah just came to visit her from London. It is Kimberleys birthday party and she has
invited all her friends over. At some point, Kimberley introduces Sarah to her friend Nacho.


We had students listen to it twice and then they were provided with the following listening
comprehension questions:
Questions on episode two
1-What does Sarah say to Nacho when they meet?
2-How does Nacho reply?
3-Why does Sarah think that Nacho is quick?
4-What is a pickup line? Can you think of an example?
Table 3. Listening comprehension exercise on episode 2
Once students had discussed the answers in pairs, they watched the episode again to check if
their responses were adequate.
Episode 3 presents two telephone conversations: the first conversation takes place between
Nacho and Kimberley and the second one between Nacho and Sarah. Unlike the first activity,
students were only familiar with the first situation (Table 1) at this point. In the first telephone
exchange, Nacho asks Kimberly for her sisters number. In the second one, he calls Sarah to
invite her out to dinner. Students watched the episode twice and had to pay attention to
linguistic routines. Then, they worked on the following listening comprehension questions:
Questions on episode three Part I
1-What does Kimberley say to answer the phone call?
2-Why is Nacho calling?
3-What expressions do they use to end the conversation?
Questions on episode three Part II
4-What does Sarah say to answer the phone call?
5-What does she ask to know who is calling? How does Nacho reply?
6-What does Nacho ask Sarah?
7-Where do they agree to meet?
8-What expressions do they use to end the conversation?
Table 4. Listening comprehension exercise on episode 3
As in previous activities students worked in pairs to discuss the answers. Once they had
finished, they watched both episodes one more time to analyze greetings and leave-takings.
ii. Workshop 2
This session was used to work on the mistakes students made in their initial production. They
received this production with the parts that needed to be corrected highlighted. In order to have
students reflect on them, we only indicated w.g for wrong greeting, rg/ss for revise
grammar or sentence structure, and l.t for literal translation. Instructors made clear that
mistakes are a crucial source of information in order to learn and so they had to be seen as
something positive (Ellis, 1994; James, 1998).
Next, we distributed to students a sheet in which we had included their most common mistakes.
They recognized some of the sentences as their own, which increased their interest in correcting
them. Once again the aim was to have them learn from their own mistakes. Most importantly,
by sharing them with their classmates, we were emphasizing the idea of learning together and
minimizing the relevance of who made the error.


Students were given some time to work in pairs on the mistakes and then the teacher checked
their answers and showed to the whole class the different options. Students then received a
handout with phrases in English that are commonly used to say hello, goodbye and to introduce
to strangers. They were required to incorporate such phrases into the dialogues written during
their initial production. Then, they did a role play with these dialogues.
iii. Workshop 3
In the third workshop, students watched the episode 4 of our digital story, which presents the
two protagonists going out for dinner. However, this time the digital story was displayed without
sound, so that the students could only watch the images and had to guess what was happening
in the story and what the characters were saying. They had to use their imagination and create
a dialogue using the linguistic routines they had learnt in the previous lessons. After that, the
students read out loud their written assignments, which had to match the pictures of the video.
At the end of the workshop, the digital story was presented with sound and the students could
then compare it with their own dialogues. This workshop was intended as a practice for their
final project. It fostered students creativity and allowed both students and teacher to check the
progress of the former regarding the use of linguistic routines in specific contexts. It also
enabled the instructor to see the difficulties that were still remaining and to further adjust the
following sessions to the students needs. One of the main areas to work on were students oral
skills. Due to their lack of confidence, they were very shy to speak English in front of their
classmates. Likewise, they had a habit to translate expressions literally from Spanish into
English and to mix up the use of the pronouns his and her. Some of these problems could
be dealt with in the next workshop, which focused on a series of activities that covered different
aspects of the foreign language.
iv. Workshop 4
In this session students were provided with several handouts containing different tasks that
allowed them to practice some grammatical and lexical elements. As these were based on their
difficulties and their mistakes in the previous sessions, the points to work were no longer seen
as mere grammatical exercises. On the contrary, they were perceived as meaningful tools that
enabled them to write their final production. The activities to carry out depend on the difficulties
detected and therefore they may vary from one session to another. In this case, we devoted
this lesson to work particularly on linguistic devices such as verb tenses, prepositions and
pronouns, key in narratives. Students were given several activities that included a bank of
words, so they had to fill the gaps by using a verb in the correct tense, a preposition or a
pronoun. They also had to correct a small text containing different mistakes related to these
categories. It was gratifying to see that they understood for example the difference between
the present simple and the present continuous, and how to apply it in a regular conversation.
i.e. Pam: Hello, Toni. Where are you going? (instead of where do you go as they used to say
because of their attempt to translate directly from Spanish to English)
The second part of the workshop was centred on lexical and idiomatic aspects of the foreign
language. Since in their final story students would have to combine narrative and dialogue, this
workshop was also used to work on the structure of a narrative, hence sentence connectors.
Students had to identify the meaning of some connectors and use them by integrating them in a
given text. These exercises were meant to prepare them for the following workshop, in which
they would have to start writing the final written production. Therefore, throughout the
sequence, contents appear in a cyclical way: new contents are progressively incorporated to
those which have been previously learnt. This is likely to enrich students knowledge and allows
them to carry out more complex activities in the foreign language.
v. Workshop 5
The aim of this workshop was to have students start writing the story that they would later use
in their final project: a digital story. In the guidelines, we reminded them about the importance
of using linguistic routines, but also we gave them a list of common pickup lines. They were
required to include at least one in their story.


Pickup lines
Hey, Im new in town. Can I get directions to your house?
Hey, am I dreaming? You cannot be real
Did you just fall from heaven? You are an angel!
Call me anytime day or night if you need someone to talk to
Here is my cell number, work number and home number; I want

to make sure I do not miss your call.
What is a fine woman like you doing shopping by yourself?
Girl, the way you look in those jeans makes me want to cry
Table 5 Pickup lines provided to the students for their stories
The goal of this assignment was to motivate students into writing the story. They normally find
using pickup lines amusing and creating a situation in which there is interaction between young
people like them that meet for the first time in a party or a disco. This was clearly demonstrated
in their final work as it will be shown later.
On the other hand, we also gave them instructions for the structure of the story. The story had
to be well organized and include the following pattern:
Structure of the story
1-Setting: It introduces the main characters and the initial situation of

the story.
2-Conflict: It presents some kind of problem or goal to reach and the

tension around it.
3-Resolution: It is the end of the story and presents a solution to the

conflict.
Table 6 Instructions for the structure of the story
They also had to include interaction and dialogue between the characters. On the whole, the
story had to be approximately two pages long.
vi. Workshop 6
Peer correction encourages students to work together and learn from each other. As Asifa
Sultana (2009) has argued and our students final comments and reflections later confirmed,
peer correction is implemented in classrooms to enhance learner autonomy, cooperation,
interaction and involvement (p. 12). In this workshop, students had to exchange their written
productions and try to correct each others mistakes. This session was designed in order to
make students realize the importance of revising their texts during the writing process. Anne
Raimes (1983) has pointed out that checklists are useful in order to make students focus on
specific characteristics of the written text during peer feedback activity. In order to help
students with the feedback session, we created the following checklist.


Does the story have a clear introduction?
Do the characters use linguistic routines such as

greetings and leave takings?
Can you understand the development of the plot? Does it

create interest?
Does the story have a clear ending?
Is each sentence in the story clear and complete?
Can any long sentences be improved by breaking them

down into shorter units and recombining them?
Does each verb agree with its subject?
Are all verb forms correct and consistent?
Do pronouns refer clearly to the appropriate nouns?
Is each word spelled correctly?
Is the punctuation correct?
Do you have any suggestions to improve the story?
Table 7.Checklist
Students had to write down their observations and comments regarding these aspects. Besides
correcting the mistakes they found in their classmates production, they could also make
suggestions related to the plot and the language used in the text. The objective was to provide
students with another opinion on their work and to give them the opportunity to revise it
according to the feedback they had received. After correcting it, the students were expected to
discuss with each other the strengths and weaknesses problems and the good points observed
in their writing. The authors of the text could then react to their partners comments and
exchange opinions. However, at the end of the discussion they had to make decisions and
modify their texts accordingly. Thus, this activity promotes cooperative learning. As De Almeida
(2007) has stated, the use of peer feedback aims at helping learners become more critical of
their own texts. As they listen to their peers views on what they have written and have the
opportunity to reshape their writing, they are exercising the ability to detach themselves from
their texts and read it with the target readers eyes (p. 5). Through this activity, and as their
final production reveal, students are made to revise their productions in depth, to reflect on
their own performance and to find ways of improving their work.
vii. Workshop 7
When reaching this stage, the written text is ready and the students are prepared to turn it into
a digital story. In this workshop they learnt how to use the digital story software Microsoft
Photo Story 3. Students chose pictures related to their story and arranged them in the proper
order to match its development. Then, they read the text out loud and recorded the voices that
were to accompany the images of the story. They had to bear in mind the intonation, the
pauses and the mood of the characters in order to make the story convincing. As a final step,
they added the music and generated the video.
viii. Final production
Ultimately, to complete the didactic sequence students had to present their final production,
that is, their digital stories to the rest of the class. They had to do this along with an
introduction in which they explained the rationale behind the pickup line selected and the story
developed around it.


After watching each video there was time for discussing its content. First of all, we invited each
group of students to comment on their experience putting the story together: the challenges,
the progress they think they had made and how the overall process had helped them to
improve their linguistic skills. Second, the rest of the class had to identify the use of linguistic
routines and to make remarks on the originality of the story. This discussion served as a final
reflection on the educational benefits of digital storytelling and how it had contributed to their
learning of English.
IV. Results
The students were aware of the assessment criteria, as they were given a handout containing
the different aspects that were going to be considered in the evaluation. This information was
also used by them as a checklist, before handing in their work:
Assessment criteria
PART 1 STORY
-Use of greetings
-Use of leave-takings
-Use of pickup lines
-General use of dialogues and interaction
-Use of vocabulary
-Grammar: use of verbs, past tenses, connectors, etc.
PART 2 PLOT
-Introduction
-Conflict
-Resolution
-Intercultural aspects
-Coherence of the story
PART 3 DIGITAL STORYTELLING
-Oral English: pronunciation
-Use of photos that match the story and the dialogues
-Overall final product and use of Photo Story 3
PART 4 STUDENTS REFLECTIONS
-Comment on your group the advantages of the use of digital storytelling to

improve your English.
-In your opinion, what is the skill that you practiced the most?
-Write down an insightful reflection on what you have learned.
Table 8. Assessment information provided to the students


The final productions showed a clear improvement regarding the use of linguistic routines.
Compared to the initial texts which were written before the didactic sequence, the final outcome
contained more complex structures and a varied range of expressions used to start and to end a
conversation. The students were able to construct coherent stories that included both a
narrative and a dialogue. Greetings and leave-takings were thus used in context, within a
communicative situation, and embedded within the dialogues created. Most of the students also
included one or several pick-up lines in very real situations. In addition, before creating the
videos, the students were asked to turn in their scripts which provided us with the opportunity
to check their progress as far as their use of grammar.
Although the level of English and the number of mistakes made varied from one text to the
other, we observed a general attempt at using linguistic routines in a correct way and in the
appropriate contexts. The students had been able to distinguish between the standard written
language used by the narrator, and the oral language used in the interactions. The distinction
appears clearly in the texts not only by the use of linguistic routines, but also by the use of
exclamations, adjacency pairs, or pause and hesitation fillers in the dialogues: Mmm...I think
so, but Im not sure, maybe! Why?; P- Hello, Sussie, its been a long time! You look great! /
S- Oh my god! Its you! Its a pleasure to see you again.
Some of the grammatical and lexical mistakes made in the initial productions did not appear in
the final texts anymore. For example, in the initial productions we could find sentences such as:
-Hello Maria. How are you? / - Hi Pilar, Im fun, thanks. Whats happen?. In the final outcome,
students were able to write these structures correctly: -Hello Tom, how are you? / - Im fine,
thank you! Ive already finished reading the book. Would you like to meet up with me?; -
Hello John! / - Hi, Maria! Whats up?
In the narrative part, the sentences used are more complex and they follow the rules of
standard written language: One day, while Sophie is at school with her colleagues, during the
break, a handsome man enters the room. Hes the new intern, John.
The most common mistakes found in the texts concern the use of prepositions, verbal tenses,
and possessive pronouns. The linguistic routines seen throughout the didactic sequence were
used adequately. However, there was still a structure that most of the students failed to employ
correctly: - nice to meet you. / - Me too.
We could still find grammar and sentence structure mistakes such as one photos mum or
they are meeting in a Jennys cafeteria. In spite of this, most of the functional mistakes
described in Table 2 had been overcome at this stage. On a different note, due to the
importance given to interactive speech throughout the sequence, in the case of some students,
this resulted in some orthographical errors induced by a focus on correct pronunciation: or my
gad! (used for Oh my God!).
Of the twenty groups (3 students per group) that created the digital storytelling, nineteen
presented well-constructed stories. Seven groups had outstanding marks due to the originality
and coherence of the plot, the adequacy of the images selected, the use of the English language
and the good pronunciation and intonation of the students. There were nine groups that had
more problems with the correct use of the language and four groups had difficulties regarding
the creation of the video (blurred or pixelated images, sound problems, video motion, image-
voice adequacy). However, and despite their difficulties, all the students made a clear effort to
pronounce correctly.


Improvement Correct Improvement Final Outstanding Above- Acceptable Students
in the use of use of in the use of work still final work average final work satisfaction
linguistic pick-up oral English: includes with the final with DST, and
routines line pronunciation grammar DST. work positive
mistakes with Grade: C reflection
Grade: A DST.
Grade: B
Number
of
20 17 17 13 7 9 4 20
groups
(20)
Table 9. Final results overview
All the groups were also required to hand in a reflection on their experience and the advantages
that they found in the use of digital storytelling in learning and using EFL. It is significant that
all of them highlighted the amusing and creative dimensions of DST, and its potential to
motivate learners of English. They all agreed that it had helped them to improve their written
and oral skills, but particularly their pronunciation and intonation:
Speaking is especially difficult for adults because we feel ashamed and ridiculous
[even if] we have the knowledge to write the script with an acceptable level or
grammar and vocabulary, We think that speaking is the skill that we practiced
the most and we did it, in a certain way, avoiding the traditional fear of oral
exercises. Furthermore, recording our voices allowed us to listen to ourselves
and to discover our major pronunciation problems (Students reflection).
After making the digital story, we have developed different sills like writing,
because when we created the story, we reviewed the writing, taking
into account the use of pickup line, expressions and advanced vocabulary. Other
aspect to consider was the pronunciation, because when we listened to
ourselves, we were conscious of our mistakes and corrected them. This
has been the skill we have practiced more, because the digital story is
based mainly an oral expression. This work was a new and useful experience
about our teaching-learning process. (Students reflection)
Students were aware that in order to create the video they had to revise their written
production thoroughly, correct the mistakes, look for new vocabulary, check the good
pronunciation of the words (some of them admitted having checked the pronunciation of some
words online). Finally, many of the groups also highlighted the importance of teamwork in the
creation of the video and how this assignment gave them the opportunity to get to know their
classmates better, negotiate their ideas and make decisions.
V. Conclusions
The use of digital storytelling in the class of second language acquisition constitutes a
pedagogical tool that can be included within the frame of a didactic sequence. Following the
methodology established by Dolz and Schneuwly, this paper has shown how it is possible to
develop a series of workshops that revolve around a digital story in order to work with students
on linguistic elements and communicative acts used in daily interaction. The technological
devices involved throughout the process are expected to generate interest, attention and
motivation for the current "digital generation" students that we find in our classrooms.
Furthermore, it is intended to foster cooperative learning through which students work
independently following the guidelines given.
Throughout the didactic sequence the teacher plays an important role at the beginning when
according to his initial observations, he can elaborate and adapt the different workshops to the
students needs and abilities. Some of the questions he should face beforehand are: what are
the objectives of the didactic sequence? How do the workshops constitute a progression of


interrelated activities which reinforce and consolidate each other in establishing the final
outcome? In this way, the teacher has the opportunity to individualize the work students do and
monitor their progress. At this stage, his role as a teacher is more of a guide leading students
through their learning and letting them use the language creatively to write their stories.
Lastly, the educational value of this project is ultimately intended to serve as an example on
how digital storytelling can be incorporated in the teaching of English as a foreign language. We
expect to encourage other scholars to generate new didactic sequences using our model as a
source for their professional development.
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Appendix
Objectives Activities Material Procedure Time

Initial -Test students initial 1-In pairs, students make a list of all the -Hand-out 1-Students in -5 min
Production knowledge and ability of different ways that they know to say with the pairs. -20 min
linguistic routines hello and good-bye instructions 2-Students in -15 min
-Adaptation of language in 2-Students write a dialogue in a given -One groups -10 min
different contexts. Adequacy context. They will be given two different photocopy per 3-Teacher and
of register. situations, so they will have to adapt the group students
-Development of language dialogue to each of them. 4-Teacher to the
skills: writing, reading, 3-Reflection on the difficulties and whole class
speaking and listening establishment of targets to work on.
4- Presentation of the aims of the
project: create their own digital story
5- Display of three episodes of our
digital story. (Episodes 1, 2, 3)
Workshop -Introduce the relevance of 1- Listening. Display of the digital story 1-Computer, 1-Students -10 min
1 linguistic routines in daily (Episodes 2, 3).related to linguistic head- individually -20 min
interaction routines. projector, 2-Students in -20 min
-Identify greetings and leave- 2-Listening comprehension exercises. screen. pairs.
takings. 3-Analysis of the different parts of the 2-Audio 3-Teacher and
-Development of language conversation: students.
skills: listening, reading, -Greeting
speaking -Intention
-Leave-taking
Workshop -Make students aware of their 1-Show students a list of the most -Hand-out 1-Students in -25 min
2 mistakes. common mistakes they have made in with students groups -10 min
-Learn a list of common their original production. Correct them mistakes 2-Students in -15 min
expressions to say hello, to together -Hand-out groups -10 min
introduce someone and to 2-Return to students their original work with the
say good-bye. in which now we have highlighted the expressions
-Development of language relevant mistakes and those parts that -Students
skills need to be corrected. notebooks
3-Incorporate the given expression into
the dialogues written during the initial
production.
4-Role play
Workshop -Practice of the linguistic 1-Students watch episode 4 of the 1-Computer, -Students in -5 min
3 routines. digital story but only the images without head- pairs. -25 min
-Development of language sound. projector, - Students to -10 min
skills 2-They imagine what is happening and screen. the whole class -10 min
create a dialogue using the linguistic
routines.
3- Students read the dialogue to the
rest of the class
4-Display of the digital story with sound.
Students compare it to their story.
Workshop -Review and work on the 1-Language exercises based on the -Hand-out -Teacher to the -50 min
4 grammar mistakes detected difficulties detected. Special focus on: whole class
throughout the first lessons. -Grammar: verbs, prepositions, -Students in
pronouns. pairs
-Vocabulary and idioms.
-Use of English in context
Workshop -Learn pickup lines and how 1-Students create a story in which they -Hand-out 1-Students in -30 min
5 to use them in context. can use a pickup line. This is a written with the groups
-Learn how to organize a task. expressions 2-Students in
story: narrative vs dialogue 2-Make sure the story has an -Students groups
introduction, a conflict and a resolution. notebooks
-Identify linguistic routines 1-Peer-editing. Students exchange their -Errors 1-Students in -25 min
Workshop -Identify the different parts of work, correct the mistakes and make checklist groups
6 the story suggestions related to the plot.
-Read, identify mistakes and
improve a written text.
Workshop -Create a digital story 1-Choose pictures in relation with your -Computer, 1-Students in 120 min
7 -Development of the story and arrange them in the proper digital story groups
language skills order. software, 2-Students in
2-Add the voice bearing in mind the headphones groups


intonation, pauses and mood of the and mics. 3-Students in gr
characters.
3-Add the music
Final -Presentation of the digital 1-Introduction and display of the digital 1-Computer, 1-Students to 90 min
production stories story. Rationale behind the pickup line head- the whole class
-Discuss and assess the selected and the story developed projector, 2-Teacher and
students work around it screen. students
-Reflect on the improvements 2-Discussion and assessment of each 2-Audio 3-Students
accomplished that took place of the digital stories. 3-Evaluation individually
during the learning process 3-Reflection on how the use of digital questionnaire
storytelling has contributed to the
learning of linguistic routines and other
language skills

Reyes, A. Pich, E & Garca, M.D. (2012) Digital Storytelling as a Pedagogical Tool within a
Didactic Sequence in Foreign Language Teaching. In: Digital Education Review, 22, 1-18.
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Aprendiendo en el aula:
contando y haciendo relatos digitales personales
Gloria Londoo-Monroy
glorianalondono@gmail.com
Universitat de Barcelona, Espaa
Resumen
Este artculo da cuenta de una investigacin cualitativa que desde una visin
interpretativa y participativa, analiza cinco intervenciones realizadas entre
2008 y 2011 con alumnos de Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria en Catalunya,
Espaa, para (a) describir y comprender las caractersticas del procedimiento
de realizacin y de los productos resultantes, las condiciones y limitaciones de
aplicacin, y los beneficios pedaggicos que pueden ofrecer los Relatos
Digitales Personales cuando son realizados como proyectos prcticos de
aprendizaje en un marco de Educacin Formal, y (b) disear, implementar y
perfeccionar una metodologa didctica que permita orientar su uso en
procesos de enseanza-aprendizaje centrados en los estudiantes. Se explican:
los fundamentos tericos que guan la indagacin; la eleccin y el uso de los
mtodos (Investigacin basada en Diseo y Estudio de Casos instrumental y
mltiple); las actividades planificadas y aplicadas y, por ltimo, algunos
hallazgos relevantes considerando que los casos incluyeron representantes de
los tres tipos de aulas existentes en los institutos catalanes: regulares, de
acogida y abiertas. Se pretende contribuir al conocimiento de la relacin entre
narrativa personal digital y educacin, y facilitar y potenciar el
aprovechamiento en el aula tanto de la expresin, las vivencias y las visiones
de los sujetos que aprenden, como de las posibilidades de multimedialidad y
multimodalidad que ofrecen las Tecnologas de Informacin y Comunicacin.

Palabras clave
Digital Storytelling; Relatos digitales; Narrativa personal; Aprendizaje centrado
en el estudiante; Aprendizaje por proyectos; Metodologa didctica; Educacin
Secundaria Obligatoria.


Learning in the Classroom:
Telling and Creating Digital Storytelling
Gloria Londoo-Monroy
glorianalondono@gmail.com
Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
Abstract
This paper presents a qualitative research from an interpretive and
participatory vision. It analyzes five cases developed between 2008 and 2011
with students of secondary school in Catalonia, Spain, for: (a) describe and
understand the process and the resulting products characteristics, conditions
and limitations of use and educational benefits that it can offer when the Digital
Storytelling are made as practical projects in formal learning; and (b) to
design, implement and improve a teaching methodology to guide their use in
teaching-learning student-centered. It explains: the theoretical foundations
that guide the inquiry and the methodological approach employed (Design-
based Research and Case Studies of instrumental and multiple type); activities
designed and implemented and some relevant results, considering that these
cases included representatives of the three types of existing classrooms in the
High school in Catalonia (Spain): regular, reception and open classrooms. It
aims to contribute to the knowledge of the relationship between personal
digital storytelling and education and facilitate and promote the use in the
classroom of both, the expressions, experiences and visions of people who are
learning, and the possibilities of multimedia and multimodality offered by
Information and Communication Technologies.

Keywords
Digital Storytelling; Digital Stories; Personal Narrative; Student-centered

Learning; Project Learning; Teaching Methodology; High school.


I. Presentacin
Contar historias personales es habitual en los seres humanos. Es un mecanismo para

relacionarse con los dems, sentirse parte de una comunidad y construir la identidad
(McAdams, Josselson y Lieblich, 2006; Lundby, ed., 2008b); transmitir saberes, reflexiones o
experiencias propias, ajenas o colectivas (McDrury y Alterio, 2003); registrar y prolongar la
memoria de los individuos y las comunidades (Lambert 2007 y 2009); y enfrentar situaciones o
problemticas de la vida cotidiana al procesar individualmente las vivencias, organizarlas,
explicarlas y, en definitiva, encontrarles sentido (Bruner, 1991; Schank, 1999).
Hasta hace poco lo normal para alguien sin conocimientos o contactos profesionales en creacin
y emisin de relatos, era contarlos en su entorno cercano o privado. Hacerlo pblicamente,
especialmente si las historias tenan carcter autobiogrfico, era privilegio de pocos, entre otros
aspectos por la dificultad o los altos costos para acceder a los instrumentos o espacios
necesarios. Pero el panorama ha cambiado con el desarrollado las Tecnologas de Informacin y
Comunicacin (TIC) y el aumento de los niveles de apropiacin y de alfabetizacin digital en
algunos pases, pues ahora es posible realizarlos usando ordenadores o telfonos mviles
inteligentes, e incluso, compartirlos con desconocidos utilizando servicios gratuitos de
publicacin en Internet.
Ello ha dado pie a la proliferacin y circulacin pblica, sobre todo en la Web, de diversos tipos
de narraciones amateur como uno conocido como Digital Storytelling o, en castellano, Relatos
Digitales Personales (RDP), caracterizados porque un autor, con apoyo de TIC, crea un producto
(generalmente un vdeo corto, aunque esto no es requisito), en el que en poco tiempo y
recurriendo a diferentes sistemas de representacin o mediacin (audios, vdeos, fotografas,
animaciones, entre otros), comparte con su propia voz y estilo, asuntos propios: sus memorias
de vida o sus reflexiones acerca de eventos o fenmenos que le son cercanos.
Este artculo da cuenta de los avances de una investigacin cualitativa en curso sobre RDP en
Educacin Formal, en la que se planifican, realizan y analizan algunas intervenciones con tipos
diversos de estudiantes, en Catalunya (Espaa), para: (a) Describir y comprender las
caractersticas del procedimiento de realizacin y de los productos resultantes, las condiciones y
las limitaciones de aplicacin, y los beneficios pedaggicos que pueden ofrecer estos relatos
cuando son realizados como Proyectos Prcticos de Aprendizaje, y (b) Disear, implementar y
perfeccionar una metodologa didctica que permita orientar su uso en procesos de enseanza-
aprendizaje centrados en los alumnos. Concretamente se presentan cinco de los diez casos que
la componen, aquellos con 53 discentes de Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria (ESO) que
participaban en una o en varias de las aulas que es posible encontrar en los centros educativos
catalanes: ordinarias o regulares, abiertas y de acogida2.
A continuacin se explican los fundamentos tericos de la investigacin, su enfoque

metodolgico, las actividades diseadas y aplicadas, y algunos de los hallazgos relevantes.

2
Segn la Ley Orgnica 2/2006 de Educacin de Espaa y el Decret 143/2007 de Catalunya, la ESO es la
etapa que sigue a la educacin primaria y que precede a la no obligatoria (bachillerato) o a ciclos de
formacin profesional de grado medio y superior. Se compone de cuatro cursos (tres de enseanzas de
carcter comn, y el ltimo orientador para estudios postobligatorios o incorporacin laboral) que se
imparten en lo que comnmente se llama Aulas Ordinarias o Regulares. La legislacin establece tambin
otras unidades para atender necesidades especiales del alumnado; en Catalunya estn, entre otras, las
Aulas de Acogida (Acollida en cataln) y las Abiertas (Obertas). Las primeras atienden discentes no
catalanoparlantes llegados a la Autonoma durante los dos ltimos aos, con entornos abiertos de
aprendizaje de la lengua, de socializacin y de acompaamiento emocional y curricular. Las otras, a
estudiantes de tercer o cuarto curso (excepcionalmente de segundo) que por diversos motivos presentan
una marcada inadaptacin al contexto escolar, carencias o dificultades significativas en sus aprendizajes
(por bajo nivel de autoestima o problemas conductuales, p.ej.), para que puedan lograr la obtencin del
graduado escolar mediante estrategias metodolgicas y organizativas, contenidos y criterios de evaluacin y
horarios de permanencia en el centro, diferentes a los de las aulas ordinarias.

II. Particularidades de los relatos digitales personales
El trmino Digital Storytelling es bastante polismico, pero el estudio parte de una comprensin
terica cercana a la del Center for Digital Storytelling (www.storycenter.org), entidad de
California (EEUU) que lo define como una forma de narrativa en la que cualquier persona con el
deseo de documentar y compartir una experiencia significativa de su vida, sus ideas o sus
sentimientos, lo hace a travs de la produccin de una historia testimonial corta, empleando
medios, programas y recursos digitales. De ah la traduccin propuesta, RDP, pues en ellos
personas ordinarias, es decir, sin conocimientos especializados en crearlos, relatarlos o
realizarlos para medios de comunicacin, ni en manejo de las TIC para la produccin audiovisual
o multimedial, se convierten en autores que con su voz y estilo, de una forma emotiva,
creativa, subjetiva y prctica, se implican tanto en el proceso de definir y contar algo que han
vivido, que les interesa o que les es cercano, como en el de materializacin de su historia
usando medios y herramientas digitales de fcil manejo y acceso (como cmaras fotogrficas o
programas de edicin de audio o vdeo disponibles en ordenadores personales).
Algunos autores, como Bolter y Grusin (2000), los consideran una re-mediacin de los relatos
tradicionales, mientras que otros, como Ryan y colegas (2004), opinan que se trata de una
nueva narrativa porque los medios, con sus funcionalidades, condicionantes y limitaciones,
determinan qu y cmo contar algo, lo cual introduce formas no tradicionales de expresin. La
discusin est abierta, pero lo evidente es que los RDP tienen funciones parecidas a las de la
narrativa clsica, y emplean componentes y esquemas expresivos propios o similares a los de
ella, adicionando sistemas de representacin y codificacin de las TIC, como son la
multimodalidad y la multimedialidad y, en ocasiones, novedosas formas de presentar y
relacionar los compontes, de participacin con el contenido, o de interaccin entre quienes
crean y reciben el mensaje (Rodrguez Illera y Londoo Monroy, 2009). Por ello el resultado
puede ser de muchos tipos:
Segn el grado de intervencin en el contenido: relatos no interactivos, con elementos y

estructuras lineales y predefinidas, o interactivos, permitiendo modificar el orden de
presentacin o de visualizacin de la informacin e, incluso, dando la posibilidad de
elegir o agregar tramas o subtramas (Miller, 2008), en cuyo caso el pblico se convierte
en co-autor.
Segn el o los recursos semiticos empleados o dominantes: textual, fotogrfico,
auditivo, pictrico (secuencia de fotos, dibujos o ilustraciones), animado (con
animaciones) o multimedial (si hay una combinacin de varios recursos). De esta ltima
clase son los que interesan en esta investigacin: vdeos lineales o secuenciales en los
cuales la voz del autor se mezcla con diversos recursos auditivos, visuales o textuales.
De acuerdo con la temtica: de acontecimientos de la propia vida en los que un evento
desencadena, en el pasado o en el presente, un cambio significativo, una ruptura de la
cotidianidad, un desafo que enfrentar o una experiencia inolvidable; de lugares
significativos; de personajes importantes para el autor, humanos o no, que inspiran
historias conmemorativas, de amistad o familiares; sentimentales, inspiradas en las
vivencias de amor o de convivencia; sobre lo que hacemos o nos gusta, acerca del
trabajo, la profesin o las aficiones; de descubrimiento o conocimiento, basadas en
procesos de aprendizaje personal; de identidad (autobiogrficas) o de la comunidad a la
que se pertenece (Lambert, 2007). Tambin, relatos sobre reflexiones propias sobre un
tema especfico, sobre hechos reales vividos por una persona cercana (historias ajenas
o referidas), o sobre los anhelos o sueos.
Y como podra serlo cualquier relato, segn la intencionalidad y el estilo comunicativo:
narrativo, centrado en contar hechos actuales o sucedidos; descriptivo, al presentar,
sobre todo, detalles de los elementos que constituyen la historia (como los personajes,
los escenarios o espacios, los hechos o acontecimientos, las acciones, los tiempos, o las
causas que producen los hechos, los cambios o los pensamientos); dialogado, por
reproducir o transmitir literalmente las frases de los personajes; expositivo, que se
extiende en explicaciones de los elementos de la historia pero, al contrario de los
descriptivos, de forma objetiva, directa y clara; o argumentativo, que defiende con
argumentos, posturas, ideas y opiniones (Garca y Huerta, 1999).
Ms all de su clasificacin, lo que distingue a los RDP es que las funciones de autor, narrador,
protagonista o coprotagonista y realizador, recaen en el mismo sujeto, y que la experiencia,


visin, imaginacin u opinin que se comparte, casi de una forma confesional como dicen
Hartley y McWilliam (2008), se relaciona con su vida y/o su contexto prximo, evidenciando
siempre una implicacin individual con lo relatado. Por ello Lundby (2008a) los define como
narraciones a pequea escala centradas en el Yo, si se realizan de forma individual, o en el
Nosotros, si se hacen en grupo, que buscan transmitir una representacin personal, la del
autor3.
Por lo tanto, su riqueza no est en la espectacularidad visual o auditiva que se alcance gracias a
la cantidad de efectos y recursos expresivos usados, o a la experticia que se tenga en la
produccin audiovisual o en el manejo de recursos tcnicos (a la forma de materializacin o de
mediacin), sino en aquello que se relata (en la estructura narrativa y dramtica) y, sobre todo,
en algo menos evidente: en lo que implica para el autor contar su historia, y en la prctica
reflexiva al transformar el conocimiento tcito que parte de las vivencias o de los contextos de
un sujeto, en un producto multimedial, durante todo el proceso de pensar, planificar y producir
el relato digital (Rodrguez Illera, Fuertes Alpiste y Londoo Monroy, 2011).
En resumen, los RDP son: subjetivos, porque no cuentan historias ajenas sino cercanas o
propias bajo la perspectiva particular del autor-narrador (por eso en ellos se suele hablar en
primera persona del singular o del plural); concretos, porque giran alrededor de un tema o
hecho preciso; breves, porque son microrrelatos, es decir, cortos o de poca duracin (si son
audiovisuales, de uno a cinco minutos aproximadamente); emotivos, con contenido que
transmite un compromiso emocional, consciente o inconsciente, por parte del autor; reflexivos,
porque lo que se comparte ha sido meditado antes y/o durante el proceso de creacin (p.ej.,
pensando en los impactos del hecho en la vida propia, en los aprendizajes personales, o en las
relaciones o situaciones futuras) y digitales, al ser hechos aprovechando los lenguajes, las
herramientas y los soportes tcnicos que proveen las TIC para su materializacin, as como las
posibilidades multimediales, multimodales e interactivas que ellas proporcionan.
III. Usos, aportes y limitaciones en educacin
Los RDP han sido impulsados especialmente en pases anglosajones o saturados digitalmente
(Lundby, 2008a), con diversas finalidades y en contextos dismiles (escuelas y universidades,
museos, organizaciones comunitarias, empresas, hospitales, etc.) debido especialmente a
algunas iniciativas de uso y divulgacin, y a unas pocas de investigacin. Igualmente, gracias a
varias propuestas metodolgicas que buscan orientar y facilitar su produccin y publicacin,
entre las que sobresalen: la ms antigua y conocida, del Center for Digital Storytelling
(Lambert, 2007 y 2009); la de los proyectos Capture Wales (BBC Capture Wales y Cipolwg ar
Gymru team, 2009), Digi-Tales (Massaro, Vaske, Jol y De Groot, 2007) y KQED Digital
Storytelling Initiative (2008); la de entidades como Creative Narrations y MassIMPACT (Freidus
y Nowicki-Clark, 2005), y unas pocas explcitamente formuladas para trabajar en aulas de clase
o con fines educativos, como son la de Ohler (2008), enfocada en nios y adolescentes, y la de
Robin (2008b), para estudiantes universitarios4.
La mayora de estas metodologas incluyen recomendaciones sobre equipamiento, espacio y

recursos; tutoriales para usar determinados programas o equipos; y estrategias que van desde
la conceptualizacin hasta la edicin final, es decir, actividades o sugerencias para que se logre:
(a) comprender las caractersticas y los elementos5 que debera tener un buen RDP;

3
Hartley (2008) explica que lo que se consigue en estas medias autoproducidas, son representaciones del
yo pblico (el que se exhibe conscientemente en un grupo determinado) ms que del yo privado, por lo que
advierte que aunque se cuenten hechos o impresiones que el autor asume como reales, no necesariamente
lo expresado se ajusta a la realidad que perciben los dems.
4
Ohler y Robin no necesariamente trabajan RDP. El primero admite relatos sobre la propia cultura o
relacionados con un rea del currculum, mientras que el segundo se basa en las recomendaciones del CDS
para ayudar a crear otros acadmicos o curriculares. En los dos casos se considera la investigacin sobre el
tema la base de una historia original, y como asunto clave, la postura subjetiva.
5
La propuesta de Lambert (2007) habla de siete elementos constitutivos esenciales: el punto de vista del
autor-narrador que se manifiesta en el estilo de la voz que emplea (personal o impersonal, directo o
indirecto); la(s) cuestin(es) dramtica(s) o preguntas que se le plantean al pblico inicialmente y que poco

(b) seleccionar un tema o hecho, recordarlo o investigarlo, enfocarlo o delimitarlo, articular la
historia en una estructura narrativa con sentido, y plasmar todo en un guion literario con un
nmero limitado de palabras (entre 250 a 375, aunque vara segn cada propuesta); (c)
planificar la historia audiovisualmente, empleando un storyboard o guion grfico o audiovisual;
(d) buscar, seleccionar o crear imgenes o audios; (e) grabar y editar la voz; (f) editar el vdeo
agregando efectos, transiciones y crditos; (g) generar el archivo final en un formato que pueda
ser fcilmente reproducido o visualizado; (h) compartir lo hecho con los compaeros y, solo a
veces, (i) publicarlo en Internet6. Algunas agregan indicaciones para respetar los derechos de
propiedad intelectual de terceros, y muy pocas hacen advertencias sobre la necesidad de
obtener consentimientos informados de los autores para participar, hacer o publicar su relato.
Excluyendo las de Ohler y Robin, esas metodologas, adems, se orientan al trabajo social o
cultural, y en algunos casos a la educacin informal, con grupos limitados o pequeos de
adultos que desean voluntariamente hacer un RDP. Por tanto, no han sido planteadas
directamente para lograr finalidades u objetivos definidos en procesos de Educacin Formal, ni
parten de una situacin en la que los alumnos no son adultos, ni suelen ni quieren compartir sus
vivencias o cuestiones personales con profesores o compaeros de clase, entre otros motivos
porque no estn acostumbrados a que los discursos cotidianos y ms ntimos tengan cabida en
sus actividades escolares. Tal vez por ello no hacen tanto o ningn nfasis en la planificacin de
la intervencin educativa, en hacer seguimiento para determinar los problemas y logros
pedaggicos, o en evaluar el trayecto productivo y no solo el producto final7.
Si a lo anterior se suma que todas las propuestas mencionadas, sin excepcin, responden a
realidades tecnoeducativas forneas, anglosajonas especialmente, y que mayoritariamente
plantean sesiones de trabajo consecutivas e intensivas (talleres de pocos das seguidos, por lo
que las tareas ni se dilatan en el tiempo, ni se solapan con responsabilidades o compromisos
ajenos al proyecto), se puede afirmar que no son del todo compatibles con la Educacin Formal,
por lo menos en el contexto espaol, pues en ella es comn que los temas y las actividades de
aprendizaje se compartimenten en diferentes asignaturas que se estudian o abordan
paralelamente, que los grupos sean de tamao variable, y que, en ocasiones, la infraestructura
tcnica de los centros educativos o el nivel de alfabetizacin digital de los docentes no sea el
adecuado para replicarlas.
Aun as, se han empleado en este tipo de educacin en diversos pases, incluso Espaa8,
aunque en opinin de Erstad y Silseth (2008), con escasa reflexin sobre su impacto en los

a poco se resuelven a lo largo del relato; el contenido emocional, son sentimientos que se hacen explcitos
tanto en el argumento como en los componentes sonoros o visuales; la economa en los detalles de la
historia; el ritmo o la velocidad del relato que se use para mantener la atencin y el inters; la banda
sonora, y cmo no, la voz propia y autntica. Curiosamente dicho autor no habla de las imgenes, aspecto
que agrega Robin (2008b) al advertir que son fundamentales para denotar y connotar significado. Tambin
este ltimo autor aade otros dos elementos: el propsito general o justificacin; y la gramtica
multimedial, el lenguaje que le corresponda a cada medio o recurso semitico empleado (grficos, textos,
audios, etc.).
6
Es importante aclarar que aunque los relatos se hagan de forma individual, en todas las metodologas
mencionadas los procedimientos creativos y de planificacin, de produccin, de exposicin y de anlisis de
los resultados, se suelen hacer con ayuda del tutor y de los mismos compaeros, realizando dilogos,
dinmicas y ejercicios grupales para definir, evocar y apropiarse de la historia, as como para revisar y
mejorar los avances, o reflexionar sobre lo hecho y los productos logrados. Los del CSD, por ejemplo,
emplean lo que denominan Story Circle o Crculo de la Historia para orientar los momentos creativos o de
reflexin colectivos.
7
Existen rbricas para evaluar RDP pero se centran, en su mayora, en el producto, mas no en los procesos
y logros no evidentes. Algunas son: la de Barrett (2005); la de la KQED The Digital Storytelling Initiative,
usada en su concurso anual de RDP (http://dsi.kqed.org/index.php) y la de M. Ormiston
(www.techteachers.com/digstory/gradclass/rubrics.htm). Ohler, en cambio, sugiere varias que consideran
aspectos como: planificacin del proyecto, desarrollo de los medios, investigacin, comprensin del
contenido, cumplimiento de requerimientos, originalidad, creatividad, implicacin, gramtica de los medios,
resolucin de problemas, colaboracin con los compaeros, esfuerzo, tica, compromiso con la actividad,
reflexin, entre otros (ver www.jasonohler.com/storytelling/assessment.cfm). Ms rbricas en
http://rubistar.4teachers.org o en http://digitalstorytelling.coe.uh.edu/rubrics.html
8
En Espaa se identificaron pocos proyectos de uso o indagacin de RDP anteriores al inicio de esta
investigacin, aislados y sin continuidad, y con poca publicacin o registro del proceso seguido. Uno de ellos


procesos de enseanza o de aprendizaje, y sobre los cambios sociales y culturales que producen
o evidencian en las instituciones educativas. Sin embargo, algunas experiencias en educacin
infantil y primaria (como las de Ohler desarrollando competencias artsticas), en secundaria
(como las de Erstad y Silseth en escuelas noruegas) y en educacin superior (con Robin, desde
la Universidad de Houston; el Digital Stories@UMBC de la University of Maryland; o los
proyectos de investigacin e innovacin educativa de la Universitat de Barcelona, entre otros),
han permitido profundizar en el estudio, y sugieren que los RDP y las prcticas inmersas en su
creacin pueden ser de utilidad pedaggica y didctica en procesos formativos centrados en los
estudiantes.
Ohler (2005 y 2008), p.ej., afirma que aumentan la motivacin e inducen a los discentes a
asistir a la escuela y a ser receptivos, debido a que los involucra y los hace consciente de las
responsabilidades que tienen con su propio proceso educativo; se sienten cmodos y atrados
por los componentes digitales que agudizan su pensamiento crtico, la indagacin y la
experimentacin, y dan voz a un nmero de alumnos que sin estrategias como los RDP no se
escucharan y a otros cuyas habilidades acadmicas no encajan dentro de los moldes usuales
escolares. Erstad y Silseth (2008) tambin aseveran que comprometen con prcticas de
produccin mucho ms activas, con el trabajo en grupo, y con nuevas maneras de aprendizaje
tomando ventaja de la alfabetizacin tcnica digital que traen al aula desde sus experiencias
externas; a la par, que estimulan una relacin epistmica de la escuela basada en el
aprendizaje y no en la enseanza, y una relacin ms recproca entre estudiantes y docentes.
Para Barrett (2004), incentivan dinmicas para promover el aprendizaje profundo, y facilitan la
aplicacin de las metodologas constructivistas y las basadas en el aprendizaje situado y por
proyectos. Ohler (2005) aade que contribuyen a descubrir mltiples inteligencias (aquellas
ignoradas en el currculum tradicional); mejoran las funciones cognitivas, porque requieren
pericia en la sntesis y la evaluacin, habilidades que ocupan el primer lugar en la taxonoma de
Bloom; y despiertan habilidades y talentos que pueden permanecer dormidos en los discentes o
desaprovecharse en la escuela (en arte, produccin meditica y narrativa oral, entre otros).
Robin (2008a) refuerza este ltimo punto explicando que el trabajo creativo proporciona una
base slida para la multialfabetizacin: digital (capacidad para comunicarse con un nmero cada
vez mayor de miembros de una comunidad, debatir cuestiones, recabar informacin, y buscar
asistencia), global (leer, interpretar, responder, y contextualizar los mensajes desde una
perspectiva global), tecnolgica (utilizar TIC para mejorar el aprendizaje, la productividad y el
rendimiento), visual y multimedial (entender, producir y comunicar con diversos cdigos
semiticos) e informativa o informacional (encontrar, evaluar y sintetizar la informacin).
Por su parte, Banaszewski (2002), en su indagacin sobre uso de RDP en escuelas pblicas
estadounidenses, deduce que ayudan a fomentar prcticas en equipo de tipo
cooperativo/colaborativo, facilitar la creacin de redes de aprendizaje, promover la discusin en
la sala de clase, y dar a conocer las realidades de los estudiantes a la comunidad acadmica. Y
Lpez, Azzato, Escofet, Martn y Rodrguez (2004) consideran que su uso educativo, permite
descubrir diferencias generales de culturas distantes entre s que pueden resultar reveladoras,
generar nuevos conocimientos para el uso pedaggico de las TIC y promover la reflexin
compartida, as como experimentar desde el interior diferentes culturas de investigacin, lo que
redunda en el crecimiento de los alumnos-autores como investigadores en desarrollo.
La carencia de estudios que verifiquen y complementen el conocimiento o la comprensin que

se tiene de los RDP y de sus aportes cuando son empleados en Educacin Formal en el contexto
espaol, as como la necesidad de disear y perfeccionar, a partir de la prctica, una estrategia
didctica adaptada al mbito educativo que interesa, que supere las limitaciones de las
metodologas existentes y que facilite su aplicacin en proyectos prcticos de aprendizaje
centrados en los estudiantes, es pues lo que motiv esta investigacin.

es el que impuls el Grup de Recerca Ensenyament i Aprenentatge Virtual (GREAV) de la Universitat de
Barcelona en 2004, antecedente del estudio que se presenta (ver Rodrguez Illera y Escofet, 2006).

IV. Enfoque y proceso investigativo
Para abordar el estudio se combinaron dos mtodos bajo una visin interpretativa y
participativa. El primero, la Investigacin basada en Diseo (IBD)9, para caracterizar y orientar
el macroproceso de indagacin, es decir, el modo de proceder, obtener, reflexionar y discutir los
resultados y aplicarlos en el diseo y mejoramiento del producto (en este trabajo, la
metodologa didctica). El segundo, el Estudio de Caso de tipo instrumental y mltiple10, para
facilitar la comprensin particular de cada una de las experiencias (analizar cada una con
profundidad y con los resultados alimentar el diseo y la intervencin siguiente) y una ms
global o retrospectiva (mediante un anlisis comparativo).
Tras identificar y revisar antecedentes tericos y prcticos, y comprender el contexto de la
Educacin Formal en el pas, se pas a la formulacin de la investigacin, estableciendo
preguntas y objetivos iniciales, y planificando una cadena coherente y explcita de accin y
razonamiento para orientar el anlisis, como recomiendan Rinaudo y Donolo (2010). Esto
incluy la construccin preliminar de un sistema de temas, variables, categoras y subcategoras
de inters, que se fue depurando y consolidando a medida que avanzaba el estudio, y que
qued finalmente conformado por estas temticas11: (a) el proceso, pues era esencial recabar
informacin sobre momentos, procedimientos, recursos tcnicos o didcticos, ambientes,
problemas encontrados, instrucciones y limitaciones no planificadas, entre otros aspectos,
durante las diversas fases productivas: planificacin, preproduccin, produccin,
postproduccin, exposicin o presentacin en la comunidad acadmica y evaluacin (tanto la
autoevaluacin como la grupal con los compaeros y docentes participantes); (b) los relatos
resultantes, comprendiendo tpicos como la clase o tipo de RDP, sus elementos, la estructura
narrativa y dramtica, y los recursos expresivos o de representacin simblica, porque
caracterizarlos poda dar luces sobre los productos que era posible conseguir con los proyectos,
lo que era necesario orientar con mayor profundidad y las limitaciones que podra tener la
metodologa; (c) los posibles aportes pedaggicos, para analizar la relacin de lo hecho en
todas las etapas y de las narraciones obtenidas, con las finalidades generales de la ESO, los
objetivos del curso o del tipo de aula, las competencias bsicas (generales o especficas), y
otros factores como la motivacin; y (d) el perfil de los participantes, reconociendo tanto
indicadores demogrficos (sexo, edad, idioma y pas de origen o procedencia del autor), como
acadmicos (tipo de aula y curso), as como los conocimientos y experiencias previos contando
o produciendo relatos con o sin TIC, por ser variables que pueden influir en los puntos
anteriores.
Luego se emprendi el ciclo iterativo de pruebas y ajustes del diseo y de la teora en la

prctica, que recomiendan para la IBD (Bereiter, 2002; Van den Akker et al, 2006, entre otros).
Para ello se establecieron contactos con instituciones acadmicas, entre ellas algunas que

9
La IBD es participativa, intervencionista y recurrente; aplica los principios de la ingeniera a estudios
sistemticos de experiencias particulares que se producen en contextos naturales de aprendizaje (Barab,
2006), buscando tanto el desarrollo innovador de un producto (un artefacto educativo, una herramienta
tecnolgica o instruccional, una estructura de actividad, planes o programas de estudio o una metodologa,
entre otras posibilidades), sustentado en resultados y mejoras que se producen en varios ciclos de diseo,
aplicacin y anlisis (Bereiter, 2002), como la comprensin de un fenmeno, mediante una indagacin
contextualizada y mltiples iteraciones que pueden llegar a generalizarse en otros cursos o entidades
educativas (Barab y Squire, 2004). As, se produce una transformacin de una idea inicial (un prototipo), en
un diseo slido, con principios probados, legitimados y validados en la prctica y por la perspectiva de
colaboracin entre los investigadores y los miembros de la comunidad educativa que ejercen de diseadores
(The Design-Based Research Collective, 2003), y conocimiento til los participantes y la comunidad de
investigacin o acadmica que participa o se interesa por los resultados (Van den Akker, Gravemeijer,
McKenney y Nieveen, 2006).
10
Instrumental, porque se tena la posibilidad de elegir los casos y/o dentro de ellos las subunidades de
anlisis por ser las que aportaran ms datos relevantes; Mltiple, porque en el anlisis final o retrospectivo
se comparan unidades o subunidades coyunturales con condiciones o caractersticas similares.
11
En toda la investigacin, tras el anlisis de cada intervencin, se ajustaban o reformulaban las preguntas
y el sistema de temas, variables y categoras de anlisis, si se consideraba necesario. Para esto se
consideraban nuevas teoras, las condiciones de los contextos y las opiniones o actuaciones de los
participantes. Esto es compatible con la IBD e, incluso, con las orientaciones de Stake (1998) para realizar
un Estudio de Caso, pues l sugiere complementar los temas ticos, es decir, por los que el investigador,
una comunidad cientfica ms amplia, colegas o autores aportan o definen, con los temas micos, que son
los que establecen los actores o las personas estudiadas o que pertenecen al caso.


ofrecieran ESO, puesto que interesaba que en la investigacin participaran estudiantes
adolescentes, jvenes y adultos. As, el IES Esteve Terradas i Illa de Cornell de Llobregat, se
vincul permitiendo realizar tres intervenciones iniciales durante el ao acadmico 2009-2010:
una con un grupo de aula ordinaria (caso N1), otra con acogida (N2) y otra ms con aula
abierta (N3). Tiempo despus se realizaran otras experiencias en el mismo centro con aula
abierta, en los aos acadmicos 2010-2011 y 2011-2012, respectivamente (N4 y N5)12. La
Tabla 1 presenta datos sobre los relatos obtenidos y la modalidad de trabajo.
Cdigo Referencia Fecha de Cantidad Relatos Relatos Total

* realizacin participantes Individua- hechos en relatos
les pareja
Aula ordinaria (Primer

curso de ESO) Enero-marzo
N1 15 3 6 9
Ao acadmico 2009- 2009
2010
Aula de acogida (ESO)

Enero-marzo
N2 14 8 3 11
Ao acadmico 2009- 2009
2010
Aula abierta (ESO)

Enero-marzo
N3 Ao acadmico 2009- 6 6 0 6
2009
2010
Aula abierta (ESO)

Noviembre
N4 Ao acadmico 2010- 9 0 9 9
2010
2011
Aula abierta (ESO)

Octubre
N5 Ao acadmico 2011- 9 8 0 8
2011
2012
Total 53 25 18 43
*(N = Casos con nios-adolescentes)

Tabla 1: Casos o unidades de anlisis, participantes y relatos obtenidos
La eleccin de los tres tipos de aulas, con la diversidad de caractersticas y necesidades del
alumnado, respondi a una exigencia del instituto: desarrollar el proyecto no solo con aula
ordinaria sino con las otras aulas, aduciendo la necesidad de garantizar a todos los discentes su
derecho a la igualdad de oportunidades para participar en programas o actividades de
innovacin y, tambin, que de esta forma se podra contar con estudiantes-representantes de
varios cursos (no solo de primero), pues en acogida participan tambin los de segundo a cuarto,
y en aula abierta los de tercero, cuarto y, excepcionalmente, segundo. Esta condicin se
convirti en una oportunidad para replantear las preguntas y los objetivos, pues dio pie a
pensar que el diseo de la metodologa necesariamente deba considerar la pluralidad y
multiculturalidad de la ESO en Espaa en general, y en Catalunya en particular13, y contribuir a

12
Los grupos eran mixtos, aunque la mayora de los aprendices eran hombres (el 63%). La edad promedio
era 15 aos, siendo la de los de aula ordinaria la ms baja, 13 aos. Igualmente, haba una marcada
multiculturalidad, puesto que en general, el 45,28% de los participantes era de origen espaol, mientras
que el 54,72%, era extranjero (especialmente de Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, Marruecos y Repblica
Dominicana, y en menor cantidad de Argelia, Brasil, Cuba, Moldavia, Pakistn, Per, Rumana y Ucrania).
Estas caractersticas se tuvieron en cuenta, posteriormente, en el anlisis.
13
A primero de enero de 2011 residan en Espaa 6,7 millones de personas nacidas fuera de sus fronteras,
equivalente al 14,1% de la poblacin total (Instituto Nacional de Estadstica, www.ine.es). El 16,2% de los

disminuir el riesgo de exclusin de aquellos recin llegados o que manifiestan inadaptacin o
dificultades en sus aprendizajes.
Ahora bien, previamente, durante etapa de formulacin, se dise un primer prototipo de la

metodologa con base en las propuestas preexistentes; este se puso en prctica en un caso
inicial con jvenes universitarios14, y se mejor teniendo en cuenta los resultados de tal
experiencia. Ese segundo fue el que se aplic a los participantes de N1, N2 y N3,
proponindoles realizar y compartir con sus compaeros un RDP que sera publicado en
Internet, como parte de sus actividades escolares15.
Para ello la misma investigadora planific la intervencin educativa considerando los aspectos
que se describen ms adelante; en N1, N2 y N3 con apoyo del director de la investigacin y de
algunos asesores, y en N4 y N5, conjuntamente con la docente de aula abierta16. Ms tarde
orient un taller de 20 horas aproximadamente (2 3 por semana, para un total mximo de 10
semanas) por cada grupo, en horario escolar pero fuera del instituto17, con algunos monitores
(uno o dos por aula, con la funcin de asistir a los estudiantes durante las actividades
individuales o la recopilacin de datos18) y con la presencia de las profesoras. Antes de
comenzar explic los propsitos y la dinmica del proyecto a los padres, y les solicit su
consentimiento informado, advirtindoles que la participacin de sus hijos implicaba hacer
visible y pblica su voz e imagen.
Para recopilar informacin y datos importantes, se utilizaron antes, durante o despus de los
casos, varias tcnicas: encuestas a alumnos, entrevistas semiestructuradas a ellos y a las
docentes acompaantes, observacin participante y anlisis de documentos (guiones y vdeos).
Para ello se disearon, probaron y aplicaron como instrumentos: formularios con preguntas
cerradas y abiertas, guas de preguntas para entrevistas, notas de campo tanto descriptivas (de
las reacciones, actuaciones, dificultades u opiniones de los autores) o como reflexivas (de las
interpretaciones del investigador o del equipo de apoyo) y matrices de anlisis de documentos.
Asimismo, se usaron y revisaron medios que dejaban evidencia de lo sucedido (fotografas o
grabaciones en vdeo durante algunas de las sesiones de trabajo).
El anlisis se hizo, entonces, siguiendo las recomendaciones de Stake (1998), combinando la

lgica inductiva (con base en las respuestas) y deductiva (en la teora preexistente), primero
analizando por separado los datos obtenidos en cada instrumento, y luego comparndolos,
buscando aspectos o situaciones que resultaran comunes y que podan tener relacin con los
temas, variables, categoras o subcategoras predefinidos, o dar pie a nuevas consideraciones.
Como potenciales subunidades de anlisis se tomaron todos los discentes de esos primeros
casos, con sus respectivas producciones (guiones y relatos). Posteriormente se fue acotando
esa cantidad, aplicando diferentes criterios: unos relacionados con los productos, como la alta

habitantes de Catalunya era de origen extranjero (Direcci general per a la Inmigraci,
www.gencat.cat/bsf/immigracio). En el curso acadmico 2009-2010, de los adolescentes escolarizados en
Catalunya, el 17,7% era de origen extranjero (Consell Comarcal del Baix Llobregat,
www.elbaixllobregat.net). No ha sido posible hallar cifras sobre alumnos en aula abierta en cursos recientes.
14
Con estudiantes de licenciatura en Comunicacin Audiovisual, adscrita a la Facultad de Formacin del
Profesorado de la UB. Los otros casos fueron con adultos: docentes de ESO y alumnos del mster oficial
Enseanza y Aprendizaje en Entornos Digitales (EAED), vinculado al doctorado en Educacin y Sociedad de
la Facultad de Pedagoga de la UB.
15
Se dio libertad sobre la temtica de la historia, el tiempo de duracin (aunque tratando de que no superar
las 5 minutos) y la forma de trabajo (individual o en pareja). Incluso, se admiti realizar relatos ficticios, en
caso de que se viera que el recordar una vivencia personal poda herir susceptibilidades.
16
En N4 y N5, la profesora de aula abierta no solo acompa a los estudiantes al taller, como sucedi en los
casos anteriores, sino que hizo las veces de cotutora, puesto que ella misma ya se haba tenido la
experiencia de crear un RDP en una de las intervenciones hechas con adultos.
17
Todos los talleres se ofrecieron en la sede del Citilab, centro para la innovacin social y digital de Cornell
de Llobregat (http://citilab.eu/). El IES est ubicado cerca al centro y participa frecuentemente en los
proyectos educativos y de formacin que se ofrecen all, con lo cual se facilitaba el desplazamiento de los
estudiantes en horario de clase. Solo en N4 y N5 las sesiones se realizaron tanto en el Citilab como en el
instituto, puesto que al ser pocos alumnos, se facilitaba el trabajo en el aula de informtica disponible en l.
18
Algunos haban participado en el caso inicial con jvenes universitarios, haciendo sus propios RDP.


produccin audiovisual o implicacin personal del autor, o bien la poca; otro que tena que ver
con la subunidades atpicas, puesto que interesaba conocer las razones para haber abandonado
el proceso o para no haber hecho una historia real-personal (de esa forma se prestaba atencin
no solo a los logros, sino tambin, y de forma especial, a las a las deficiencias detectadas, para
solucionarlas con los diseos futuros, como lo recomienda la IBD), y uno ltimo que
consideraba la calidad de los datos obtenidos, la saturacin, cuando estos empezaban a no ser
relevantes ni a aportar nada nuevo.
El anlisis de N1, N2 y N3 impact en las preguntas de la investigacin, en el sistema de temas,

variables y categoras general y, a su vez, en el diseo del prototipo que se us ms adelante
en N4, intervencin en la que participaron nueve adolescentes y que permiti la obtencin de
igual nmero de relatos. Los resultados de ese caso, a su vez, lo hicieron sobre N5, donde de
nueve alumnos solo acabaron ocho.
Finalizado el trabajo de campo, se pas entonces al anlisis retrospectivo o sumativo de la

secuencia iterativa, comparando los resultados globales de los cinco casos19 y, luego, realizando
una triangulacin de fuentes de datos y una metodolgica para hallar similitudes o discordancias
importantes que deben tenerse en cuenta en el diseo final. Y tras eso, a la fase actual del
proceso investigativo: la consolidacin del diseo del producto.
Prximamente se aplicar a los resultados globales, varias estrategias de validacin (entre ellas
triangulacin de posturas del investigador, metodolgica y de mtodos, de fuentes de datos y
con los interesados) para hacer ajustes y depurar o mejorar las conclusiones y la propuesta
metodolgica esperada, y con ello, se pasar a la presentacin del informe final de
investigacin.
V. Resultados: Producto y comprensiones
Hasta el momento se ha avanzado en el diseo de la metodologa didctica, entendindola

como sinnimo de estrategia didctica, es decir, como un conjunto de procedimientos que,
apoyados en adecuadas tcnicas de enseanza, tienen por objeto alcanzar los objetivos
previstos o, lo que es lo mismo, desarrollar el proceso de enseanza-aprendizaje en las mejores
condiciones. () Una ordenacin de elementos personales, interpersonales, de contenido,
contextuales y de organizacin que, al ponerlos en prctica, desencadenan la actividad en el
grupo de alumnos, en cada uno y en el docente, siguiendo a Salinas, Prez y de Benito (2008).
Por ello, la propuesta incluye y describe diversos elementos sugeridos por esos autores
(objetivos, conocimientos bsicos y actividades del profesor y del estudiante, organizacin del
trabajo, espacio, materiales, infraestructura y tiempo de desarrollo), y los incorpora a una
propuesta de aprendizaje por proyectos que est constituida por las siguientes macroetapas que
se desarrollaran de forma consecutiva:
La planificacin de la intervencin educativa, a cargo del maestro o tutor. Engloba: (a)

la investigacin previa del contexto educativo (tipo de aula o curso, finalidades y
objetivos, competencias que se deben lograr en el curso, cultura escolar, etc.), del
mbito fsico y tecnolgico (disponibilidad de equipos, de programas, de espacio, etc.) y
del perfil de los aprendices (conocimientos o experiencias anteriores, necesidades
educativas, aspectos demogrficos y sociogrficos, entre otros). Adems, (b) la
formulacin del plan de intervencin (la definicin y preparacin de las actividades, la
seleccin de ejemplos o modelos, los recursos de apoyo y los recursos tcnicos20 que

19
De un total de 53 participantes, solo uno no termin su relato, y de un total de 43 relatos, 42 fueron ms
o menos personales (es decir, sobre vivencias o asuntos de inters personal, y con distintos niveles de
implicacin personal) y solo uno de otro tipo, ficticio. Lo hecho por estos estudiantes y sus relatos en cada
caso, sirvieron entonces, de base para este anlisis.
20
En general, los equipos que se requieren para este tipo de proyectos son: un ordenador personal para
cada alumno y para el tutor, cmaras digitales, escner plano, grabadora de audio digital, audfonos,
memorias USB, un disco duro externo (para realizar copias de respaldo), un proyector y una pantalla
gigante, entre otros. En cuanto a programas, se requiere software para edicin de audio, imgenes y vdeo,
para realizar los guiones grficos y para convertir formatos de video y de audio, entre otros. En los casos
descritos se emplearon, concretamente: Audacity (para editar la voz) y Movie Maker (el vdeo), ambos para

ms convengan al grupo por sus caractersticas, p.ej.), (c) la presentacin de la
intervencin a miembros de la comunidad acadmica que directa o indirectamente se
vean involucrados (padres, directivos, maestros, monitores u otros, excepto a los
alumnos), y (d) la consecucin de permisos y consentimientos informados.
La planificacin y el desarrollo del proyecto. Comprende un primer paso, a cargo del

docente o tutor: (a) el acercamiento al proceso y a los relatos, para motivar, estimular
la creatividad y familiarizarse con los tipos de RDP posibles, con el enfoque y las
caractersticas, con elementos expresivos o de representacin simblica que pueden
emplearse y con el procedimiento que se seguir para pensar y hacer realidad las
narraciones, y tambin para explicarles lo que se espera de los estudiantes durante las
distintas fases.
Y tambin, otras etapas posteriores, en las que el papel del estudiantes es fundamental:
(b) la conceptualizacin y planificacin de la narracin, durante la cual se realizan
algunos ejercicios grupales e individuales para incentivar la creatividad y la memoria,
seleccionar temas preliminares, elegir entre ellos el tema a trabajar, enfocar y esbozar
la historia definitiva y su estructura, plasmar y organizar las ideas en un guion literario
(sin poner restriccin de palabras, aunque s tratando de ayudar a que al leerlo, quede
aproximadamente de 2 a 3 minutos aproximadamente21) y proyectar audiovisualmente
el producto con apoyo de un storyboard u otras herramientas; (c) la preproduccin,
para buscar y seleccionar objetos y elementos expresivos y digitalizar los materiales
preexistentes, haciendo uso de recursos personales y de bancos de imgenes y sonidos
que pueden ser usados legalmente en trabajos como este; (d) la produccin de medios,
para realizar nuevos materiales narrativos (fotos, vdeo, dibujos, etc.) y grabar la voz; y
por ltimo, (e) la posproduccin, para lograr la familiarizacin con los programas y
equipos, la edicin de la voz y del video y la obtencin del archivo final.
La exposicin y la evaluacin interna del proyecto, a cargo de los alumnos participantes,

con orientacin y acompaamiento del profesor. Supone compartir y valorar la historia
propia y la de los dems, haciendo una reflexin individual y grupal del trabajo realizado
(relato final y proceso), los logros alcanzados y las dificultades enfrentadas.
La valoracin del proyecto por parte de los docentes (y de los monitores y/o el equipo
de investigacin, si los hay)22, con el nimo de seguir perfeccionando la metodologa
empleada, para adaptarla a necesidades particulares o para corregir las deficiencias
encontradas en cada intervencin.
La difusin externa del proyecto, haciendo actividades para dar a conocer los productos
y la experiencia entre los miembros de la comunidad acadmica (con compaeros de
otros cursos o aulas, profesores, padres y/u otros familiares)23 o en medios de
comunicacin como Internet24.

PCs, pues eran programas conocidos por los docentes y de uso frecuente en los institutos catalanes; Comic
Life (para el guion audiovisual), Media Coder (para convertir formatos de video o audio) y un editor en lnea
de imgenes, Picnik (reemplazado por Creative Kit in Google+), para hacer composiciones o retocar las
fotos, entre otros. Ms informacin sobre recursos en: http://greav.ub.edu/relatosdigitales/ En el mismo
sitio Web se encuentran ejemplos, tutoriales y otros recursos hechos y empleados durante la investigacin.
21
Esto equivale, mximo, a dos cuartillas escritas a doble espacio en letra Arial o similar, 12 puntos. En los
casos descritos (N1 a N5), p.ej., los guiones contaron con 386 palabras en promedio, y los relatos finales
tenan una duracin media de 2 minutos 44 segundos.
22
En esta investigacin se consider fundamental la opinin de las profesoras y los monitores para el
anlisis y al mejoramiento de la propuesta metodolgica, pues es esencial en la IBD, como lo recomienda
Bereiter (2002), la contribucin de los profesionales de la educacin y de personas cuyos intereses o
conocimientos puedan producir cambios significativos en los contextos locales donde se realizan las
prcticas educativas.
23
En las intervenciones se hicieron dos eventos con miembros de la comunidad acadmica: uno fue con N1,
N2 y N3 en el lugar donde se hizo el taller, con los alumnos de los tres grupos participantes, en un acto
preparado y presentado por ellos mismos, que cont tambin con la presencia de algunos padres, otros
familiares y directivos del Instituto. El otro fue un acto en el auditorio de la escuela, en el que los
estudiantes de aula abierta (N3, N4 y N5) que as lo quisieron, compartieron sus relatos y su experiencia
con algunos docentes y discentes externos al proyecto.


As mismo, la metodologa incluye una serie de advertencias y consejos para que los docentes y
los centros educativos puedan prever y planificar soluciones a los condicionantes o limitaciones
que se encontraron durante esta investigacin especfica, y para que tengan en cuenta las
caractersticas de los relatos identificadas.
Entre los primeros est el tamao numeroso de los grupos (ms de 10 12 participantes, como
ocurri en aula ordinaria), pues este tipo de proyectos prcticos de aprendizaje exige un
acompaamiento permanente de parte de los docentes, as que es posible que la demanda de
ayuda por parte de los alumnos, supere la capacidad de atencin o reaccin del profesor. Es,
entonces, importante planificar actividades donde sean los chicos ms adelantados o
aventajados (p.ej., con ms destrezas tcnicas) quienes den soporte a sus compaeros.
Tambin pensar en el desarrollo de los RDP como trabajo vlido para diversas asignaturas
(p.ej., de Educacin artstica plstica y visual, Sociales y/o Tecnologas), de tal forma que varios
maestros puedan coordinarse para tutorizar los proyectos, y enriquezcan con sus conocimientos
las ideas y producciones de los estudiantes. O incluso, buscar el apoyo de tutores o monitores
externos, haciendo alianzas con entidades interesadas en innovaciones educativas o en
promover el uso de TIC en educacin, o recurriendo a pupilos de cursos pasados que ya hayan
hecho su RDP.
Adems, como se observ, en un mismo grupo puede suceder que el proyecto de cada alumno
exija ms o menos tiempo, por el grado de conocimientos o destrezas tcnicas previas, o por el
grado de desarrollo que ya se tenga de las competencias narrativas. Es probable pues que un
chico sea ms rpido o ms lento que sus compaeros, as que esto requerir la planificacin de
actividades adicionales para quienes estn adelantados, de tal forma que estos, al ver
cumplidos sus compromisos, no realicen usos no planificados o controlados de los recursos
tcnicos durante la clase, o se disperse su atencin (y la de los dems).
Tambin los proyectos y el logro de los objetivos se pueden dificultar por factores culturales o
sociales del alumno, como la religin o el grado de integracin escolar, pues pueden limitar la
exposicin personal en el relato y su participacin en actividades de difusin interna o externa25,
por lo que hay que considerar estos aspectos desde la planificacin de la intervencin, y
orientar a los aprendices para que logren el objetivo, sin vulnerarlos o invadir su privacidad.
La edicin social (la que realizan directa o indirectamente familiares, amigos, conocidos o la
comunidad) o escolar (la que ejercen los compaeros o incluso el docente) durante la
planificacin26; la costumbre de ser consumidores y no productores de medios; la concepcin
errnea pero popularizada entre los estudiantes adolescentes de que si algo es publicado en
Internet, es porque se puede usar libremente, y la prctica generalizada de descargar archivos
ajenos (fotos, p.ej.) para usarlos en los trabajos acadmicos, sin citar su fuente y sin sanciones
escolares por esas actuaciones, pueden ser tambin restrictivos para la representacin o
implicacin personal, o para la originalidad en la produccin, as que si no se gua, incentiva y
se negocia con los autores, pueden resultar historias poco autnticas, o hechas con todas sus
imgenes extradas de la Web.
Aunque la falta de originalidad en la parte visual tambin se puede explicar, en parte tambin,
por el hecho de estar lejos del lugar de origen, pues esto, en algunos estudiantes, puede

24
En acuerdo con el IES y con permiso de los estudiantes y der los padres o tutores legales, la mayor parte
de los relatos se public en el sitio Web del proyecto de la UB (http://greav.ub.edu/relatosdigitales), en la
comunidad virtual Digital Storytelling (http://storytelling.greav.net/es/) y en otro sitio ofrecido por a UB y el
Citilab (http://edulab.projectescitilab.eu/). No obstante, esa exposicin externa, con sus efectos sobre los
autores, no se consider en la investigacin.
25
Como ocurri con una nia musulmana que se rehus a aparecer en el vdeo (finalmente lo hizo solo con
dibujos) y que luego pidi retirarlo de Internet, citando sus creencias religiosas, pese a que ella y sus
padres haban dado su consentimiento inicial para publicarlo.
26
Tal y como sucedi en el aula ordinaria, pues algunos chicos bromearon sobre los relatos de algunos
compaeros, haciendo que estos prefirieran no compartir sus producciones o las modificaran. O con algunas
profesoras que modificaron algunos guiones literarios, sin negociarlo, agregando o eliminando frases o
incluso alterando los argumentos por considerarlos violentos, mal escritos o pobres en su lenguaje, lo que
hizo que unos autores se rehusaran en un momento dado a continuar con la produccin o decidieran
cambiarlo posteriormente sin consultarlo con la maestra.

obstaculizar la realizacin de historias sobre hechos pasados (varios de los extranjeros no
tenan acceso a fotografas o vdeos familiares que pudieran ayudarles a ilustrar sus vivencias).
Por eso, entonces, se deben planificar, desde el inicio, tcticas que faciliten la recordacin y la
produccin visual si lo que se pide es que se cuenten eventos pasados, o se deben definir o
proponer otras temticas que faciliten contar algo sobre el presente.
Del mismo modo, hay que considerar que, con independencia del sexo y de otras condiciones,
como la procedencia de los aprendices, parece que en la adolescencia la edad es un factor que
determina el eje temporal de las historias, es decir, si el hecho real que se cuenta ocurri en el
pasado lejano o cercano, si est ocurriendo en el presente, o si se espera que suceda en el
futuro, pues en estos casos, en los alumnos de menor edad fue ms frecuente relatar algo
sobre el presente, mientras que los que tenan ms aos, tenan ms facilidad para recordar y
narrar un hecho ya ocurrido. Saber esto puede contribuir a la planificacin de la intervencin,
definiendo o sugiriendo temticas que puedan resultar ms atractivas u oportunas, como
pueden ser las historias cuyo eje temporal sea el presente (aficiones, personajes o lugares
significativos, o de comparaciones entre lugares como el de origen y el de residencia actual), o
ms fciles de realizar visualmente, pues historias sobre hechos futuros (sueos) o sobre
hechos pasados pero que no hayan sido registrados en imgenes, pueden encarnar un reto
mayor.
De otro lado, tambin pueden ser limitantes: la poca cultura que se tiene de ejercitar la
memoria en las personas, en muchas de las sociedades actuales, fruto esto de dejar dicha
memoria a cargo de dispositivos externos (registros escritos, visuales o auditivos, por ejemplo);
la falta de oportunidades para la expresin oral de historias personales en pblico y ms en la
escuela o institucin educativa; y que en el contexto de la ESO, no se suelen escribir textos
narrativos sino otros ms de tipo descriptivo. Por ello la conceptualizacin y planificacin del
proyecto puede ser la etapa que represente ms dificultad, y que pueda generar, incluso,
angustia o desmotivacin.
Relacionado con lo anterior est que los ejemplos que se muestran durante la familiarizacin
con los RDP, influencian la eleccin del tipo de historia, el enfoque de la misma, el estilo
comunicativo, la estructura de la narrativa y la forma de expresin audiovisual, especialmente
en los autores de menor edad (como fueron los de aula ordinaria) o en grupos con poca
cohesin (donde los estudiantes se conocen poco o comparten poco tiempo escolar juntos,
como en aula de acogida, puesto que en este tipo de unidad, alumnos de diversos cursos se
renen solo algunas horas a la semana para realizar actividades que les ayuden a integrarse y a
aprender el cataln), pues en esos casos es muy posible que se trate de reproducir aquello que
se ve como modelo. Eso indica la necesidad de elegir en la formulacin del plan de intervencin,
relatos gua que sean distintos (tanto por su temtica, como por sus elementos expresivos o
semiticos) y que tengan una buena estructura narrativa. As mismo, visualizarlos la misma
cantidad de veces (no un modelo ms que otros), para evitar que por efecto de la repeticin se
recuerde alguno en especial y se trate de imitar.
Y por ltimo, mencionar que en centros educativos pblicos, es muy posible que se trabaje con
software libre y no con los que los alumnos puedan tener en sus ordenadores personales o en
los que haya en sus casas; que no se cuente con ordenadores para todos y cada uno de los
estudiantes; que los que haya no sean de uso exclusivo, sino que un mismo equipo est
disponible para muchos discentes; y que en las distintas sesiones se use un ordenador
diferente. Incluso, que los equipos estn programados para que se borren diariamente los
archivos de los usuarios. Es indispensable pues, familiarizar a los aprendices con los programas,
en caso de que no lo estn, y ensearles buenas prcticas tanto para la gestin y el manejo de
los archivos, como para el respaldo o back-up de los avances, los materiales multimediales y los
guiones, pues de no ser organizados, se puede perder lo hecho (lo cual desmotiva), o se
pueden dejar con acceso pblico informaciones ntimas o privadas.
Ahora bien, con respecto a los aportes pedaggicos encontrados, se puede decir que entre los
principales resultados est constatar que la creacin de RDP puede contribuir al desarrollo de
las competencias bsicas (de tipo comunicativo, metodolgico y personales) y especficas
(centradas en convivir y habitar el mundo) que se esperan en la ESO, pues en todos los casos,
el proyecto permiti ejercitar la expresin escrita (al pensar, realizar y corregir el guion previo a
la realizacin), la oral (al ensayar, grabar, escuchar y regrabar, si era necesario, su propia voz)
y la audiovisual; realizar actividades de bsqueda, seleccin, archivo y recuperacin de
materiales; aprender o poner en prctica conocimientos tcnicos (relacionados con TIC);


generar un producto creativo, usando las TIC reflexiva y responsablemente; trabajar el
autoconocimiento, la regulacin de las emociones, la autoexigencia y la autonoma (sobre todo
en aula abierta); y conocer a travs de los relatos de sus compaeros, otras realidades, incluso
otros territorios y otras formas de vida, gracias a la multiculturalidad de todos los grupos, y a
que muchos de los compaeros de origen extranjero hablaron de sus familias y de sus pases, y
de las diferencias encontradas entre ellos y Catalunya.
Para los del aula de acogida, adems, fue una oportunidad para familiarizarse y practicar el
nuevo idioma, al haber traducido con su profesora los guiones, al haber ensayado varias veces
la locucin antes de grabarla y al escuchar los relatos hechos por sus mismos compaeros. Y en
los tres casos con aula abierta, implicarse creativa, activa y persistentemente en la construccin
del producto y en la culminacin del proyecto, y elevar su autoestima al verse capaz de alcanzar
los objetivos y las metas propuestas, aspectos que no son frecuentes en los tipos de alumnos
que participan en estas unidades escolares.
La creacin de RDP tambin logr que se alcanzara un uso bsico de las herramientas y de los
sistemas de representacin y expresin digitales que podan crear con el ordenador o encontrar
en Internet, en el caso de algunos participantes del aula de acogida que no haban trabajado
con este tipo de TIC, o bien, que superaran ese uso bsico y que desarrollaran y relacionaran
habilidades de comunicacin, de investigacin e informticas, para crear un mensaje integral,
cuyas piezas se engranaran con sentido crtico, en pro del objetivo que perseguan con su
propia historia (el mensaje que queran dejar).
Y finalmente, mencionar que en los cinco casos, pese a la reticencia inicial y comprensible de los
alumnos por compartir una historia personal, ms o menos ntima, como parte de una actividad
escolar, la gran mayora de ellos y todos sus docentes consideraron muy motivador el proyecto
realizado; que hubo una alta implicacin con el logro de los objetivos; y que tras la
intervencin, dos de las profesores desarrollaron con sus estudiantes otros relatos digitales,
algunos de los adolescentes pidieron repetir la experiencia, y otros manifestaron estar haciendo
productos similares aplicando lo que aprendieron.
VI. Conclusiones
Las experiencias descritas han contribuido a explorar la narracin personal y multimedial como
forma de comunicacin y aprendizaje, permitiendo afirmar que los RDP pueden ser
instrumentos potenciales para que los alumnos dejen de ser consumidores de contenidos, y
pasen a ser a autores de los mismos, dejando el rol pasivo y ejerciendo uno activo, productivo y
comunicativo.
Adems, han ayudado a ahondar en la comprensin de los RDP como una forma de
conocimiento y organizacin de la experiencia humana, til para facilitar y motivar procesos de
aprendizaje prctico centrados en los estudiantes, en un marco de Educacin Formal en el
contexto espaol, al potenciar el aprovechamiento en el aula tanto de las expresiones, vivencias
y visiones de los sujetos que aprenden, como de las posibilidades multimedialidades y
multimodalidades que ofrecen las TIC. De igual forma, al hacer que tanto profesores como
aprendices, conozcan y asuman el sentido de lo que hacen, lo anclen y siten.
Finalmente, el estudio ha permitido obtener y usar informacin relevante para el diseo y

perfeccionamiento de una metodologa didctica que permita a los docentes, orientar la
planificacin y el desarrollo de RDP como proyectos prcticos de aprendizaje, de tal forma que
se potencien sus aportes pedaggicos en lo que se refiere a las diversas competencias inmersas
en su creacin.


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Aclaracin y agradecimientos
El estudio presentado forma parte de un proyecto de investigacin e innovacin educativa ms

amplio centrado en el tema de los RDP en Educacin, impulsado desde 2008 por el Grup de
Recerca Ensenyament i Aprenentatge Virtual (GREAV) y el Observatori de l'Educaci Digital
(OED) de la Universitat de Barcelona, con la colaboracin de la Fundaci per a la Societat del
Coneixement-Citilab de Cornell de Llobregat, la Agrupaci de Recerca en Cincies de l'Educaci
(ARCE), la Fundaci Bosch i Gimpera y el IES SEP Esteve Terradas i Illa (ver
http://greav.ub.edu/relatosdigitales/). Adems, la autora de este artculo la est haciendo como
Tesis Doctoral, inscrita en el Departament de Teoria i Histria de l'Educaci, Programa Doctorat
Multimdia Educatiu, de la misma universidad. Se agradece a las instituciones mencionadas, al
profesor Jos Luis Rodrguez Illera (director del proyecto general y de la tesis) y a todos los
docentes, alumnos, asesores, monitores y colaboradores que han participado, por sus aportes y
contribuciones.
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personales. In: Digital Education Review, 22, 19-36. [Accessed: dd/mm/yyyy]
http://greav.ub.edu/der
Copyright

What Educators Should Know about Teaching Digital Storytelling
Bernard R. Robin
brobin@uh.edu
University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
Sara G. McNeil
smcneil@uh.edu
University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA

Abstract
In this paper, the authors present some of the most important lessons they
have learned from teaching courses, conducting workshops, writing articles,
and supervising graduate student research on the educational uses of digital
storytelling. The guidelines described here are categorized within the ADDIE
instructional design framework and are presented as starting points that
educators should consider when they begin to integrate digital storytelling in
their classrooms. The guidelines provide useful information that will help
educators teach students all phases of the digital storytelling process, including
analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation of digital
storytelling projects that focus on educationally meaningful topics.

Keywords: Digital Storytelling; Instructional Design; ADDIE Framework;
Educational Technology; Multimedia


I. Introduction
For the past several years, digital storytelling has been a major focus in the University of
Houstons College of Education. Faculty members and graduate students in the Laboratory for
Innovative Technology in Education (LITE) teach courses, deliver workshops, conduct research,
write articles and share presentations at conferences on the many different aspects of how
digital storytelling can be used in educational settings (e.g., Dogan & Robin, 2008; Robin,
2008a; Robin, 2008b; Robin & Pierson, 2005; Robin, White & Abrahamson, 2009; Rudnicki, et.
al, 2006). This work has included K-12 teachers and their students, undergraduate and
graduate students at the university, and college faculty members from different content areas.
We also maintain a comprehensive website (Educational Uses of Digital Storytelling
http://digitalstorytelling.coe.uh.edu/) that reaches educators and students across the globe, as
evidenced by a 2010 survey we conducted on the uses of digital storytelling around the world
(Yuksel, Robin, & McNeil, 2011).
In addition, our doctoral students have conducted research and published articles and
dissertations that have added to the body of knowledge and our conceptual understanding of
how this technology tool can be used to enhance both the teaching and learning experience.
Working so intensely on the many facets of digital storytelling has helped us achieve a great
deal of practical expertise in how students can be successful at creating educationally
meaningful digital stories to support their learning. In this article, we share some of the most
important lessons we have learned about digital storytelling that we hope will benefit other
educators who may wish to use this technology tool in their own teaching.
a. What has our research on digital storytelling shown?
Even though digital storytelling has been practiced for more than two decades, a limited amount
of research has been conducted on this technology, especially as it has been used in educational
settings. One of the first doctoral dissertation research studies at the University of Houston on
digital storytelling was conducted by Bulent Dogan in 2007 (Dogan, 2007). In this study, three
groups of public school teachers were tracked following their participation in an intensive digital
storytelling workshop offered at the university. The three groups, composed of elementary,
middle, and high school teachers, learned to create digital stories that they could use in their
own classrooms. The teachers completed pre- and three-month-post-workshop surveys that
were used to measure and evaluate whether or not they continued to use digital storytelling in
their teaching, the impact of such use and, in cases where there was no use, the barriers that
prevented this use. The teachers who used digital storytelling in their classrooms believed that
their students increased their technical, research, presentation, organizational and writing skills.
Teachers also reported that they thought that the digital storytelling process had positive effects
on students motivation and engagement levels.
In 2009, Anne Rudnicki completed a doctoral dissertation (Rudnicki, 2009) focused on the
dialogical aspects of the digital story development process used by graduate students in a
digital storytelling course and a popular culture course that were taught as a linked pair at the
University of Houston. In her research, Rudnicki explored whether discussions about storytelling
evoked students' higher consciousness of the stories they tell and in turn helped them tell more
meaningful digital stories. Some of the topics that emerged from the research included personal
narrative versus academic writing, story circles as knowledge communities, aesthetic knowing,
digital stories as narratives of inquiry, and teachers as curriculum makers. One of the most
practical outcomes of this study was the development of a Story Circle Guide, which is still
being used in our digital storytelling courses and workshops.
In her 2011 doctoral research study on digital storytelling, Anh Nguyen interviewed graduate
students at the University of Houston about the challenges they faced when they created a
comprehensive digital storytelling project on an educationally relevant topic for a course in
which they were enrolled. Nguyen focused her investigation on understanding the experience of
these digital storytellers and the choices they made in creating their stories. She found that
students own learning and teaching practices were influenced by personalizing elements in the
script, using computer-based digital storytelling software, reflecting on their own work and
listening to feedback from others, and perhaps most important, sensing their own progress as
they worked through all of the components of the digital storytelling process. These findings


provide useful implications for instruction and evaluation in teaching digital storytelling and
suggest many opportunities for future research. Nguyens study focused on graduate students
use of digital storytelling; similar research that explored digital storytelling use by college
and/or high school students would also be valuable areas for research studies conducted by our
current doctoral students. In addition, we are interested in research that more closely examines
characteristics of technological skills and literacies in order to gain further insight into how
individual learners can best take advantage of digital storytelling in educational settings.
Based on the results of these doctoral research studies, as well as lessons we have learned from
teaching courses, conducting workshops and writing articles on the educational uses of digital
storytelling, we have developed a set of guidelines that we feel educators should consider when
they begin to integrate digital storytelling in their own classrooms and teach students to create
digital stories on instructionally meaningful topics. We have structured these guidelines within
the framework of the ADDIE model of instructional design.
b. The ADDIE Model
ADDIE, an acronym that stands for Analysis, Design, Develop, Implement and Evaluate, is a
five-step process of instructional design that has been widely used in both education and
industry since it was developed in the mid-1970s (Clark, 2011; Molenda, 2003). Morrison, Ross,
and Kemp (2007) noted that ADDIE is not an original design model, but a label that refers to a
family of models that share common basic elements. (p. 13). Each stage of the model provides
a framework for collecting information necessary to complete related tasks (Cennamo & Kalk,
2005). Most systematic instructional design models use similar elements with variations in
emphasis, depth, time, and representation (Gagne, Wager, Golas, & Keller, 2005).
Figure 1: The ADDIE Model
II. Analysis
In the analysis phase, the designer of the instruction identifies an instructional goal and
analyzes the learners, the learning context, and the tasks that should be performed. The
guidelines related to this ADDIE phase include analyzing aspects of the digital story related to
the topic and script, as well as analyzing the potential audience for the story.
Guideline 1: Distinguish the characteristics of an educational digital story
With so many different types of media files available online, including digital photo essays,
slideshows set to music, instructional videos, and an ever increasing number of animated
projects created with Web 2.0 tools, we have found that many students are not able to clearly
differentiate between what is and what is not a digital story. Almost all of the accepted


descriptions of digital storytelling define this technology as a way to combine different types of
multimedia, including still images, text, video clips, audio narration and music to tell a short
story, usually just a few minutes in length, on a particular topic or theme. Most educational
digital stories are classified within a general list of categories that include personal accounts that
tell stories about significant events, people and places in our lives; stories that examine or retell
historical events; and stories that inform and instruct, often with some overlap between
categories.
A comprehensive overview of the defining elements that make a digital story suitable in the
classroom can be a useful topic for educators to discuss with their students, especially when
working with students who are new to this type of technology. This discussion should include
watching example digital stories together and exploring various questions that may arise from
the viewing, including:
1. What is the topic of the story?
2. What is the main purpose of the story?
3. Who created it?
4. Were educators and/or students involved in the creation of the story?
5. Who is the intended audience?
6. Is the information presented in a clearly organized and logical manner?
7. Does the story contain narration that is easy to hear and understand?
8. If music and video clips are included, do they significantly improve the story?
9. What educational value, if any, does the digital story contain?
10. Are there distinct ways that the story could be improved?
These are just some of the items that educators and their students might consider when they
embark on using digital storytelling in the classroom. These items may be used as a starting
point to begin the digital storytelling process, and other questions should be added to this list as
needed.
Guideline 2: Analyze the audience and develop the digital story script accordingly
In order to tell a story that will interest others, digital story creators should identify the
audience as clearly and specifically as possible. As the script for the story is written, students
should keep in mind who they are trying to reach. Creators should consider the age, gender,
cultural background and other defining characteristics of the intended audience to make sure
that the story is appropriate for those viewers. They should also think about what they want
viewers to know from watching their story and what are some ways to get and keep the
attention of these particular viewers. One strategy that we have found to be effective is to begin
a digital story with by asking an opening question or presenting a compelling introduction to
gain the attention of the audience. Our students are encouraged to consider the language they
use in their stories to make sure that it will be understandable by viewers who may represent
different age groups and come from different cultural backgrounds. We also stress that digital
stories should focus on common themes that most viewers can identify with, such as personal
reflection, historical narrative or the presentation of instructional content.
Guideline 3: Choose an interesting topic and add a personal connection
A major challenge for a digital story creator is how to write a script on a topic that will present
information in a way that interests viewers unfamiliar with the topic. For example, if a student is
writing a script about how computers have become an important part of everyday life, he or she
might start by going to the Wikipedia website to get some background information about
personal computers that they could use as the beginning of their story. Here is what they would
find:


A personal computer (PC) is any general-purpose computer whose size, capabilities, and
original sales price make it useful for individuals, and which is intended to be operated directly
by an end-user with no intervening computer operator. In contrast, the batch processing or
time-sharing models allowed large expensive mainframe systems to be used by many people,
usually at the same time. Large data processing systems require a full-time staff to operate
efficiently. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer)
However, that text is mechanical and dispassionate and would certainly not fit most teachers
description of an engaging script for a digital story. Instead, a student might try writing
something more personal, such as this:
When I wake up every morning, one of the first things I do is turn on my computer. I never
have given this much thought, but recently I began wondering about what people at other times
in history did when they first woke up each day. For many throughout history, there was no
electricity, which meant there were no refrigerators. So, finding food to eat when you first woke
up was probably a lot more challenging and necessary than turning on a computer.
Students should be encouraged to select a topic that they feel passionate about, write a script
that reflects that passion, and make the story as interesting as possible for their specific
audience.
Digital story creators should add a personal viewpoint to the script so that it sounds more like a
story they are telling from their own experience and less like passages from a textbook, a
journal article, or a website. Digital stories that focus on significant life events, honor the
memory of friends and loved ones, or recount the process of accomplishment, challenge and
recovery gain an extra measure of emotional power and meaning that is felt by both the digital
story creator and the viewer. A first person account may be used to highlight recollections from
the past, provide an understanding about present day events and look forward to hope and
aspirations that may occur in the future. In all of these cases, the personal connection to the
story is what makes it compelling since they often revolve around universal themes and
questions that we all share.
III. Design
In the design phase, designers of instruction make decisions about how information should be
presented depending on the analysis performed in the first stage (Lohr, 2003). In this ADDIE
phase, digital story creators complete the script and storyboard for the design of the story as
well as collect and organize appropriate media such as images, audio and video.
Guideline 4: Recognize the importance of a detailed script
The script for an educational digital story is one of the most important components that
students will create. We stress to our students and workshop participants that a good digital
story must first be a good story and that no matter how much expertise a student has with
technology, a poorly written story will not be improved by fancy transitions and other digital
effects.
Scriptwriting can be difficult for many students and is certainly more taxing and less fun than
some of the other tasks associated with creating a digital story, like searching for images or
adding music. However, digital storytellers at all levels must understand that a well thought out,
well written script is an absolute requirement for a good digital story and we require our
students to write a draft version of the script for their story before they begin work on creating
the digital story. The script should stand on its own merits, even if there are no visuals,
narration, music, animations, or other components that will eventually add interest to the digital
version.
Guideline 5: Create a detailed storyboard before work on the actual creation begins
Creating storyboards is an often overlooked part of the digital storytelling process, and for many
students, storyboarding may seem like a tedious extra step in the development. However,


storyboarding can be a valuable component in the creative process by allowing the student to
organize images and text in a blueprint fashion before the actual creation begins. It allows the
student to visualize how the project will be put together and helps illustrate what portions of the
story need more work because they can see the entire plan laid out in front of them.
Storyboarding can also inspire new ideas as well as let the student rearrange existing resources
before the final development begins, when changes may be harder to make. Storyboards
provide a way to decide how the digital story script can be split up into individual pieces, either
with or without placeholder images, so that the student can then get a clearer overview of their
digital story plan. Storyboards may be created on a computer using programs such as Microsoft
Word, Excel or PowerPoint, as well as specialized software such Celtx media pre-production
software, available from: http://celtx.com/download.html
Storyboards may also be sketched by hand, allowing students who do not have access to a
computer to complete this phase of development. The most important thing to remember is that
creating a storyboard is an integral part of the pre-development process that should not be
skipped.
Figure 2. A section of a storyboard created with the program, Celtx
Guideline 6: Organize all of the digital story materials
Our experience has taught us that a system for cataloguing all of the digital story materials will
help students stay organized and easily able to locate all of the important files they will be using
in their digital story project. We have seen far too many cases where students have stored files
stored in numerous locations, only to become frustrated and discouraged when these files
cannot be found. Here are a several important organizational strategies for beginning digital
storytellers.
1. Before any other work is done on the computer, students should begin by creating a
folder on the computers desktop where all of the files related to the digital story
can be stored.
2. Inside this master folder, separate sub-folders should be created for the script,
storyboard, text files, images, audio narration, music, video clips, and any other


materials that will be used.
3. If you a PC running the Windows operating system is being used, students should
verify that the file extensions of a file are viewable and if not, the settings on the
computer should be adjusted to make sure that file extensions are displayed and
not hidden.
4. After collecting and creating a large number images that could be used in their
digital story, students are encouraged to go to the master image folder and make
copies of just the images they select to go into the story and place them in a new
folder, named something like Photos-to-Use. Since these selected images will
often be inserted into a storyboard in the order in which they will be shown in the
final digital story, we also suggest that these images be renamed with numbers that
indicate the order in which they will be displayed in the story, such as image-01.jpg,
image-02.jpg, etc. Then when they are inserted into the digital storytelling software
program used to create the story, they will appear in the correct order. New images
can always be added later, and these new images can be re-named something like
image-01b.jpg, image-01c.jpg, image-01d.jpg and so forth, so that the correct
sequence will be maintained.
Figure 3: Screen shot of the organization of a folder for a digital story
This type of organization will make locating files much easier and will help students eliminate
the frustration and confusion they invariably feel when they cannot locate important pieces of
their projects. Storing all files in a master folder also has the added of benefit of allowing the
entire project to be easily copied to a thumb drive or external hard drive so that the student
may work on the digital story project on a different computer.
Guideline 7: Use visually interesting images that support and strengthen the story
While they are writing the script, creators of digital stories should think about what kinds of
images they will use to add meaning and interest. Students generally search for online images
early in the design process, but they often select low quality, low-resolution images that appear
first in their search query. A low-resolution image can often ruin a digital story because of the
blurry quality and difficulty in viewing the details in an image. Often students do not realize that
they can limit their search to high-resolution, large-size images in the search engine.


Many students who ask for advice about how to find high quality images for their stories do not
appreciate that the choice of topic plays a large role in this process. For example, if a student
chooses a topic about space exploration, there is an abundance of high quality images courtesy
of NASA (http://www.nasa.gov). However, if a student chooses the history of World War I as
the topic of their digital story, there is a significantly smaller selection of high quality
photographs available on this subject.
Guideline 8: Be inventive in creating useful images
In addition to finding and downloading images from the web for use in their digital stories,
digital story creators should also be encouraged to take their own pictures with a digital camera,
scan images from books, newspapers or magazines, create charts and graphs with spreadsheet
software, or even use graphic layouts created in Microsoft PowerPoint and saved as still images
for use in a digital story.
In our work, we have found that many students are not aware that PowerPoint slides may be
saved as separate image files instead of the more customary method that is used to save slides
in the .PPT or .PPTX format for presentation as a slide show. Using PowerPoints File Save As
option, this method may be used to save one or more slides in common digital image file
format, such as .GIF, .JPG, .PNG, or .BMP. These image files may then easily be inserted into a
digital story in the same manner as any other graphic.
Guideline 9: Use the highest quality images available
When searching for images on the web, digital story creators should always try to find large,
high-resolution images. When using an image search engine, restrict the image search to only
large, high-resolution images if possible. Be sure that the full size image is saved, and not just
the thumbnail image.
When high-resolution images are not available and a lower quality image must be used, we
recommend that panning and zooming for that image not be used. When a low quality image
must be used, and several are available, students should consider creating a photo collage of
these multiple images, and saving the group as a single high-resolution image. There are
several easy to use software applications that can be used to create photo collages, including
Picasa, Microsoft AutoCollage and even PowerPoint. We have a page on our 1Educational Uses of
Digital Storytelling website devoted to creating photo collages for digital stories.
Guideline 10: Address issues of copyright and fair use
Issues of ownership, copyright, permission, and educational fair use invariably come up in any
discussion involving the use of digital content created by someone else. The use of copyrighted
material is indeed a serious concern and one that many educators and policy makers study and
discuss. Unfortunately, there is not yet a definitive answer to the question of what materials
may or may not be freely used in educational projects. Some educators feel that if a picture or a
video clip may be easily found and downloaded from the web, then it is permissible to use this
material in an educational digital story. But other educators have a different opinion and do not
want their students to use any materials that were created by someone else. As mentioned, we
encourage our students to use digital cameras and camcorders to shoot their own pictures and
video, create their own charts and graphs with software such as Microsoft Excel, search for
copy-right-free music on the web rather than use commercial songs, and in general, think about
how to create a digital story that uses as many copyright-free materials as possible.
But our overarching philosophy is that each educator needs to answer the question of copyright
and educational fair use themselves, by carefully considering several factors, including the
digital medium being used, the nature of that use, the policies in place at their school or
institution, and, perhaps most importantly, their own comfort level in using and having students
use material that can easily be downloaded from the web or re-mixed with commonly available
computer hardware and software. There are many lengthy and often confusing copyright
websites that aim to help educators make sense of copyright and educational fair use, and
unfortunately, there are no simple or one-size-fits-all answers. For those who wish to explore
this topic in more detail, we have included a variety of online resources on these important
topics on the 1Educational Uses of Digital Storytelling website.


IV. Develop
In the develop phase, the designer of the instruction creates the actual instructional product. In
this ADDIE phase, digital story creators use digital story software such as Apple iMovie,
Microsoft Photo Story 3, Windows Movie Maker, Adobe Photoshop or Premiere Elements to
create the story.
Guideline 11: Use blank slides for titles and fades
Some software applications that are commonly used to create digital stories, such as Microsoft
Windows Live Movie Maker, Adobe Photoshop Elements and Apple iMovie provide the option of
creating a blank title screen directly from within the program. However, older software
applications, such as Microsofts Photo Story 3, do not provide this option for inserting a
separate blank slide, so Photo Story 3 users need to create a blank slide outside of the program
if it is to be added to the digital story.
One of the easiest ways to create a blank slide is to use Microsoft PowerPoint. Using
PowerPoints Format Background command, we recommend using a solid fill white or black
background, although a gradient or pattern fill may also be used. Then use the save as option
under the File menu to save the slide as a graphic file such as a JPEG or PNG. Text can then be
added as desired to create a title or even provide information in the digital story. In the
example shown in Figure 4, a black slide was created in PowerPoint and exported as a JPG. The
graphic was then imported into Photo Story 3, and white text was added.
Figure 4: Adding text screen in Microsoft Photo Story 3
In addition, blank slides can also serve as a good way to transition between different sections of
a digital story. By setting the timing on a blank slide for just a second or two, a totally black
slide can be used to change topics as one slide fades out to black and the next slide fades in
from black. We also encourage the addition of a black slide at the end of the digital story. This
ensures that the story not stop abruptly, but will slowly fade to black as the story ends. This
adds a more elegant and finished look to the story and demonstrates that care was taken
throughout the entire digital story development.
Guideline 12: Record high quality audio
Many students find it difficult make a high quality recording of themselves narrating the script of
their digital story. This is not surprising since there are many factors involved in creating a high
quality sound recording for use in their story. These factors include the specific audio recording
software being used, the type of microphone, the quality of the computers sound card, the
recording volume setting on the computer, how loud the student speaks, and the amount of
background noise that can be heard during the recording process.


We recommend that digital story creators record their narration with USB microphones and
Audacity, a free digital audio recording and editing software program available for Windows and
Macintosh computers from: http://audacity.sourceforge.net/download/. When using Audacity,
students may choose to save the recorded audio files as either MP3 or WAV files. Since MP3 files
will be approximately one-tenth the file size of WAV files, we strongly recommend that when
students use Audacity, they export the audio clips as WAV files, which are uncompressed,
instead of MP3 files, which are highly compressed. Saving audio files in an uncompressed
format becomes even more important when the digital story is saved, because many software
programs used to create the final version of the digital story will add its own compression to the
file, reducing the audio quality even more.
Guideline 13: Be thoughtful about the use of additional multimedia elements
In addition to the customary process of creating digital stories with still images, some students
may decide that they want to include external media elements such as multiple pieces of music,
audio or video interviews of other people, and portions of video clips downloaded from the web,
shot with a camcorder or created with screencasting software. There are many media clips
available online, and students will need to think critically about which ones effectively support
their story.
A level of technological sophistication is often needed to locate these kinds of multimedia and
then reuse or remix them to include in digital story projects. Digital stories that make use of
these media resources can often help facilitate classroom learning and inquiry while engaging
and motivating students to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of important
educational content. However, that benefit should be carefully weighed against the amount of
time and effort that will be required to integrate these media elements into a digital story
project. Even though it is now easier to work with these media clips than it has been in the
past, students who choose to work with more varied types of files should be aware that they will
face more challenges than those students who attempt to design and develop more simple
digital stories that primarily make use of still images and audio narration.
Guideline 14: Use meaningful file names for images and other media
When downloading media from the web for use in a digital story, the file names should be re-
written using descriptive information without any spaces in the file names. The original image
may have a nonsense label that will be meaningless later, and may even cause problems when
inserted into some software applications. In the new file name, hyphens and underscores should
be used instead of spaces. For example, the following image of the rings of Saturn was
downloaded from the NASA website with this actual file name: 216200main_pia10246516.jpg
Figure 5. An image found online with an unintuitive file name
Renaming this file so that it more accurately describes what the picture shows, such as Saturn-
rings.jpg, would be a much better choice.
Guideline 15: Edit a copy of the file, rather than the original file
When working with audio and video clips, students should be instructed to make a copy of the
original file before they do any editing, and conduct the editing using this copy. That way, no


matter what changes are made during the editing, the original file will still be available and can
be opened again should anything go wrong during the editing process. Students who edit
original audio or video files often change their mind after the editing is done and want the
original file back.
Guideline 16: Save files early and oftenand in more than one location
As students work on their digital stories, they should save multiple versions as well as both
project file and the completed story files. We encourage students to save the project file and
keep a copy in a safe place. In almost every digital storytelling workshop, there is at least one
participant who forgets to do this and then loses all of their work. So a guiding principle for
digital storytellers is to save the project file often, especially after making significant changes to
the story. We encourage students to save the project file with a new version number in the file
name every so often, as major new pieces of the story are added.
When saving a digital story file, students should also try to use descriptive names and again, no
spaces. For example, the file name, Martin-Solution-to-Pollution-2012.wp3, includes the name
of the storyteller plus the topic and year that the story was produced. When the final output file
is saved, we recommend that the project file be saved one more time first and then the final
output file be saved in a separate folder where just the final version of the completed story will
go. Separating the locations where the project file and final output files are stored can often
prevent the two files from being mixed up or even accidentally deleted. As another layer of
protection, we also suggest that students save copies of their project files and final output files
on a thumb drive, external hard drive or external website such as Dropbox, www.dropbox.com/.
Guideline 17: Save the final version of the digital story in different formats
In todays multimedia universe, a digital story can be saved in a number of different file
formats. Students should save the final version in more than one format, such as WMV, MOV,
and MP4, so that they have the most flexibility when they are ready to share the story with the
world. This way at least one version of the final digital story may be included on a website,
posted to a blog, inserted into a PowerPoint presentation, or easily added to other programs
and applications.
V. Implement
In the implement phase, the designer of the instruction plans for the implementation of the
product in the actual learning context. In this ADDIE phase, digital story creators plan how to
use the story and may use programs such as Microsoft Word to create additional resources
including lesson plans, handouts, and other learning supports.
Guideline 18: Develop educational materials to supplement the digital story
We encourage students in our courses and participants in our workshops to think about a digital
story not as a single educational resource that others will view once or twice, but as a key
component in a set of educational resources that can be used by people who view the story and
then want to learn more about the topic. In some cases, these might include customary
educational materials such as classroom activity sheets, a glossary of terms, and so on. In other
cases, the resources may be a collection of PDF files, journal articles, and links to external
websites, blogs or podcasts. The important concept to remember is that educational digital
stories can be an excellent way to motivate viewers to seek new information and more in-depth
instructional content. Since the digital story may be just the first of many other resources that
viewers will encounter in order to add depth, complexity, and richness to the learning
experience, students are encouraged to locate suitable support materials as well as develop
their own as part of a set of educational resources.


VI. Evaluate
In the evaluate phase, the designer of the instruction assesses whether the product was
successful in achieving the desired learning goal. In this ADDIE phase, digital story creators use
a variety of measures to determine if the learners achieved the goal for the digital story project
and revise the story and supplemental materials based on this input. Evaluation is also an
important part of all of the four previous phases since revision is also built into each stage.
Guideline 19: Learn to provide useful and supportive feedback to others scripts in the
design phase and drafts in the develop phase
There are many opportunities for students to be involved in evaluation of their story as well as
the stories of their peers throughout the entire process, from analysis through development.
Joe Lambert (2010) at the Center for Digital Storytelling, and many others who work with digital
storytelling, endorse the use of Story Circles, where small groups of digital storytellers share
aloud the rough drafts of their scripts in order to get peer feedback about their initial efforts at
writing down their ideas. Students who participate in story circles should remember that they
are serving a valuable service to their fellow students when they ask questions about the scripts
and provide feedback that includes suggestions for how the script might be improved. A
potential problem often occurs since most students want to be nice and not cause any problems
by suggesting that a script has problems. But realistically, how helpful is feedback like this
example below?
"I really liked your script and think you did a great job." Or, "You have selected a very
interesting topic and I can't wait to see how your story turns out.
The truth is that this kind of feedback does not really help the student who wants to improve
their script. It would be much more useful for a student to receive feedback like the comments
in these examples:
"I think your script is well written, but I did not understand the second sentence where you
discussed [your topic]. Perhaps if you provided a definition of the term you used, viewers would
have a better idea of the point you are trying to make.
"Maybe it's because I'm a former high school language teacher, but I found it distracting that
you went back in forth from past tense to present tense in your writing. I think it would be
better for you to choose one tense or the other, and stick to that. Using both tenses mixed
together does not work for me, and I suspect that others may find this distracting also."
I like the topic you selected but your script sounds a little too personal. I know that we were
told that we should add our own opinions to our scripts, but when I read your story, I felt like I
was eavesdropping and learning too many details about your private life. I think it would be
better for you to try to think more globally about your topic and write the script in a way that
will connect with the viewer, without making the story just about yourself. Also, perhaps you
could add something humorous at the end. Laughter, especially when we direct it at ourselves,
can be a good way to put people at ease when they deal with serious topics such as this.
These example comments demonstrate how students can provide useful yet supportive
feedback to others. Students need to remember that if they don't understand something that's
in a script, they should politely ask the writer to explain it better. If they have a question or
concern about the script, then it's almost certain that other viewers will too. Time spent on
revising and improving the script is always well spent.
Like Story Circles used during the design process, Story Screenings allow students to share
their digital story while it is still being developed. Stories can be shared in the same or different
groups that were used in Story Circles. Peer questions should focus on the combination of the
script with the media used video, audio, background music, and images and how these
elements contribute to the goal and tone of the digital story. Students may even make small
changes in the product as the screening is occurring; for example, they may decrease the
background music or change the pan and zoom effect on an image, then replay the story from


that point.
Guideline 20: Involve students in evaluation throughout the entire process.
Rubrics are the most common form of assessment for digital stories. A rubric usually includes
scales that provide descriptions of different levels of achievement or an understanding for a set
of criteria of quality for a given type of performance such as an essay or presentation (Allen &
Tanner, 2006). However, it is distinguished from ordinary scoring checklists by its more
extensive definition and description of the criteria of quality that characterize each level of
accomplishment. When a rubric is given to students prior to a project, it becomes an excellent
way to convey expectations. A rubric can be used during the process as a peer evaluation tool.
After the project, a rubric gives the teacher a consistent and specific tool to measure many
different facets of the digital storytelling process from the script to the audio quality. Students
with digital storytelling experience can also be involved in the rubric development and
contribute to the categories as well as the criteria.
Many educators, such as Barrett (2006), Ohler (2008), and Teehan (2007-08), have developed
rubrics that educators can use to assess digital stories created by students. These rubrics
include categories related to the overall quality of the story such as How well did the story
work? (Ohler, 2008), categories related to image quality such as Did the images create an
atmosphere or tone? (Teehan, 2007-08) and categories related to audio quality such Is the
voice quality clear and consistently audible throughout the presentation? (Barrett, 2006).
VII. Conclusion
In this article, we have examined many of the critical components faced by students and
participants in our digital storytelling courses and workshops. Based on this work with large
numbers of new digital story creators, we have provided a set of specific recommendations and
guidelines based on the lessons we have learned. We feel that these recommendations provide
useful guidance for educators who would like to begin teaching digital storytelling to their own
students, either in formal classroom settings or more informal workshops. The guidelines are
categorized within the ADDIE instructional design framework and are presented as starting
points that educators should consider when they begin to integrate digital storytelling in their
classrooms.
These lessons include a strong focus on preparation and organization before the physical
creation process begins and stresses the importance of key components of the digital
storytelling process, including selecting a meaningful topic, developing a well-crafted script,
working with high quality media files and including students in an ongoing evaluation process.
In actuality, our experience has taught us that every aspect of the digital storytelling process,
from the initial design through the final development, are all important and each one has the
potential to enhance or detract from the final digital storytelling project that a student creates.
It is our hope that educators who undertake the task of teaching digital storytelling will benefit
from our mistakes and our acquired knowledge in using this technology to improve their
teaching and ultimately, improve their students learning.
The Educational Uses of Digital Storytelling Website is online at:

http://digitalstorytelling.coe.uh.edu/


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Copyright


El valor de una historia digital en el contexto europeo de

aprendizaje integrado a travs de lengua y contenido (CLIL)
Mara Dolores Ramrez-Verdugo
dolores.ramirez@uam.es
Universidad Autnoma de Madrid, Espaa
Mara Victoria Sotomayor Sez
mvictoria.sotomayor@uam.es
Universidad Autnoma de Madrid, Espaa
Resumen
Este artculo se inscribe en el marco de la investigacin llevada a cabo desde
2009 en el proyecto European CLIL Resource Centre for Web 2.0 Education,
uno de cuyos objetivos principales es la investigacin y desarrollo de recursos
digitales para la enseanza integrada de contenidos y lengua (CLIL) segn las
directrices de la Unin Europea. Es un proyecto multilinge y multicultural
apoyado en las posibilidades que ofrece la web 2.0 en cuanto a interactividad,
creacin y conocimientos compartidos y conectividad, en el sentido ms amplio
del trmino. En este marco general, la investigacin se ha dirigido a una etapa
de educacin primaria, la que corresponde a nios y nias de 8 a 10 aos, y el
trabajo que aqu presentamos recoge una parte del mencionado proyecto y
algunos de sus resultados iniciales, puesto que se encuentra todava en fase de
desarrollo. En esta fase inicial del pilotaje en los colegios, se present el cuento
digital a un total de 12 profesoras de ingls en contexto CLIL que desarrollan
su actividad docente en seis colegios pblicos bilinges de la zona norte de la
Comunidad de Madrid. Con el fin de compilar datos objetivos que probasen
nuestra hiptesis inicial, estas profesoras completaron cuestionarios iniciales y
finales para su posterior anlisis. El resultado obtenido se tendr en cuenta en
el pilotaje ulterior que se extender a otros pases europeos que participan en
este proyecto de manera inminente. El aprendizaje simultneo de los
contenidos del currculum y una segunda o tercera lengua es una de las lneas
prioritarias de la investigacin educativa en el contexto europeo, y as lo recoge
el proyecto que presentamos.

Palabras clave
Historia digital; Bilingismo; CLIL; Ficcin narrativa; Aprendizaje multicultural;
Lenguas europeas.


The value of a digital story in a content and language integrated
learning (CLIL) European context
Mara Dolores Ramrez-Verdugo
dolores.ramirez@uam.es
Universidad Autnoma de Madrid, Spain
Mara Victoria Sotomayor Sez
mvictoria.sotomayor@uam.es
Universidad Autnoma de Madrid, Spain
Abstract
This article presents the research conducted within the framework of the funded
project called European CLIL Resource Centre for Web 2.0 Education. The
mission of E-CLIL is to increase childrens exposure to European languages and
to improve the quality of teaching through the implementation of content and
language integrated learning (CLIL) within the European demand for acquiring a
mother tongue plus two foreign languages. The project is currently building
multilingual interactive resources for the use of CLIL teachers. More specifically,
the present study investigates the value a digital story may bring to a Primary
education context which promotes CLIL and ICT as methodological procedure
and resources.
The central digital story, originally created for this project, entails three main
objectives which involves exposing young learners to European languages,
children literature and science content. Our main aim was to prove whether the
universal narrative elements and structure present in this digital story may
enhance 8 to 10 year-old students learning involvement and CLIL achievement.
In an initial piloting phase of the study, the story was presented to a total of 12
experienced English CLIL teachers working in six different state bilingual schools
in the region of Madrid. In order to gather objective data that may prove our
hypotheses these teachers completed initial and final questionnaires which were
then analysed. The outcome gathered has been used to extend the piloting to
other European countries participating in the project. This larger study will
provide information on cross-cultural similarities or differences regarding the
results already obtained here. These initial findings point towards the richness a
central digital storyline may add to a CLIL learning context at linguistic, content,
literary, cognitive, social and cultural levels.
Keywords
Digital story; Bilingualism; CLIL; Fictional narrative; Multicultural learning;

European languages.


I. Introduccin
Este artculo se enmarca dentro del proyecto financiado por la Comisin Europea denominado
European CLIL Resource Centre for Web 2.0 Education27. Uno de los objetivos principales de
este proyecto se refiere a la investigacin y desarrollo de recursos digitales para la enseanza
integrada de contenidos y lengua (CLIL) segn las directrices de la Unin Europea. Es un
proyecto multilinge y multicultural apoyado en las posibilidades que ofrece la web 2.0 en
cuanto a interactividad, creacin y conocimientos compartidos y conectividad, en el sentido ms
amplio del trmino. En este marco general, la investigacin se ha dirigido a una etapa de
educacin primaria, la que corresponde a nios y nias de 8 a 10 aos, y el trabajo que aqu
presentamos se refiere a una parte del mencionado proyecto y algunos de sus resultados
iniciales, puesto que se encuentra todava en fase de desarrollo. En esta fase inicial del pilotaje,
el cuento digital que describiremos a lo largo del artculo, se present a un total de 12
profesoras de ingls en contexto CLIL que desarrollan su actividad docente en seis colegios
pblicos bilinges de la zona norte de la Comunidad de Madrid. Con el fin de compilar datos
objetivos que probasen nuestra hiptesis inicial, estas profesoras completaron cuestionarios
iniciales y finales para su posterior anlisis. El resultado obtenido se tendr en cuenta en el
pilotaje ulterior que se extender a otros pases europeos que participan en este proyecto de
manera inminente. El aprendizaje simultneo de los contenidos del currculum y una segunda o
tercera lengua es una de las lneas prioritarias de la investigacin educativa en el contexto
europeo, y as lo recoge el proyecto que presentamos.
II. Justificacin del estudio
El ncleo a partir del cual se articula este proyecto y se generan materiales y recursos es un
cuento digital. Esta eleccin se fundamenta en el papel que juega la ficcin narrativa en la
construccin de la personalidad, la ordenacin de la experiencia y el conocimiento y desarrollo
de habilidades sociales, todo ello sobradamente demostrado en numerosos estudios realizados
desde la psicologa, la antropologa, la literatura, la sociologa, la lingstica y la didctica. Lo
narrativo, lo literario y lo digital son los tres ejes de nuestra propuesta y recogen, a su vez, los
objetivos generales del proyecto: lingsticos, literarios, educativos, culturales y sociales.
a. La narracin
Una de las actividades a la que el ser humano se ha dedicado con ms entrega a lo largo de
toda su historia es narrar y or narraciones. Con el relato, considerado como la forma ms
antigua de conocimiento (Del Rey, 2007: 12), el ser humano se ha construido como individuo y
como ser social. Ha volcado en narraciones sus experiencias y su visin del mundo, creando
ficciones con las que imitar o reflejar la realidad vivida. Desde los ms antiguos mitos, poemas
picos o relatos breves hasta las actuales series televisivas, sagas fantsticas y relatos
virtuales que encandilan a jvenes y adultos, la ficcin narrativa est presente como una
necesidad irrenunciable: el hombre necesita de ficciones para alimentar su vida.
La narracin es una capacidad del ser humano que la psicologa considera una forma de
pensamiento (Bruner, 1986). La modalidad narrativa del pensamiento, junto a la lgico-
cientfica, o analtica, son las dos formas de funcionamiento cognitivo con las que el individuo da
sentido a la experiencia, de forma que no slo es capaz de comprobar hiptesis o dar
explicaciones lgicas, sino de crear mundos posibles, imaginarios, con los que construir su
propio universo real. Desde esta premisa, la narracin es vehculo idneo y esencial del
aprendizaje, ya que permite al individuo experimentar la realidad de modo indirecto en esos
mundos imaginarios. Adems, las narraciones condicionan tambin las conductas sociales de
jvenes y adultos, tal como han mostrado diversos estudios, y son un poderoso agente de
socializacin en la etapa infantil. En este punto, las conclusiones de la psicologa convergen con
las de la antropologa, la lingstica y la teora literaria. La construccin lingstica de
narraciones que se convierten en ficciones tras un proceso de elaboracin literaria y llegan a

(E-CLIL, 504671-LLP-1-2009-1-ES-COMENIUS-CMP, proyecto concedido a la Dra. Mara Dolores Ramrez-
27
Verdugo)


adquirir valor simblico en el imaginario colectivo, fue vehculo de aprendizaje para el hombre
primitivo y lo es para nios y nias de nuestro tiempo.
b. La narracin literaria
Las investigaciones sobre lectura y educacin literaria (procedentes de la psicologa, la teora

literaria y la didctica) demuestran que uno de los elementos ms influyentes en la comprensin
del texto, por encima incluso, de su propia composicin o estructura, es la respuesta afectiva.
Esta respuesta del lector puede proceder tanto de las emociones que suscita la trama como de
la identificacin con los personajes, la elaboracin de juicios y valoraciones, la inmersin en el
mundo imaginario o el placer esttico que el texto proporciona. Es un aspecto altamente
motivador para activar los procesos mentales de la construccin del sentido, sobre todo si
consideramos que el principal resorte capaz de provocar esa respuesta es la forma de la
narracin: cmo comienza el relato, cmo estn caracterizados los personajes, qu situaciones
o episodios se han seleccionado para construir la trama (componentes de humor, sorpresa,
misterio, miedo, sentimientos), cmo habla el narrador, cmo se describen los lugares,
objetos o personas, el juego lingstico y tantos otros aspectos del lenguaje literario en los que
radica la capacidad para crear ficciones a partir de la realidad. El poder de la narracin no est
slo en un contenido capaz de informar o responder a preguntas, sino en la forma en que se
cuenta.
El acceso a la literatura y a la ficcin es un proceso gradual que comienza en los primeros aos.
Desde que a partir de las teoras estructuralistas se consolid el concepto de competencia
literaria (derivado y relacionado con el de competencia lingstica), las diferentes teoras
literarias que se han sucedido en los ltimos 50 aos han tratado de explicar cmo se adquiere
esta capacidad. La relevancia que en la ltima parte del siglo XX adquieren las teoras
pragmticas, sistmicas y vinculadas a la recepcin, ha hecho que se generalice la idea de que
el factor determinante en este aprendizaje es la experiencia literaria y lectora, o sea, la
experiencia esttica que se va integrando en el conjunto de experiencias vitales con las que el
sujeto que nace se va haciendo persona.
La respuesta afectiva motivadora se logra con experiencias satisfactorias, gratificantes, es decir,

con textos adecuados a la competencia del lector en cada momento. Es obvio que la del lector
infantil es una competencia limitada y cambiante, puesto que se encuentra en pleno proceso de
aprendizaje y maduracin. La literatura infantil es, pues, la nica que puede vehicular ese
aprendizaje, y en nuestro proyecto tiene un papel fundamental, precisamente por el valor que le
damos a la narracin literaria como medio de aprendizaje en todas las reas.
c. La narracin literaria digital: la dimensin digital como factor favorecedor del

aprendizaje de lenguas y contenido
Estudios previos indican que una buena seleccin de recursos y cuentos digitales en
consonancia con el desarrollo cognitivo, lingstico y emocional de los nios, puede incidir
positivamente en el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras ya que se crea un contexto motivador y
ldico que favorece la exposicin al sonido y representacin de la nueva lengua (Van Scoter,
Ellis & Railsback, 2001; Wright & Shade, 1994). De hecho, los cuentos e historias se convierten
en un elemento fundamental para el desarrollo de la percepcin y comprensin oral tanto de la
primera como de lengua extranjera (Dickinson, 2001; Elley, 1989; Isbell, 2002; Penno,
Wilkinson & Moore, 2002; Raines & Isbell, 1994; Richards & Anderson, 2003; Zevenbergenn &
Whitehurst, 2003). En los primeros momentos del aprendizaje de una lengua, los cuentos
proporcionan un contexto a las primeras experiencias lingsticas que las hacen significativas y
memorables para el nio (Wasik & Bond, 2001; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998; Wright, 2000). Se
asocian con recuerdos, emociones y experiencias que reflejan adems valores sociales y
culturales presentes en el cuento. Desde el punto de vista lingstico, encontramos en las
historias formas lingsticas, gramaticales, de vocabulario, pragmticas dentro de un contexto
bien estructurado que ayuda a la comprensin del mundo narrativo y permite exponer a los
nios al sistema de la nueva lengua en un contexto natural de aprendizaje (Glazer & Burke,
1994; Jennings, 1991; Mallan, 1991). La informacin verbal se complementa con la informacin
visual y sonora, lo que ayuda a que los nios puedan reconstruir la lnea argumental del cuento


y por tanto, descifrar un mensaje significativo a su propia experiencia (Kellerman, 1992; Meyer,
1990; Mueller, 1980; Brett, 1995; Felix, 1995; Hoven, 1999).
Los avances tecnolgicos y las aplicaciones multimedia favorecen, sin duda, el renovado inters
por el valor del cuento en su formato digital en contextos escolares y de aprendizaje. Es este
componente digital de un cuento lo que permite reflejar con mayor intensidad una imagen ms
real de la nueva lengua y de la nueva cultura en el aula ya que mediante canales de informacin
diversos proyecta no solo rasgos lingsticos sino tambin paralingsticos como son el lenguaje
visual, gestual, la prosodia y el ritmo de la nueva lengua lo que hace, todo ello, que el mensaje
del cuento, el elemento comunicativo y literario, llegue mejor al nio (Fidelman, 1997; Gassin,
1992). De hecho, un relato digital resultar til a la hora de desarrollar destrezas de percepcin
auditiva ya que tienden a ser visuales, interactivos y reiterativos.
A partir de los presupuestos anteriores, el aprendizaje que pretendemos impulsar con esta
historia digital se orienta en una triple dimensin: lingstica, literaria y de contenidos. Tres
aprendizajes simultneos que se potencian y se apoyan recprocamente en la historia de La
pandilla de Draco, creada expresamente para este proyecto.
III. La historia digital La pandilla de Draco
a. Historia de una historia: el proceso creativo de La pandilla de Draco
La historia inicial de este grupo de nios se crea a partir de una serie de elementos que se
consideran esenciales para lograr los objetivos propuestos:
Tipo de historia: relato fantstico, entendiendo lo fantstico en el sentido que le dan

Todorov, Cortzar, Calvino y otros maestros del gnero como una mezcla de elementos
reales con elementos extraordinarios.
Organizacin del relato: estructura bsica de la narracin, que comprende una

localizacin espacio temporal de la situacin inicial, el planteamiento del problema, su
desarrollo y desenlace. A esta estructura elemental se debe aadir un desenlace abierto
que d lugar a continuaciones.
Componentes argumentales: motivos, personajes y situaciones procedentes del

imaginario popular universal, que sirvan de referencia para la comprensin y de apoyo
para construir nuevos significados.
Personajes: personaje colectivo y diverso en sus procedencias y rasgos de identidad.
Procedimientos narrativos: adecuados a la competencia lingstica y literaria de los

nios y nias de 8 a 10 aos y que faciliten la identificacin del lector con personajes y
situaciones, con el fin de motivar una respuesta positiva a la historia.
Elementos interactivos, sonoros y visuales propios de una historia digital.
Con estas premisas se escribe un primer esbozo de historia que ser el inicio de un laborioso
proceso de propuestas, valoraciones, reescrituras y correcciones hasta llegar a la versin digital
que aqu presentamos.
La planificacin de la historia en su conjunto contempla un captulo inicial, el ms largo, donde

se presenta a los personajes y se plantea la situacin que va a dar pie a los captulos
siguientes: el reto de conseguir los libros mgicos que salvarn a la especie de Draco, el dragn
de la sabidura, amenazada por los troles. Los captulos posteriores, ms breves, se sitan en
escenarios distintos y significan cada uno de ellos una aventura que debe culminar en la
consecucin de los libros mgicos. Estos mundos fantsticos a donde viajan los amigos se
corresponden con las diferentes reas del currculum, y la superacin de las pruebas va
vinculada a la realizacin de las actividades propuestas.


La limitacin temporal del proyecto y la dificultad inherente a una historia compleja,
dependiente de una gran diversidad de elementos que deben integrarse armnicamente, hacen
imposible culminarlo en su totalidad. Presentamos, como se ha dicho, la parte ms importante
de un proyecto en curso, que contiene todo lo necesario para mostrar el valor de una historia
digital en la enseanza integrada de lengua y contenidos, tal como explicamos a continuacin.
b. La pandilla de Draco en el proceso de aprendizaje. Motivacin y respuesta afectiva
En la historia digital que presentamos deben encontrarse los elementos motivadores capaces de
generar una respuesta afectiva que induzca al aprendizaje. En ellos radica el valor de esta
historia de nios y dragones para conseguir los objetivos propuestos, y la aplicacin en las aulas
demostrar el acierto o error de nuestros planteamientos.
i. Para despertar el inters por la historia:
1. Localizacin espacio temporal bien definida. La historia se desarrolla en un

contexto familiar y cercano, reconocible desde el inicio por cualquier lector: una clase de
Primaria. Texto e imgenes expresan claramente cmo es la clase y cmo se organiza
en ella la actividad escolar. La cercana de la experiencia es el primer elemento de
motivacin.
2. Relato fantstico. Lo real por s mismo no es tan atractivo como lo fantstico. La

fascinacin de lo extraordinario cuando irrumpe en la realidad cotidiana - una de las
formas en que se realiza lo fantstico (Held, 1981:50)- es innegable. Ya sea en esta
forma o en la contraria, es decir, la proyeccin de un elemento comn en un mundo
extraordinario, lo cierto es que lo fantstico siempre se apoya en lo real para provocar
un efecto de extraeza, sorpresa o desconcierto con la inclusin de elementos
extraordinarios y ah radica su atractivo.
3. Estructura elemental que facilita la comprensin, con un desarrollo lineal y un

desenlace abierto. Esta composicin tiene por objeto hacer posible el desarrollo de
expectativas y activar los mecanismos de anticipacin y prediccin. La inclusin de
enigmas dentro del captulo 1 (una sencilla actividad de matemticas y una adivinanza)
y en los captulos siguientes, favorece estos procesos y refuerza el inters por la
historia.
4. Inclusin de personajes y motivos de la narrativa tradicional: el dragn, los

troles, la superacin de pruebas, la magia. La narrativa tradicional es la que forma el
imaginario colectivo que puede ser motor de aprendizaje en cuanto que proporciona un
marco de referencias donde la historia adquiere sentido. Las expectativas que pueden
generar estos elementos ayudan a comprender mejor la historia y a entrar en el juego
de aprendizaje de contenidos conectado a ella
ii. Para favorecer la identificacin con los personajes:
1. Personajes semejantes a los lectores, reconocibles y cercanos aun en su diversidad.

Sus nombres remiten a culturas distintas, su imagen evoca procedencias diversas que
se especifican en la presentacin- y, sin embargo, todos son nios y nias reales que
conviven de la manera ms natural en un aula de Primaria. Tanto en la situacin inicial
como en el desarrollo de las aventuras posteriores su actuacin es verosmil y creble.
2. Personaje colectivo, acorde con la edad a la que se dirige el cuento, en la que el

grupo tiene ms importancia que la individualidad. Es un grupo formado por iguales,
donde nadie destaca a no ser por sus aficiones o destrezas. Es el grupo quien toma las
decisiones, se enfrenta a los obstculos y vive las experiencias que le hacen progresar.


3. Diversidad: mosaico de caracteres individuales. La pertenencia a un grupo no debe
significar prdida de la identidad personal. En la presentacin se caracteriza a cada uno
de ellos a partir de su nombre, procedencia, aficiones y habilidades. Cada personaje
tiene unos rasgos propios que lo diferencian dentro del grupo, que la imagen termina de
concretar reforzando su identidad individual. As se favorece la identificacin de cada
lector con aquel que ms se aproxime a su propia personalidad.
Este es uno de los elementos ms influyentes en la respuesta afectiva a la historia, y

por eso se han introducido tipos como el miedoso, el apasionado por las ciencias o los
ordenadores, el apasionado por los animales, el tmido y dialogante, el artista, etc., y se
ha buscado el equilibrio entre nios y nias.
4. Narracin en primera persona. Es un procedimiento que tiene el efecto de acercar al

lector el mundo de ficcin creado. Se favorece as su inmersin en la historia y, con ello,
la identificacin con los personajes, ya sea con el grupo o con alguno de ellos en
particular.
5. Organizacin de los personajes en esquemas de contraste y oposicin: reales /

fantsticos, protagonistas / antagonistas, presentes / aludidos, benefactores/agresores.
El grupo de nios, protagonistas reales a los que vemos en accin constantemente,
tienen enfrente a seres fantsticos de diferente naturaleza y funcin: un dragn que,
aunque les pide ayuda, les advierte de los peligros, les traslada a los diferentes
escenarios donde viven sus aventuras y, en suma, les protege, y, por otra parte, los
troles: antagonistas agresores que estn en la historia como una amenaza desconocida.
No se sabe lo que pueden hacer ni dnde estn, pero se alude a ellos constantemente
como smbolo del peligro y la maldad. Estas dicotomas tienden a favorecer la
identificacin de los lectores con los nios que tienen que escapar de esa amenaza
constante.
iii. Para estimular el placer esttico:
1. Lenguaje simplificado. El lenguaje literario es un uso especfico del lenguaje que

potencia sus recursos intensificando significados, sugiriendo imgenes, provocando
emociones, estimulando el pensamiento y el sentimiento. Teniendo en cuenta la
competencia literaria media de estas edades y que la historia se dirige a la enseanza
de segundas y terceras lenguas, se ha utilizado un lenguaje de estructuras sintcticas
sencillas (con predominio de oraciones simples y coordinadas) y lxico comprensible.
La comprensin del texto es la prioridad, ya que sin ella desaparecen todas las dems
posibilidades de motivacin.
Sin embargo existen elementos que favorecen el placer esttico, como la introduccin
de ciertos toques de humor, subrayados por los dibujos y animaciones, o las
descripciones que favorecen la creacin de imgenes en el lector: la aparicin y
presentacin de Draco, los escenarios del segundo y tercer captulo, etc.
2. Construccin temporal con una voz narradora que cuenta la historia tiempo despus
de que haya sucedido, articulando as dos planos temporales distintos. Es un
procedimiento de una cierta complejidad que busca el progreso en el dominio del
discurso literario narrativo.
iv. Para favorecer la inmersin en la historia digital
En el cuento objeto de esta investigacin, los nios tienen que escuchar con atencin,
comprender instrucciones, resolver problemas o adivinanzas para que relato pueda proseguir.
Ellos se convierten de esta forma en parte de la propia historia y contribuyen a la continuacin
del hilo narrativo. Este componente de interaccin favorece el uso de estrategias de scaffolding
o andamiaje en el aprendizaje, ya que los nios adoptan un papel activo que implica la
decodificacin y reconstruccin del argumento principal del cuento (Donato, 1994). El formato
digital de una narracin como la que hemos diseando para este proyecto permite que el nio
avance a su propio ritmo lo que favorece la atencin a las caractersticas diversas e individuales


que encontramos en el aula. Tambin el lenguaje escrito se beneficia de las caractersticas de
poder leer un cuento animado que da vida a los personajes y acciones lo que ayuda a
comprender el texto del cuento (Sticht 2003; Biemiller 2003). Los componentes de este formato
son:
1. Las imgenes que aparecen en este cuento, creadas en formato grfico basado en un
algoritmo de comprensin sin prdida para bitmaps conocido como PNG, son dibujos
originales creados especficamente con el fin de ilustrar sus personajes y escenarios
principales.
2. Las animaciones realizadas mediante formato de archivos de animacin de grficos

vectoriales swf, representan las acciones que configuran la narracin y ayudan a los
nios a visualizar o representar mentalmente el mensaje oral y escrito del cuento
mediante canales multimodales del lenguaje.
3. El acceso a la meloda de la nueva lengua es fundamental para una adquisicin y

aprendizaje natural de la misma. En este cuento hemos insistido en que el formato oral
permitiera a los profesores y nios poder or de forma autnoma cada pgina del
cuento.
Esto permite que la profesora pueda decidir cundo y cmo reproducir el sonido del
cuento, adaptndolo a las caractersticas de su clase y las tareas o actividades
relacionadas con la narracin.
4. Los juegos: El carcter ldico e interactivo que introduce el aprendizaje a travs de

juegos capta la atencin del nio y favorece su concentracin. Aumenta adems su
motivacin por realizar la tarea planteada o resolver el problema o acertijo planteada
como ltimo fin. Para ello utiliza la lengua extranjera de modo instrumental a fin de
poder continuar explorando el mundo de fantasa y realidad que le ofrece el cuento y los
juegos asociados al mismo.
En conclusin, el cuento digital creado para este proyecto puede ser un elemento motivador
para el aprendizaje porque contiene elementos capaces de provocar una respuesta afectiva que
despierte el inters por conocer: conocer la lengua en que est escrita o contada (L2 y L3);
comprender el discurso literario narrativo (L1, L2); y conocer temas concretos, en este caso de
ciencias y conocimiento del medio natural, que forman parte del currculum escolar. El inters
por saber qu pasa al final, por ayudar a los personajes a resolver sus problemas y compartir el
inters que muestran por el tema en s mismo, o la curiosidad por los lugares desconocidos o
fantsticos en que se ubican las aventuras debe ser motor de aprendizaje para los lectores.
Nuestro reto como investigadores es comprobar la respuesta en el aula, por parte de profesores
y alumnos de todo el marco terico aqu descrito.
IV. Metodologa y diseo del estudio: La pandilla de Draco en el aula
Con el fin de conocer cmo se perciben en el contexto educativo todos los elementos que
componen este cuento digital, se aplic la siguiente metodologa. Nuestro inters fundamental
era conocer la valoracin de profesores y alumnos de colegios bilinges de la Comunidad de
Madrid sobre qu conceptos, conocimientos y actitudes concretas se pueden aprender a partir
de esta historia. Partimos de la premisa de que ser un aprendizaje lingstico que integrar
otros aspectos igualmente necesarios: literarios, de contenidos, cognitivos, multiculturales y
sociales. En el presente artculo nos centramos en la respuesta de los profesores al cuento
digital, como a continuacin explicamos.
Para llevar a cabo este estudio, se dise un modelo de cuestionarios iniciales y finales que nos
permitiera obtener informacin especfica y objetiva sobre la implantacin de La pandilla de
Draco en un contexto de enseanza de lengua extranjera mediante el enfoque CLIL. En este
estudio preliminar participaron un total de 12 profesoras con una experiencia en la enseanza
de ingls como lengua extranjera que oscila entre los 3 y 15 aos en la zona norte de la
Comunidad de Madrid.


En el cuestionario inicial se recogan datos sobre el uso que estos profesores hacan de recursos
digitales para la enseanza de ingls a travs de contenidos. Se incluan tambin preguntas
sobre el uso de cuentos digitales en sus clases. Tras la presentacin del cuento digital en los
colegios participantes, se aplic el cuestionario final a los profesores, con el fin de conocer su
valoracin del mismo. Para ello, este cuestionario final inclua cuatro grandes bloques que nos
serviran para confirmar o refutar nuestras hiptesis iniciales respecto a los componentes
fundamentales que se distinguen en La pandilla de Draco.
Estos apartados venan a coincidir con los grandes bloques de conocimiento que se definen en el
Currculum Oficial para la enseanza de lenguas extranjeras tanto del Ministerio de Educacin
como de la Consejera de Educacin de la Comunidad de Madrid y el Marco Comn Europeo de
Referencia para las lenguas: aprendizaje, enseanza y evaluacin (MCERL) Destaca el
Currculum la importancia de la inmersin lingstica desde el inicio del aprendizaje de la nueva
lengua, ya que la mayora de las oportunidades de exposicin lingstica y cultural se limitan al
contexto escolar. Los contenidos que establece se clasifican en cuatro ejes especficos: el
lenguaje oral; el lenguaje escrito; los elementos constitutivos del sistema lingstico, su
funcionamiento y relaciones; y la dimensin social y cultural de la lengua extranjera.
Nuestro propsito, por tanto, era recoger la opinin de las profesoras que participan en el
estudio, sobre qu objetivos y contenidos se pueden alcanzar mediante la implementacin en
los colegios de los recursos digitales creados, el cuento La pandilla de Draco y los juegos
digitales sobre contenidos especficos de ciencias. Los cuestionarios incluan 14 preguntas, de
las cuales doce eran preguntas cerradas, con una escala de valoracin de 1 a 5 y las dos
ltimas abiertas, lo que permita al informante aadir otros aspectos que considerase de
inters. Tras la anotacin de los datos se aplic un anlisis estadstico descriptivo con el fin de
obtener informacin sobre frecuencias, mediana, moda, porcentajes y desviacin tpica. Los
resultados obtenidos en este pilotaje inicial se tendrn en cuenta en la revisin y, en su caso
mejora, de los materiales antes de la divulgacin de los mismos a nivel europeo en los distintos
pases que participan en el proyecto.
V. Resultados del estudio
Los resultados iniciales obtenidos sobre el estudio del anlisis de los cuestionarios, indican que
las expectativas iniciales y el uso de recursos digitales en el aula de primaria dentro del
programa de bilingismo de la CAM denotan cierto escepticismo en cuanto a su uso en el aula.
Las profesoras argumentan que s conocen que existen un gran nmero de recursos digitales
pero que con frecuencia no se ajustan a sus necesidades ni objetivos. Introducir estos
materiales en la planificacin de sus clases requiere ms tiempo y dedicacin del que disponen
hoy en da. Por tanto, la tendencia es a prescindir de estos recursos y limitarse en un alto
porcentaje al uso del libro de texto como fuente de informacin. No obstante, reconocen que lo
ideal sera que existiesen materiales de calidad que pudieran adaptar a su contexto educativo.
Tras la presentacin a las profesoras del cuento digital de La pandilla de Draco, el anlisis de
sus respuestas en el cuestionario final muestran una valoracin positiva hacia el uso de este
recurso digital en el aula. Estos resultados globales se recogen en la Tabla 13 que incluimos en
el Apndice.
A continuacin presentamos un desglose de resultados sobre cada una de las variables o

preguntas incluidas en el cuestionario. Cabe destacar la homogeneidad en las respuestas
obtenidas, mostrando el grupo de profesoras participantes en el estudio gran coincidencia en
cuanto a su valoracin de las premisas que se presentan a continuacin:
1. Ayuda a captar el sentido global e identificar informacin especfica en el texto oral,

relacionado con actividades del aula y del entorno de los alumnos, con apoyo de
elementos lingsticos y no lingsticos (imagen y sonido) presentes en la
comunicacin, Tabla 1.


Porcentaje
Vlidos Bastante de acuerdo 33,3
Totalmente de acuerdo 66,7
Total 100,0
Tabla 1: Ayuda a la comprensin auditiva global y especfica
2. Favorece que los alumnos puedan leer y captar el sentido global y algunas
informaciones especficas de textos variados y sencillos adecuados a su competencia
comunicativa sobre temas conocidos, contenidos de ciencias, etc., Tabla 2.
Porcentaje
Total 100,0
Tabla 2: Ayuda a la comprensin lectora global y especfica
3. Ayuda a que los nios perciban y usen formas y estructuras propias de la lengua
extranjera que contengan aspectos sonoros, de ritmo, acentuacin y entonacin dentro
de diferentes contextos comunicativos de forma significativa, en actividades de lectura
en voz alta y donde participen activamente, Tabla 3.
Porcentaje
Total 100,0
Tabla 3: Fomenta la riqueza del lenguaje de cara a la comprensin oral y escrita
4. Puede ayudar a valorar la lengua extranjera como instrumento de comunicacin con

otras personas y mostrar curiosidad e inters hacia personas de otros pases, culturas y
lenguas, Tabla 4.
Frecuencia Porcentaje Porcentaje Porcentaje

vlido acumulado
Vlidos Bastante de acuerdo 10 83,3 83,3 83,3
Totalmente de acuerdo 2 16,7 16,7 100,0
Total 12 100,0 100,0 100,0
Tabla 4: Ayuda a que los estudiantes se interesen por la lengua y la cultura


5. Favorece que los nios perciban los componentes bsicos de una estructura narrativa:
contexto, principales acciones, nudo, desenlace, personajes, etc. Tabla 5.
Porcentaje
Vlidos De acuerdo 33,3
Bastante de acuerdo 50,0
Total 100,0
Tabla 5. Ayuda a identificar la estructura narrativa
6. Fomenta la exposicin a riqueza del lenguaje tanto a nivel de comprensin oral como
escrita, Tabla 6.
Porcentaje
Total 100,0
Tabla 6: Fomenta la riqueza del lenguaje de cara a la comprensin oral y escrita
Adems, las profesoras consideran que con este cuento se puede motivar a los alumnos a
seguir leyendo y completar los contenidos digitales sobre ciencias creados para el proyecto.
Por otra parte, las docentes que participaron en el estudio expresaron que estaban bastante de
acuerdo con las siguientes afirmaciones respecto al cuento digital:
1. Facilita la participacin en actividades de aula y en interacciones orales dirigidas sobre

temas conocidos en situaciones de comunicacin cotidianas, predecibles, simuladas o
relacionadas con necesidades de comunicacin inmediatas (hablar sobre habilidades y
gustos, pedir permiso, etc. ) respetando las normas bsicas del interaccin social, Tabla
7.
Porcentaje
Total 100,0
Tabla 7: Ayuda a la participacin y a la interaccin oral
2. Puede servir como modelo para que los nios escriban frases y diversos textos cortos
significativos en situaciones cotidianas y escolares, Tabla 8.
Porcentaje
Total 100,0
Tabla 8: Ayuda a la escritura de frases y textos cortos


3. Puede ayudar a desarrollar estrategias de aprender a aprender y favorecer el
aprendizaje autnomo, Tabla 9.
Porcentaje
Total 100,0
Tabla 9: Ayuda a aprender a aprender y a adquirir autonoma
4. Fomenta el desarrollo de una idea de multiculturalidad, que se puede percibir mejor al

ser cada nio de la pandilla de un pas, Tabla 10.
Porcentaje
Total 100,0
Tabla 10: Ayuda a formar a los estudiantes en aspectos culturales
5. Puede facilitar que los nios lo utilicen como modelo para crear sus propias narraciones
y fomentar la escritura creativa, Tabla 11
Porcentaje
Total 100,0
Tabla 11: Fomenta la escritura creativa
6. Las profesoras creen que el nivel lingstico del cuento es apropiado para nios entre 8-
10 aos en su contexto educativo. No obstante, recomiendan que los nios puedan leer
el cuento junto a la profesora para que les pueda ir aclarando mediante gestos y otros
recursos el significado de algunas palabras ms difciles, Tabla 12.
Porcentaje
Vlidos En desacuerdo 8,3
De acuerdo 50,0
Total 100,0
Tabla 12: Apropiado para nios de entre 8-10 aos
Teniendo estos resultados en cuenta, quiz una revisin del cuento conlleve cierta simplificacin
del lenguaje y recursos literarios o la posibilidad de ofrecer una versin simplificada y una
avanzada del texto en s. De este modo, adaptamos el cuento a la diversidad que encontramos
en las aulas.


El nico aspecto sobre el que algunas profesoras mostraron cierta reserva durante la segunda
fase del estudio, cuando se implemente el cuento en sus clases, se refiere a aspectos
metodolgicos.
Las profesoras mencionan los posibles problemas de organizacin dentro de la clase:
Imagino que el cuento est diseado para trabajarlo en gran grupo en el aula. En ese
caso, como no todos pueden participar al mismo tiempo (leer, resolver los acertijos o
contestar preguntas) es probable que algunos alumnos (especialmente los de niveles
ms bajos) tiendan a perder la atencin o distraerse en algunos momentos en los que
hay textos ms largos o densos.
Estas reflexiones ponen de manifiesto la necesidad de disear una gua del profesor clara y
precisa que evite las dificultades que pudieran darse en clases que cuentan con una ratio de
alumnos alta y que, adems, las componen nios que muestran una gran diversidad en cuanto
a sus niveles de atencin, motivacin, procesos de aprendizaje y resultados.
De las preguntas abiertas, las profesoras coinciden en el potencial del cuento en su desarrollo
metodolgico. Estiman que se pueden disear numerosas actividades en las que practicar la
lengua y los contenidos del ciclo. Finalmente, consideran que pueden adaptarse con facilidad a
los distintos niveles del aula. Responde, por tanto, a la diversidad del aula, y ms
especficamente al aula de lengua extranjera y CLIL
Queremos concluir la presentacin de los resultados obtenidos citando de modo textual las
palabras de una de las profesoras que participaron en esta investigacin:
Para los nios es muy motivador trabajar con materiales digitales, especialmente si se
les incorporan dibujos coloridos con movimiento y sonidos, como los de este cuento.
Sienten que estn jugando o que se trata de un premio en vez de estar trabajando o
leyendo un texto del libro como siempre.
Para las investigadoras, y autoras de este artculo, supone una enorme recompensa recibir este
feedback por parte de los expertos que trabajan en el aula y favorecen un aprendizaje
significativo da a da.
VI. Conclusiones
Los resultados obtenidos en esta primara fase del estudio con profesoras que imparten
enseanza de lengua inglesa a travs de contenidos, principalmente de ciencias naturales,
vienen a demostrar el valor que tiene una historia digital para el aprendizaje en cuanto que
aumenta la motivacin al provocar una respuesta afectiva positiva, estimula el aprendizaje
significativo y pone en marcha muchas capacidades del nio que aprende: no slo las verbales,
sino tambin capacidades intelectuales de razonamiento y simbolizacin, afectivas, sociales y
creativas.
La valoracin del cuento digital ha sido extraordinariamente positiva y resulta de enorme inters
ahora conocer la opinin de los nios ante los recursos diseados. Queremos conocer el grado
de aceptacin de los fundamentos de este cuento as como su influencia en el proceso de
aprendizaje y de resultados lingsticos, de contenido, literarios y culturales. Las profesoras
consideran que el cuento da acceso de manera coherente y motivadora a los contenidos de
ciencias en forma de juegos digitales diseados para este proyecto. Estos contenidos versan
sobre temas tales como la materia y sus propiedades, el sistema solar o la representacin de la
Tierra y vienen a coincidir en todos los pases que forman parte del proyecto. Se ha sealado la
necesidad de disear una gua para el profesor y actividades complementarias que les ayuden
en la presentacin y explotacin de los recursos con los nios.
Por tanto, antes del inicio de la segunda fase del estudio ser necesario completar esas
nociones metodolgicas que incidan en cmo introducir de manera adecuada recursos
tecnolgicos en la clase de primaria para que vaya ms all de la motivacin inicial derivada de
la sorpresa de su uso en clase.


Demostramos, de esta manera, el valor que un cuento digital puede tener en el contexto actual
de enseanza a travs de la metodologa CLIL. Creemos que crear un cuento partiendo de
principios fundamentales literarios, de aprendizaje, cognitivos y lingsticos introduciendo
adems nociones socioculturales son la clave para el xito inicial obtenido. Una de las mayores
dificultades encontradas en el proceso de creacin de este cuento digital ha sido el establecer
lneas de dilogo con los profesionales de la tecnologa y hacerles entender la importancia de
integrar animacin, imagen, sonido y texto siguiendo las indicaciones de los expertos en
aprendizaje, lenguas extranjeras y literatura infantil. Esperamos que la evaluacin obtenida a
las propuestas tecnolgicas en las que hemos insistido desde el inicio de este proyecto sirva
para reforzar esa cooperacin necesaria guiada por los fundamentos de aprendizaje esbozados
en este artculo.
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Agradecimientos
Agradecemos a las profesoras que han participado en este estudio el inters mostrado y el
tiempo invertido en completar los cuestionarios y contestar nuestras preguntas. Sin su
compromiso esta investigacin no hubiese sido posible. Queremos agradecer a la Comisin
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504671-LLP-1-2009-1-ES-COMENIUS-CMP).


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Copyright


El uso educativo de los relatos digitales personales

como herramienta para pensar el Yo (Self)
Miguel Herreros
mherrena@gmail.com
Universidad de Barcelona, Espaa

Resumen
A partir de la experiencia acumulada durante tres aos de trabajo con relatos
digitales en el aula, y apoyndose en la teora narrativa clsica, en la narrativa
flmica, en los procesos memorsticos, en procesos cognitivos y en procesos
psicolgicos, se presenta el relato digital personal como una herramienta con la
que el alumnado reflexiona sobre su identidad personal (Yo). Este proceso de
auto-reflexin se articula en torno a dos momentos, a saber: el de construccin
del relato por parte del alumno y el de recepcin del mismo por parte de la
clase. Se muestra cmo el proceso de creacin del relato supone la
estructuracin del Yo en torno a una identidad narrativa y no esencialista, se
seala que la recepcin del relato digital ajeno supone una experiencia que
permite al alumno reestructurar sus esquemas mentales y vivir emociones de
manera vicaria.
Palabras clave
Relato digital personal; Yo; Identidad narrativa.


The educative use of personal digital storytelling
as tool for thinking on my-Self
Miguel Herreros
mherrena@gmail.com
Universidad de Barcelona, Spain

Abstract
From the experience accumulated during three years of working with digital
storytelling in the classroom and relying on the classical narrative theory, in the
filmic narrative, in the memory processes, in the cognitive processes and in the
psychological processes, the personal digital storytelling is presented as a tool
with which students reflect on their personal identity. This process of self-
reflection is articulated around two moments, namely: the construction of the
story by the student and the reception of it by the class. It is shown how the
creation process involves the structuring of the self around a narrative identity
and not a essential identity. And it is pointed out that the reception of the
others digital storytelling suppose an experience that allows students to
restructurate their mental schemata and to live emotions in a vicarious way.
Keywords
Personal Digital Storytelling; Self; Narrative identity.


I. A modo de introduccin
a. Relato digital y educacin
La presencia del relato se remonta a los albores de la humanidad (Barthes, 1990), toda forma
cultural los ha utilizado para recoger y narrar hechos o sucesos reales o imaginarios. La
revolucin digital ha supuesto una explosin de los medios digitales, medios que tambin han
sido usados para contar y compartir historias. En las dos ltimas dcadas, las narraciones
digitales han proliferado (Lundby, 2008; Couldry, 2008; Hartley y McWilliams, 2009) hasta
llegar a popularizarse, incluso han penetrado en las instituciones educativas. Su uso educativo
puede ser diverso (Robin, 2006): pueden servir tanto para potenciar el aprendizaje de
profesores como de alumnos; pueden utilizarse para instruir en diferentes materias:
matemticas, medicina, ciencias, lenguas, humanidades; pueden ser utilizados para trabajar
historias personales a partir de la experiencia, para profundizar en alguna temtica acadmica,
para mejorar el aprendizaje de una lengua, para realizar una alfabetizacin digital, etc. Por
ltimo, siguiendo a Ohler (2006, 2008), Robin (2006), Rodrguez Illera & Londoo (2009),
afirmamos que el uso educativo del relato digital promueve la alfabetizacin digital, el
alfabetismo escrito, el alfabetismo oral, el pensamiento crtico, la creatividad, la imaginacin, la
integracin de diferentes competencias y habilidades; dota de significado las experiencias
personales y ayudan a crear identidad y, adems, son un elemento muy motivador para el
alumnado. Todo ello justifica por s mismo que se reflexione desde el mundo educativo sobre el
relato digital como herramienta de enseanza-aprendizaje.
b. Relatos digitales personales
Segn Lambert las narraciones digitales son un gnero de auto-representacin que nos permite
crear y contar historias personales a travs pequeos relatos en formato digital entre 250 y
375 palabras- compuestos de narracin textual, visual y sonora (Lambert, 2009:19-27;44).
Este tipo de narraciones suelen ser de carcter personal, autobiogrfico, donde el narrador es
el protagonista de la historia (Hertzberg y Lundby, 2008:99). Lambert (2009:24-27) nos
presenta una tipologa de relatos personales (ver tabla I), si bien nos dice que las categoras de
relatos que presenta no ha de entenderse como algo cerrado, y que incluso pueden mezclase de
muchas maneras. Esta clasificacin tambin es recogida por Robin (2006).
Historias de caracteres: historias que explican la especial relacin

que se establece con determinadas personas.
Relatos sobre personas importantes Historias in memoriam: en honor o recuerdo de alguien

fallecido.
Relatos de aventuras: lugares que hemos visitado (viajes),

aventuras vividas
Relatos sobre sucesos importantes Relatos de realizacin: narran la consecucin de metas, logros, lo
que supone conseguirlo: graduarse, conseguir un reto, etc.
Historias en torno a lugares significativos en nuestras vidas: mi

Relatos de lugares significativos
casa, un parque, el bosque, la tienda, etc
Relatos sobre las actividades que se Historias en torno a las actividades profesiones, las aficiones, los
realizan compromisos sociales.
Relatos de superacin: cmo se han afrontado los obstculos o

retos de la vida.
Relatos de amor: relaciones afectivas, familiares, fraternales, etc.

Otras relatos personales
Relatos de descubrimiento: historias que nos hacen reflexionar
sobre lo aprendido y que muestran cmo se ha hecho, que
descubren alguna verdad.
Tabla 1. Categoras de relatos personales segn Lambert (2009)


c. El concepto de Yo o self
Los relatos digitales personales son una auto-representacin narrada en lenguaje multimodal,
en ellos se hace referencia a las experiencias, sentimientos, emociones, vivencias... de un
sujeto, que es el autor del relato. Y en ese sentido, estos relatos constituyen una muestra del
Yo de su autor.
Qu entendemos por Yo?. Este concepto ha sido abordado desde la biologa, la psicologa, las
ciencias sociales, la filosofa, la religin, las ciencias jurdicas, etc., dando origen a una
diversidad de significados:
Ser, ser humano, ser ah, ens, ente, homo, hombre, persona, persona humana,
personaje, ego, yo, self, m, yo-mismo, s-mismo, m mismo, individuo, individuo
humano, individuo biolgico, sujeto, sujeto humano, sujeto psquico, sujeto social... sin
olvidar otros conceptos con connotaciones religiosas, como alma, espritu, criatura,
criatura humana, criatura divina. (Prat, 2007, p.103).
Nuestro objetivo no es precisar qu entendemos con cada uno de estos trminos28, ni siquiera
dar un significado preciso del concepto Yo, pero tampoco podemos hablar del concepto sin
aclarar a qu nos referimos cuando hablamos del Yo.
Siguiendo a Erikson, consideramos el Yo como la experiencia del individuo de ser l mismo

(Bgin, 2006, p.17). Entendemos la identidad personal como el espacio en el que el individuo se
reconoce a s mismo, y en ese sentido el Yo o Self representa la toma de conciencia de lo que el
sujeto es o cree ser en un momento determinado.
d. El relato digital personal como construccin del Yo
Nuestro punto de partida es que la narracin digital nos permite trabajar la identidad personal.
Nos apoyamos en una serie de autores que han afirmado que esta identidad se construye a
travs de las historias que contamos sobre nosotros mismos (Ohler, 2008; Davis, 2004; Bruner,
2006; Lambert, 2009; Rodrguez Illera & Londoo, 2009; McAdams, 1993; McAdams, Josselson,
Lieblich, 2006; Lundby, 2008).
Nuestra posicin de partida es que logramos nuestra identidad personal y el concepto de

nosotros mismos mediante el uso de la configuracin narrativa, y damos unidad a
nuestra existencia entendindola como la expresin de una historia singular que se
despliega y se desarrolla. Estamos en medio de nuestra historias y no podemos estar
seguros de cmo van a terminar; tenemos que revisar constantemente el argumento a
medida que se aaden nuevos acontecimientos a nuestras vidas. El yo, por
consiguiente, no es una cosa esttica o una sustancia, sino una configuracin de
acontecimientos personales en una unidad histrica, que incluye no slo lo que uno ha
sido, sino tambin previsiones de lo que uno va a ser (Polkinghorne, 1988, p.150).
El relato digital es una herramienta con la que alumno puede pensar su propia identidad a partir
de su propia experiencia, puede ser una herramienta para que el alumnado piense su Yo dentro
del contexto real de un clase (los otros).
Sin duda, los relatos digitales articulan una cuestin central en la vida de las personas y
que no suele tener ese lugar en las prcticas educativas tradicionales. Nos referimos a la
construccin de la identidad personal a travs de las historias que contamos sobre
nosotros mismos y a cmo las comunicamos a los otros (Rodrguez Illera & Londoo,
2009, p.9).
El relato digital permite al alumno trabajar su identidad, durante el proceso de creacin del
mismo, ste piensa sobre s mismo y sus experiencias (Ricoeur, 1996, p.147). La vida
solamente se comprende a travs de las historias que narramos de ella (Ricoeur, 2009, p.53).
Pero, a su vez, el proceso de proyeccin del relato convierte a la clase en espectadora, el
alumno pasa a ser tambin receptor del relato el de sus compaeros-, y ese proceso de
recepcin tambin le lleva a pensar sobre s mismo en relacin con el relato percibido. El uso

28
En posteriores artculos entraremos en el estudio del trmino.

educativo del relato digital en esa doble dimensin de creacin y de recepcin, activa en el
alumno elementos cognitivos y emotivos que promueven la reflexin sobre su Yo y le ayudan a
pensarse y comprenderse como un proceso discursivo (un yo estoy) y no como un proceso
esencial (un yo soy).
e. Relevancia educativa del relato digital como herramienta para trabajar el Yo
En las prcticas educativas tradicionales el tema de la identidad suele trabajarse desde las
ciencias sociales (antropologa, sociologa, historia) o bien desde la psicologa. En ambas reas
se suele reflexionar sobre una identidad genrica, un individuo que pertenece a una sociedad, a
una cultura, a un tiempo concreto. No suele contemplarse el tema de la construccin de la
identidad personal. No se promueven prcticas en las que el alumnado se piense a s mismo
desde su experiencia.
Desde 2009 venimos utilizando los relatos digitales para que los alumnos de bachillerato
reflexionen sobre sus experiencias personales y les atribuyan significado; en definitiva, para que
piensen sobre su identidad personal. Hemos observado que cuando los adolescentes hacen un
relato personal, ste suele centrarse en la dimensin observable de su comportamiento, su
conducta (acciones, hechos, situaciones). Suelen hacer pocas referencias a su dimensin ntima
y subjetiva de su comportamiento: su experiencia psquica (deseos, pasiones, motivaciones,
ideas, pensamientos). A travs del relato digital pretendemos que el alumno no slo se piense
en su dimensin conductual, sino que exprese en su dimensin ntima, es por ello que
orientamos al alumno a que en su narracin no se centre exclusivamente en sus acciones sino
que hable de sus emociones, sentimientos e ideas. Pretendemos que el relato no sea
nicamente descriptivo de acciones o conductas, sino que incorpore una dimensin reflexiva,
que haga referencia a las experiencias psquicas que acompaaban la accin, en el intento de
que el alumno trabaje tambin la dimensin ms ntima y emotiva de su Yo. Esta lnea de
trabajo potencia que el relato digital personal sea una herramienta para que el alumno explore,
piense y muestre su Yo.
II. La construccin del Yo en la creacin del relato digital
a. Dos elementos que configuran el relato digital: narrador y receptor
El relato digital personal es una herramienta que puede utilizarse para pensarse a s mismo y
para narrarse ante otros. En ambos procesos se est creando identidad.
El relato digital, as entendido, es un modelo comunicativo porque presupone dos partes, un

emisor y un receptor (Chatman, 1990, p.29).
En los relatos digitales personales quien construye el relato (autor real), es quien le pone voz y
nos cuenta (narrador) una historia personal. Ese relato incorpora una imagen de s mismo
(autor ideal) que proyecta ante los receptores. Pero tambin se tiene presente mentalmente a
los receptores del relato (lectores ideales). Incluso, en ocasiones, se tiene presente otro pblico
diferente al esperado (lectores reales) (Chatman, 1990, p.158-162). El hecho de compartir un
relato en la red hace que ste pueda ser visionado por cualquiera.
As, desde le primer momento en que el alumno decide relatar una historia, est pensando en la
dimensin privada y pblica de su Yo. Est gestionando qu contar, a quin y cmo. Est
construyendo una imagen de s mismo ante l y hacia los dems, est reflexionado sobre s
mismo y sobre cmo quiere mostrase. Pero tambin se est planteando ante quin va a hacer
pblico su relato. La audiencia no slo est presente en el relato en relacin a lo que el narrador
desea que sta sepa, sino que lo que se dice y cmo se dice depende de lo que la audiencia
sepa o no sepa, pues no se narrar nada que ya se d por sabido (Lambert,2009, p.31). Todo
ello sita al alumno ante el tema de la privacidad: qu quiero contar de mi y quin quiero que
lo vea?. A partir de ah se plantear el cmo contarlo.
El relato se convierte as en una herramienta con la que alumno puede construir su propia
identidad teniendo presente tanto su yo como a los otros. La ipseidad del s mismo implica
la alteridad (Ricoeur, 1996, p.XIV).


b. Elegir y contar una historia
Hay muchos momentos importantes en nuestra vida, pero algunos lo son ms que otros. Lo
primero que el alumno ha de pensar es qu momentos son importantes para l, ha de recordar
algunos momentos significativos de su vida y elegir cul quiere relatar y cmo. Lambert (2009,
p.35) denomina a esos momentos momento de cambio. Una vez se haya decidido por uno,
deber recuperar los recuerdos que acompaan a ese momento.
Elegir qu historia quiere contar debera llevar al alumno a ser consciente de por qu ese
momento fue importante para l. Esto es, debera llevarle a un proceso auto-reflexivo sobre su
Yo. Cuando un alumno va a realizar un relato digital personal, se plantea una serie de
interrogantes. En general esos interrogantes son: qu historia contar, qu y qu no contar de
esa historia, cmo lo contar, etc. Lambert (2009, p.25-26) nos sugiere una serie de
interrogantes que ayudan a pensar los diferentes tipos de relatos personales. Partiendo de esos
interrogantes sealamos los que serviran al propsito de que el alumno encontrara y realizara
su relato digital personal, a saber: qu sucedi (dnde, cmo)?, qu relacin guardas con el
suceso?, cmo te sentiste (sentimientos, emociones...)?, hubo algn momento decisivo en el
evento, qu te ense, qu aprendiste sobre ti mismo, cmo afect a tu vida (relaciones,
decisiones, visin del mundo, futuro...)?. Estos interrogantes ayudarn al alumno en el proceso
de bsqueda y seleccin de la historia, pero tambin, y ello es ms importante, le ayudarn a
pensarla y con ello a pensarse en relacin a la experiencia que relate. Enfrentarse a estos
interrogantes supone para el alumno un proceso de auto-reflexin: tomar conciencia de algunos
eventos de su pasado importantes para l, recordar los sucesos, creencias y sentimientos que le
acompaaban en ese evento, pensar qu imagen va a proyectar de s mismo.
El relato es un medio por el cual aprendemos de la experiencia al reflexionar sobre la

experiencia, estableciendo lo que significa, transformndola en una forma simblica de
ser expresada y recordada. El proceso es esencialmente reflexivo, volvindose sobre s
mismo: la experiencia se transforma en narracin y la propia narracin se convierte en
una herramienta que da forma a la memoria y a la experiencia futura. (Davis, 2004)
A la vez este proceso auto-reflexivo mostrar al alumno la naturaleza narrativa de su Yo, la

cual se opone a la concepcin del Yo que suele tener el alumnado, a saber, esencialista.
Lambert (2009, p.30) seala que el proceso de auto-reflexin ayuda a pasar de una conciencia
de yo soy a una conciencia ms profunda del he estado..., me estoy volviendo..., soy... y
ser.
c. Los recuerdos autobiogrficos y las emociones
El alumno, autor del relato, ha de recuperar una historia autobiogrfica a partir de la que
construir su relato. Ahora vamos a centrarnos en dos aspectos sobre el funcionamiento de la
memoria que conviene tener presentes en relacin a los recuerdos autobiogrficos, a saber: hay
tres clases de recuerdos autobiogrficos y los recuerdos no son una copia idntica de lo
sucedido.
Conway y Rubin (1993, p.104-105) postulan la existencia de tres clases de conocimiento

biogrfico, los cuales estn dispuestos jerrquicamente: periodos de vida, acontecimientos
generales y acontecimientos concretos. Los periodos de vida son largos segmentos de vida que
se miden en aos o dcadas, por ejemplo ir a la universidad. Los acontecimientos generales son
episodios compuestos y extensos que se miden en das, semanas o meses, por ejemplo, primer
ao de universidad. Y los acontecimientos concretos son episodios individuales que se miden en
segundos, minutos u horas, por ejemplo, mi primera clase en la universidad.
Si hemos de contar historias autobiogrficas tendremos que tener presentes estas tres clases de
conocimiento. La bsqueda de esa historia lleva a buscar en los recuerdos, los cuales no
permanecen intactos e idnticos a cuando se grabaron, sino que se han ido desvaneciendo y
tornndose ms lnguidos con el paso del tiempo. A medida que pasa el tiempo, codificamos y
almacenamos nuevas experiencias que interfieren en nuestra capacidad de recordar las
anteriores (Schater, 1999, p.115). En el proceso de guardar la informacin, el cerebro va
fijando patrones generales cada vez ms generales, y va olvidando los detalles concretos. A la
hora de recuperar esa informacin, son fciles de recordar los sucesos acaecidos hace poco
tiempo; los episodios que se relatan con frecuencia, si bien no sus detalles, y los sucesos


ligados a emociones fuertes. Por contra, los episodios que no se relatan, suelen requerir de ms
esfuerzo e indicios para llegar a rememorarse (Schacter, 1999, p.119-120).
El recuerdo va ligado a las emociones. Todos los recuerdos tienen una carga emocional, se
recuerda con ms claridad lo que se asocia a estados de nimo o eventos que se presentan
como coherentes con las propias actitudes y valores, se recuerda ms fcilmente lo que afecta
emocionalmente, la afectividad positiva atrae hacia un objeto determinado y la negativa repele
o disgusta, en ambos casos aportan un significado aadido para el recuerdo (Rodrguez &
Baos, 2010, p.141). Schacter (2003, p.173-175) tambin seala que al recordar, los hechos se
trastocan de forma interesada, se recuerda desde el presente, y los sentimientos que tenemos
en el presente se vuelcan sobre los eventos del pasado: los recuerdos de cmo ramos...
resultan influidos por el cmo somos... (Schacter, 2003, p.178).
A partir de lo explicado se entiende que los recuerdos que el alumno evoque al tratar de
recordar la historia que ha decidido relatar, no sern fiel reflejo del pasado, podrn ser
generales y poco concretos en funcin del tiempo transcurrido-. Cuando el alumno intenta
recordar, difcilmente recuerda acontecimientos concretos, y lo que suele rememorar con
facilidad son acontecimientos generales; stos conservan parte del sabor distintivo del pasado y
son fcilmente accesibles porque se han visto reforzados con la repeticin. (Schacter, 1999,
p.133), los acontecimientos generales suelen ser puntos de acceso a los recuerdos
autobiogrficos (Schacter, 1999, p.132). Y, a la vez, esos recuerdos ms que aportar los
sentimientos y emociones asociados a ese evento, mostrarn sus sentimientos presentes hacia
los hechos pasados.
El objetivo bsico del uso de relatos digitales personales para pensar el Yo, es hacer que el
alumno reflexione sobre s mismo, profundizando en los recuerdos en busca de los detalles
concretos y ahondando en las emociones que acompaaban a sus recuerdos. Para tratar de
potenciar que esto se d, se propone utilizar tcnicas de estimulacin de recuerdos. En ese
sentido el alumno trabaja estos aspectos a travs de un taller de evocacin, en el que mientras
cuenta su historia a un compaero, ste le interroga sobre algunos aspectos concretos del
suceso, y sobre los sentimientos y las emociones que tena. El taller hace que el alumno se
enfrente a interrogantes que no se haba planteado sobre su historia, lo cual, en muchas
ocasiones, aporta nuevos elementos enriquecedores a la misma. Este taller es un medio de
interpelarse sobre s mismo a travs de las cuestiones que le presenta un otro. Aporta una
nueva perspectiva al proceso de auto-reflexin del Yo.
d. Escribir el storyline y producir el relato digital
Hasta este momento el alumno ha trabajado el recuerdo de la historia, una historia a la que se
ha acercado desde dos perspectivas: desde la evocacin reflexiva del recuerdo y desde la
interpelacin reflexiva por parte de un otro. Todo ello constituye la historia que nos quiere
contar, que es la materia prima a partir de la que crear el guin literario (storyline) de su
relato. Un guin que deber tener una extensin delimitada (500 palabras) y respetar los
elementos propios del relato digital, a saber:
Seleccin y ordenacin temporal de sucesos (Bal, 1990, p.21; Chatman; 1990, p.45 y
p.56-57).
Articulacin de los sucesos a partir de dos principios lgico-narrativos: causalidad y

contingencia (Chatman, 1990, p.48-51), pudiendo incorporar el suspense y/o la
sorpresa (Chatman, 1990, p.62-63).
Estructuracin dramtica de la trama: planteamiento, desarrollo y resolucin (Seger,

1991, p.30).
Que el relato del alumno cumpla con los principios bsicos antes sealados ser decisivo para
que resulte de inters para el espectador y capte su atencin. A la vez, facilitar su
comprensin, fomentar su recuerdo, e implicar emotivamente al espectador, al hacerlo
participar cognitivamente con expectativas e incertidumbres sobre lo que se narre (Rodrguez &
Baos, 2010, p.85-86; Bordwell, 1996, p.35). A este fin tambin contribuirn los efectos
visuales y sonoros que el alumno incorpore en el proceso de produccin de su relato digital.
En el momento en que el alumno ha de convertir en relato su historia, se dar cuenta que una
cosa son los recuerdos que se tienen sobre los sucesos y acontecimientos que se quieren narrar


(historia concebida o historia), y que otra cosa son los hechos y sucesos que cuenta en el relato
(historia narrada o discurso) y, an ms, que una tercera cosa diferente ser la interpretacin y
representacin que los oyentes se hagan de ese relato (historia percibida) (Todorov, 1990;
Chatman, 1990).
[...] la obra literaria ofrece dos aspectos: es al mismo tiempo una historia y un discurso.
Es historia en el sentido de que evoca una cierta realidad, acontecimientos que habran
sucedido, personajes que, desde ese punto de vista, se confunden con los de la vida
real. [...]. Pero la obra es al mismo tiempo un discurso: existe un narrador que relata la
historia y frente a l un lector que la recibe. A este nivel, no son los acontecimientos
referidos los que cuentan, sino el modo en que el narrador nos los hace conocer
(Todorov, 1990, p.157).
La distincin entre historia y relato, le debe hacer comprender al alumno que la historia
narrada no tiene porqu contener todos los datos de la historia concebida, de hecho ese es
uno de los errores frecuentes del alumnado. Pudiendo comprender que una misma historia
puede ser narrada de modo diferente a travs de diferentes medios: novela, film, cmic,
cuento, relato, etc. Y comprender y cumplir las exigencias del relato digital le llevar a
reflexionar sobre cmo narrar su historia, que en definitiva no es ms que narrarse a s mismo
(su Yo) a travs de un relato digital. La limitacin del espacio lleva al alumno a centrarse en una
nica historia que contar. A menudo en sus primeros esbozos de la historia aparece ms de una
historia que relatar, o bien elementos que resultan superfluos para el relato en cuanto que no
aaden nada y su supresin no supone ninguna prdida de sentido del mismo. Esa exigencia de
sntesis le lleva a concretar bien lo que quiere contar sobre s mismo.
La imagen de s mismo que el alumno d a travs de su relato tambin depender del proceso
de produccin del storyline, del storyboard y de montaje del mismo. El proceso de creacin de
un relato digital personal es la creacin de un discurso a travs del cual el alumno muestra una
imagen pblica de s mismo, en un intento de dirigir la mirada de sus compaeros en un
sentido. Pero el alumno slo tiene a su alcance qu contar y cmo, aunque no cmo o qu
interpretarn los que visionen su relato.
III. La construccin del Yo en la recepcin del relato digital
En este apartado vamos a mostrar cmo aprendemos a travs de las experiencias que los
dems nos cuentan en sus relatos digitales personales. Y entre esos aprendizajes est el
aprendernos a nosotros mismos. Seala Lambert (2009, p.36) que en general para aprender
preferimos que nos cuenten historias a tener que hacerlo leyendo ensayos, lecciones o
informes. As pues, abandonamos la perspectiva del alumno como creador de relatos digitales
personales para centrarnos en el alumno como receptor de los mismos. Nos interesa un hecho
que el propio Lambert (2009, p.36) seala respecto a los relatos digitales, pero que no es
exclusivo de stos, a saber: que la audiencia construye sus propias interpretaciones del relato.
Al centrarnos en el espectador, en cuanto sujeto real, aparece su dimensin social-cultural.

Todo espectador pertenece a un marco social y cultural definido por unos parmetros
geogrficos y temporales, y ese marco condiciona sus caractersticas respecto a los procesos
psicolgicos de procesamiento y gestin de la informacin y de las emociones. Pero no es esta
la lnea que nos interesa desarrollar aqu. Nos interesa detenernos en uno de los aspectos que
ha estudiado la teora general del cine, a saber: la relacin del espectador con el filme como
experiencia individual, psicolgica, esttica, en una palabra subjetiva (Aumont, Bergala, Marie,
Vernet, 2010, p.227). Es decir, nos interesa centrarnos en el espectador como lector del relato
flmico, pues las relaciones que se establezcan entre el espectador y el film cinematogrfico, nos
servirn para pensar la relacin entre el espectador del relato digital y el propio relato.
Nos acercaremos al proceso de recepcin del relato por parte del espectador desde dos
perspectivas: de la mano de Bordwell (1996), nos adentraremos en la comprensin del relato
desde la perspectiva de la psicologa constructivista, y de la mano de Aumont et al. (2010)
exploraremos cmo el espectador participa a nivel psicolgico y emocional del relato. En ambos
casos se nos presenta al espectador como un agente activo en la recepcin del relato, esto es,
que mantiene una actividad psquica constante durante su visualizacin.


a. La recepcin del relato digital como aprendizaje cognitivo
Maturana (1990, p.30) dice que los seres vivos en general, no podemos distinguir en la
experiencia entre lo que llamamos ilusin y percepcin como afirmaciones cognitivas de la
realidad. Ricoeur (2009, p.50) afirma algo parecido al sealar que La lectura misma es una
forma de vivir en el universo ficticio de la obra. En este sentido, podemos decir ahora que las
historias se narran, pero tambin se viven en el mundo de lo imaginario. En la medida que los
procesos cognitivos de la vida real coinciden con los de la ficcin, el visionado de un relato se
convierte en una fuente de conocimiento vivencial, tanto ms cuanto el relato tenga visos de
verosimilitud. Podemos aventurar que eso es precisamente lo que pasa en la recepcin de los
relatos digitales personales. Y ms, si se tiene presente que el relato es contado por un
compaero de clase al que se conoce personalmente y se le concede crdito.
Desde la teora constructivista el visionado de un relato se entiende como una actividad psquica
constante. La actividad psquica que el espectador desarrolla, segn Bordwell (1996, p.30-40),
es: percibir y organizar los estmulos segn sus patrones de significado; aplicar los prototipos
existentes en su memoria a la informacin y revisar los procesos narrativos en busca de un
sentido que confirme lo conocido o aporte nuevos conocimientos; y mediatizar el significado del
relato en funcin de su propia biografa y contexto de vida. En el proceso de comprensin de los
relatos, el espectador va ms all de la percepcin motora, visual, sonora y esttica, y de la
decodificacin del lenguaje audiovisual: tiene que procesar esa informacin y codificarla y para
ello se sirve de los patrones preexistentes en su memoria, que pertenecen a su propia biografa.
Generalmente, el espectador llega a la pelcula ya dispuesto, preparado para canalizar energas
hacia la construccin de la historia y aplicar conjuntos de esquemas derivados del contexto y de
experiencias previas (Bordwell, 1996, p.34). Mediante los esquemas entendemos lo que ocurre
en el mundo y lo que nos ocurre. stos se elaboran a partir de la experiencia personal y a
travs de la experiencia que el sujeto tiene del mundo y las relaciones que con l establece. Es
a partir de los esquemas que el espectador reconoce en una pelcula una historia de duelo o de
superacin, porque son prototipos de acciones y valores humanos (Bordwell, 1996, p.35).
Bordwell (1996) afirma que los espectadores occidentales interpretan los films de acuerdo con
una cierta estructura o esquema maestro semejante al de los relatos, que nos permite clasificar
los acontecimientos, relacionar las partes con el todo, comprender, recordar y resumir una
narracin.
Al intentar comprender un filme narrativo, el espectador intenta entender el continuum

flmico como un conjunto de acontecimientos que ocurren en escenarios definidos y
unificados por principios de temporalidad y causalidad. Entender la historia del filme es
entender qu sucede y dnde, cundo y por qu sucede (p.34).
As, cuando un alumno visiona el relato de un compaero, toma como veraz lo que en l se
cuenta, y almacena en su memoria parte de la informacin recibida. Pero lo que es ms
importante, interpreta la experiencia que aporta el relato en base a su propia memoria personal
y su conocimiento del mundo. Y esa informacin que se procesa cognitivamente, se contrasta
con los propios esquemas mentales, y stos son modificados si la informacin aportada es
significativamente diferente. El autor del relato digital comparte con el espectador sus
experiencias, sus conocimientos y sus emociones, su visin del mundo y de s mismo, le
muestra cmo afront una situacin determinada, qu aprendi, qu sinti, etc. El receptor del
relato, al visionarlo puede llegar a experimentar las mismas o parecidas situaciones y
emociones del narrador: el relato puede llevarle a recordar y revivir experiencias pasadas
similares, puede situarlo ante nuevas experiencias y llevarlo a reflexionar sobre qu pensara
y/o sentira en una situacin similar, puede aportarle nuevos conocimientos que le hagan
modificar sus esquemas mentales. As, podemos afirmar que la recepcin de un relato digital
personal permite experimentar vidas ajenas: situaciones, pensamientos, creencias,
emociones... A travs del visionado del relato, el alumno receptor puede sentir y pensarse a s
mismo en experiencias anlogas. El propio Lambert (2009, p.31) afirma que el relato digital
hace posible que parte de los receptores cambien en su forma de pensar y sentir. Si esto es as,
la recepcin del relato se convierte una fuente vicaria de aprendizaje del Yo.
b. La recepcin del relato digital como experiencia emocional
Baudry (1975), Metz (1979), Aumont et al., (2010), Morin (2001), Gubern y Prat (1979)
plantean que el espectador de cine, en funcin de su capacidad perceptiva, su carcter, su


experiencia personal y su conocimiento del mundo pone en marcha procesos psicolgicos que
favorecen la implicacin emotiva. Estos procesos son, sobre todo, la identificacin y la
proyeccin. La identificacin lleva al espectador a asumir el personaje del relato como si fuera
l, y a vivir sus emociones; el espectador hace suyos los atributos y caractersticas del
personaje, situndose emotivamente en su lugar. Esa identificacin puede ser positiva el
espectador se siente similar al personaje- o negativa se siente en desacuerdo con el carcter y
proceder del personaje-. La proyeccin hace que el espectador proyecte sus propios
sentimientos sobre el personaje del relato, es una respuesta emotiva propia del suspense en las
que el espectador posee informacin que el personaje desconoce, lo que le lleva a anticipar las
situaciones o desenlaces a los que se enfrentar el personaje. Bettetini (1975) seala que la
narracin audiovisual interpela al espectador, lo incorpora a la historia del relato a travs de su
implicacin psicolgica activa y su respuesta emocional sobre las situaciones y los personajes.
Lambert (2009) hace una afirmacin similar al hablar de relatos digitales: afirma que la prctica
de relato digital proporciona un espacio seguro para contar y escuchar historias
emocionalmente honestas, historias que nos invitan a entrar en el corazn de narrador,
cargadas de un contenido emocional que pueden sorprender al propio narrador y al oyente.
El alumno, al convertirse en espectador de un relato se implica emotivamente en l, suele

establecer un proceso de identificacin con el protagonista, que le lleva a vivir y sentir con l las
emociones y sentimientos que se relatan. Lo cual se pone de manifiesto cuando tras el
visionado del relato se abre un dilogo entre el autor del mismo y la clase. Es en ese momento
que algunos alumnos manifiestan una identificacin positiva con expresiones como: yo viv una
experiencia similar, yo hara lo mismo, nunca me he encontrado en una situacin as, pero
yo hara igual; o bien una identificacin negativa, sobre todo ante protagonistas de relatos que
llevan a cabo acciones poco gratificantes, posicionndose ante las mismas con expresiones
como: yo no hara eso, no pienso as. En cualquiera de ambos casos, al alumno receptor del
relato, ste le sirve como experiencia vicaria emocional para pensarse a partir de las situaciones
y/o emociones experimentadas, o para pensarse ante nuevas situaciones y/o emociones
anticipando cules podran ser sus reacciones y sentimientos. Hasta el momento, en esa puesta
en comn de los relatos no se ha constatado que se hayan dado proyecciones, no suelen
incorporar suspense. Ello se debe a la caracterstica del propio relato digital, que es creado y
realizado directamente por el alumnado sin necesidad de conocimientos propios de las
producciones cinematogrficas.
IV. A modo de conclusin
La creacin de un relato supone buscar en el pasado captulos significativos que se quieran

contar, y tomar conciencia de qu los hace importantes. Bucear en el pasado en busca de
recuerdos y emociones concretas supone darles forma en torno a una historia que habla sobre
nosotros. Supone enfrentarse a una serie de interrogantes que nos han de llevar a reflexionar
sobre nosotros en torno a la historia que deseamos contar. Supone pensar en la audiencia a la
que contamos el relato, y decidir qu imagen vamos a dar de nosotros y cmo, supone pues,
tomar conciencia del mbito personal y privado del Yo. Supone el montaje de un relato digital
con el que en cierto sentido queremos persuadir al pblico.
La recepcin de un relato supone una percepcin cognitiva que sita el relato en un contexto
vivencial, la experiencia personal del receptor, a travs de la cual se reinterpreta el relato a la
vez que se adapta a los esquemas mentales propios, modificndolos en ocasiones. Supone pues
un proceso de aprendizaje para el alumnado, pues la nueva informacin suministrada por el
relato se integra en su flujo de experiencias, pudiendo llegar a ser asimiladas como propias.
Pero la recepcin de un relato tambin supone una percepcin emocional. La mirada del alumno
receptor del relato toma posicin ante lo relatado y penetra en los actos y sentimientos del
personaje identificndose en algunos aspectos con l, viviendo o recordando junto a l una
experiencia emocional vicaria.
Creemos haber mostrado que la creacin y recepcin de relatos digitales personales puede
suponer un elemento de auto-reflexin para el alumno, le lleven a tomar conciencia de algunos
sucesos importantes en su vida y le permitan construir fragmentos de su identidad. Y a la vez,
que son vehculo de experiencia vicaria, lo cual permite adquirir conocimiento y sentir
emociones a partir del visionado de otros relatos personales. Por lo que nos atrevemos a


concluir que la produccin y recepcin del relato digital personal, as utilizada, es una
herramienta que ayuda al alumno a estructurar sus ideas en torno al Yo. Como seala Bruner
(2003) creamos y recreamos la identidad mediante la narrativa, [...] el yo es un producto de
nuestros relatos y no una esencia por descubrir cavando en los confines de la subjetividad. ...
est demostrado que sin la capacidad de contar historias sobre nosotros no existira una cosa
como la identidad (p.122).
Referencias
Aumont, J & Bergala,A & Marie,M & Vernet,M (2010). Esttica del cine. Barcelona: Paids.
Bal, M. (1990). Teora de la narrativa. Una introduccin a la narratologa. Madrid: Ctedra.
Barthes, R. (1990). Introduccin al anlisis estructural de relatos. En Barthes, R. et. al. Anlisis
estructural del relato. Mxico: La Red de Jonas.
Baudry, J.L. (1975). Le dispositif, en Communications nm 23: Psychanayse et cinema. Paris:
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Copyright


Multimodal Discourse Strategies of Factuality and Subjectivity in

Educational Digital Storytelling
Patricia Bou-Franch
patricia.bou@uv.es
Departamento de Filologa Inglesa y Alemana
Universitat de Valncia, Espaa
Abstract
As new technologies continue to emerge, students and lecturers are provided

with new educational tools. One such tool, which is increasingly used in higher
education, is digital storytelling, i.e. multi-media digital narratives. Despite the
increasing attention that education and media scholars have paid to digital
storytelling, there is scant research examining digital narratives from a
discourse-analytic perspective.
This paper addresses this gap in the literature and, in line with the belief that
individuals make meaning through a range of semiotic devices, including,
among others, language, sound, graphics and text, it aims to examine
discourse strategies of factuality and subjectivity in historical-cultural digital
narratives and their multimodal realisations.To carry out this study a corpus of
16 digital stories was compiled and analysed from a multidisciplinary
framework which draws from studies on digital storytelling, computer-mediated
communication, media studies, and multimodal discourse analysis. Results
show that students/digital story tellers resort to a number of varied multimodal
discursive strategies which are constitutive of their identity as capable students
in an educational setting.

Keywords
Digital storytelling; Education; Multimodal discourse; Factuality; Subjectivity.


Estrategias discursivas multimodales, factuales y subjetivas en
el relato digital educativo

Patricia Bou-Franch
patricia.bou@uv.es
Departamento de Filologa Inglesa y Alemana
Universidad de Valncia, Espaa

Resumen
Las nuevas tecnologas ofrecen a estudiantes y profesores nuevas herramientas
educativas. Entre stas destaca el relato digital, una herramienta que se emplea
cada vez ms en educacin superior. Pese a la gran atencin que el relato digital
ha recibido por parte de expertos en educacin y en medios, existen escasos
estudios de relatos digitales desde la perspectiva del anlisis del discurso.
Este trabajo se hace eco de esta escasez y, partiendo de la premisa de que los
individuos construimos el significado a travs de variados medios semiticos que
incluyen, entre otros, lenguaje, sonido, grficos y textos, examina las
estrategias discursivas, factuales y subjetivas, en narrativas histrico-culturales
y su realizacin multimodal. Para desarrollar este estudio se recogi un corpus
de 16 relatos digitales que se analiz desde un enfoque multidisciplinar que se
apoya en estudios previos de relato digital, de comunicacin por ordenador,
estudios de medios de comunicacin y anlisis del discurso multimodal. Los
resultados muestran que los estudiantes/narradores digitales recurren a una
gran variedad de estrategias discursivas multimodales que contribuyen a formar
su identidad de estudiantes capaces en el entorno educativo.
Palabras clave
Digital storytelling; Education; Multimodal discourse; Factuality; Subjectivity.


I. Introduccin
As new technologies continue to emerge, students and lecturers are provided with new
educational tools. One such tool, which is increasingly used in higher education, is digital
storytelling, i.e. multi-media digital narratives.
Digital narratives constitute a hybrid social practice/action that shares features with traditional
forms of oral/written storytelling, television documentaries, video games and research reports
(Hartley and McWilliam 2009; Swales, 1990) and therefore combine the expression of emotion
which is characteristic of the confessional disclosure of storytelling with the authenticity of the
documentary (Hartley and McWilliam 2009, p.5).
The social practice of digital storytelling originated in the CDS at California, directed by Joe
Lambert, and was soon taken up by other institutions throughout the world that lent it support
(e.g. BBC Cymru-Wales Capture Wales project and the work of Daniel Meadows) and turned it
into an international practice used for various purposes. Recent research by media scholars
places digital storytelling as a social movement within current debates on user-generated digital
content, consumer creativity and productivity, and media participation (Hartley and McWilliam,
2009). Thus, the increase in participation of ordinary people in the media is taken (sometimes,
overoptimistically cf. Chouliaraki, 2010) to foster the democratization of cultural production and
social change (Bou-Franch in press; Turner, 2010). However, despite the attention that digital
storytelling is attracting, there is scant research examining digital narratives from a discourse-
analytic perspective (but see Rodrguez Ruiz, 2007).
In order to contribute to fill this gap, this paper reports on an ongoing project that seeks to
unveil the discourse strategies and resources employed in a corpus of digital narratives.
Specifically, it focuses on the expression of factuality and subjectivity in historical-cultural
narratives produced within a classroom context in the University of Valencia. The object of
interest is, then, educational stories that report on historical / cultural events or features.
An important premise underlying this study is that individuals make meaning not only through
language but through a variety of semiotic resources including language, sound, graphics and
text (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2001). Therefore, the study adopts a multimodal approach.
Against this backdrop, the aim of this paper is to examine strategies of factuality and
subjectivity in historical / cultural digital narratives and their multimodal realisations.
II. Method
To carry out this study, a corpus of 16 historical / cultural digital narratives was compiled and
analysed. The stories were approximately 6 minutes long and were produced by Spanish
undergraduates of English Studies for the module History and Culture of the English-speaking
countries, during the 2011 spring term.
Digital stories can be of different types, ranging from personal narratives or instructional stories
to narratives that recount historical events (Gregori-Signes, 2008a/b; McLellan, 2006; Robin,
2006). Although there are many possibilities, uses and contexts for storytelling and,
therefore, it is difficult to provide one single, umbrella definition for all, -it seems evident that
digital narratives are adapted to fit the goals and ideologies of each of these contexts from
public service broadcasting to community activism and education. (Burgess and Klaebe, 2009,
p.155). The corpus of history and culture narratives in this study is no exception and, therefore,
the stories are shaped by the academic context in which they were produced. Undoubtedly, the
stories in turn shape and transform this context, which is open to new technological tools. The
data are understood as part of the classroom genre, and therefore subject to the general
constraints of academic discourse (Fairclough, 2003; Swales, 1990). A major factor shaping
these stories was that they were generated for a grade, i.e. to fulfil an academic assignment.
Once produced, students uploaded their stories to the class blog, thus complying with the
current demotic movement which empowers ordinary people by granting them greater visibility.
It must also be noted that a major challenge for story-tellers/students was that they were both
learners of English as a second language and learners of History and Culture of the English-
speaking countries.


The assignment was conceived as having a double objective, one related to knowledge of the
module, which involved a factuality dimension, and the other concerned with creativity, and
related to a subjectivity dimension. In order to meet the former, students faced the need to
display their knowledge of a historical period, event or people through multimedia resources.
For the latter, students faced the need to be creative and make their telling personal, original
and/or entertaining. This paper explores the multimodal discursive means used to meet the
needs to display knowledge and to be creative, i.e. multimodal discursive strategies of factuality
and subjectivity.
The framework adopted is multidisciplinary, as it draws from prior research on digital

storytelling, computer-mediated communication, media studies, and multimodal discourse
analysis, and takes into account the social and technological affordances of electronic
communication as well as the role of variability and the construction of social identities in the
Internet (Androutsopoulos, 2006; Bou-Franch, 2011; Herring, 2007). Central to this study is the
view that discourse statements make different types of epistemological claims, specifically,
claims regarding the state of the speakers knowledge. In her study of television debates,
Patrona (2005) adopts this view (cf. Almeida, 1992), and divides all statements into factual and
non-factual. Factual statements are defined as intended to be understood by the reader/hearer
as describing an actual situation, i.e., an event or state which has already occurred or is
occurring at the time the text is produced (Patrona,2005, p.239). Non-factual statements, in
contrast, are related to speculations and predictions and are characterized as not intended to be
interpreted as descriptions of actual situations or events. In this study, the latter were related
to subjectivity.
The data were qualitatively analysed following a three-step procedure. First, discourse
statements were classified into factual and non-factual statements (Patrona, 2005). Second,
multimodal discourse strategies were identified for each type of statement. And third, the
placement of each statement within the organization of the story was also considered.
III. Results
The analysis revealed that all the stories contained factual and non-factual statements that
could be related to the expression of factuality and the expression of subjectivity, respectively.
The analysis of factuality revealed that tellers resorted to a number of multimodal discourse
strategies which included the use of direct, unmitigated statements, use of specialized jargon
and providing viewers with factual detail in the form of facts and figures, and the adoption of a
traditional academic structure for the narrative. The study of subjectivity showed that tellers
made their stories personal and creative through multimodal discourse strategies that presented
the narrative in terms of a casual conversation among friends, or in terms of a trip that takes
viewers through different places and cultural symbols. Other means included use of personal
pronouns (first person), the establishing of criticism and semiotic contrast through the
expression of opposite meanings via different semiotic modes, the employment of multimodal,
personalized connectors, use of rhetorical questions and drawing from producers (and
appealing to viewers) previous knowledge of the filmmaking industry. In the next section the
results are further explored and illustrated.
IV. Discourse strategies of factuality and subjectivity
In facing the need to display their knowledge of the topic of the story, students found they had
to convey information in a reliable way. As it has been shown by experts in different television
shows (Garcs-Conejos Blitvich, Bou-Franch and Lorenzo-Dus in press; Patrona, 2005),
projecting a reliable attitude towards the facts that one is dealing with, increases the validity of
propositions and portrays communicators as knowledgeable speakers (cf. Patrona 2005, p.243).
Traditionally, experts in broadcast talk have resorted to specific discourse strategies in order to
construct their knowledge and experience in a particular field. Discourse strategies range from
the formulation of impersonal views, to the presentation of facts and figures, specialized jargon
and use of a formal register (cf. Garcs-Conejos Blitvich et al. in press; Livingstone and Lunt,
1994; Locher and Hoffmann, 2006; Lorenzo-Dus ,2005; Patrona, 2005; Smith, 2010).


In the data under analysis, story tellers also resorted to such means in order to come across as
reliable and knowledgeable experts, i.e. as capable students within the academic context.
However, as the following examples show, they also made use of non-factual, subjective
statements that made their telling original and entertaining.
In Example 1 below, storytellers use direct, unmitigated statements, which are delivered while
three consecutive images zoom in and out, reinforcing the propositional, factual value of the
discourse. Further, they employed music of the period being discussed, an Elvis Presley song, as
background.
Example 129_ Those Crazy Days
Narrative voice over: We were born in the early 50s, when suburban life in the US urged
people to settle down into a family life after The Second World Wars turmoil. The baby-
boom of the 50s brought an important increase to the US population, as we, the young people
of the 60s and 70s would be the ones to march, to take a stand, speak out and not support
our own country in a war we had no business being in the first place
Image 1. Suburban life in the 1950s
Another discourse strategy of factuality was the use of specialized jargon, which enhances the
expertise of the tellers. In Example 2, specialized jargon is used as the narrative fluctuates
between formal and informal registers. The discourse takes the form of a multi-party
dialogue, and appears casual. However, detailed facts - like exact dates and measures- are
provided, facts which would very unlikely be provided in a real conversation. Hence, this
example displays both discourse strategies of factuality and subjectivity.
Furthermore, these are used in combination with another discourse strategy of subjectivity
which surfaced recurrently in the data: the taking on of new identities that placed
students/storytellers as first-hand witnesses of 20th century history and/or as experts in
different aspects of the culture of the English-speaking countries. In Example 2, below, tellers
took on the identity of a group of American girlfriends on tour in New York; additionally, they
created avatars that were displayed over the images. Further, the alternation of speaking
turns was visually signalled by placing a symbol a yellow diamond - on top of the speaking
avatar. Each of the five turns in example 2 was uttered in unison with the following five
pictures, which display their corresponding speaking avatars.

29
Relevant discourse strategies are given in bold. Most digital stories in the corpus can be found in the
author's class blog, http://www.historiayculturab2010.blogspot.com.es/


Example 2 _ US Architecture
Turn 1: Hey! Do you know the Brooklyn Bridge Turn 2: Yes! And this bridge connects New
was completed in 1883 and it is one of the oldest York City, Manhattan and Brooklyn by
suspension bridges in the United States? spanning the East river.
Turn 3: And it was the longest suspension Turn 4: But, the German John Augustus
bridge the world with a main span of 486.3 Roebling had previously designed and
meters. constructed shorter suspension bridges
.
Turn 5: Their architectual style is neogothic,

with characteristics pointed arches above the
passageways through the stone towers.
Image 2. Alternating speaking turns in multi-party dialogue
Taking on new identities allowed storytellers to tell their story from different angles and make
their telling more personal, albeit in combination with a range of facts.
The following example comes from the narrative Those Crazy Days.


Example 3 _ Those Crazy Days
Narrative voice over: I remember it like it was yesterday: the pacific protests, the burning of
draft cards, the sit-ins, the unity among us fighting for the same cause, the peace, the love, the
flowers, the music, the drugs...oh the drugs
As can be observed in Example 3, the narrator uses the first-person, singular, pronoun, as she
takes the identity of a young American in the Hippy Movement of the 1960s and 70s. As the
narrative begins, to the rhythm of the Beatles All you need is love and black and white
pictures of the period, which display the different values of the hippy movement, the story
proceeds in a personalized fashion, with the speaker expressing her feeling of belonging in this
youth group through her use of first-person, plural, pronoun.
In the following example (4), we find another version of the discursive process of
personalization.
Example 4_ US Architecture
Narrative voice over: My grandfather told me that the opening was during the Great
Depression (1929) in the US. Because of this a lot of offices weren't used. The building wasn't
profitable until 1950 when Roger L. Stevens paid 51 million dollars to buy The Empire State
Building
In this example, the speaker resorts to use of third-person singular when she ascribes the
source of certain information to a close family relation: it is her grandfather, the speaker
recalls, who told her about The Empire State Building and the Great Depression of the 1930s.
These strategies make the story more personal, close and vivid.
In another instance, factuality and subjectivity combine in different ways. Storytellers adopt a
critical perspective through the semiotic contrast they achieve by simultaneously (1)
displaying the title of their narrative in text format: 20th Century Ethnic Minorities: Fighting for
Equality, (2) their opening (spoken) statement which reinforces ideas of liberty: America is
known as the land of freedom and opportunities, those ideals brought a flood of people to the
United States in the 20th Century and (3), by using the questioning background music of the
main theme of the Westside story musical, which is followed by the showing of black and white
pictures of crowded ships of immigrants arriving in Ellis Island.
In example 5, storytellers further draw from another discourse strategy of factuality, i.e. the
presentation of facts and figures in the form of specialized charts.
Example 5 _ 20th Century Ethnic Minorities: Fighting for Equality
Image 3. Population pie charts
Thus, example 5 shows two pie charts of current population groups in the US, drawn from data
from the US Census Bureau, pasted over a picture of a contemporary crowded street this was
a still picture shown as close up and then zooming out, for greater communicative strength of
the ethnic diversity in the US today.
Other creative graphs simultaneously conveyed factuality and subjectivity.


Example 6 _ Evolution of Rock Music

Image 4. Rock-based chart
This is the case of example 6, above, from the story titled Evolution of Rock in the 2nd half of
the 20th century, which shows an original graph with motifs that evoke rock music, like black
background, storm rays instead of arrows, and pictures of different instruments.
Other aspects of discourse organization were also involved in the communication of fact and
creativity (cf. Simon-Vanderbergen 2007). In the story titled Traditional dishes in the UK
(Example 7, below), discourse is organized in the classical, academic, five-paragraph essay with
an introduction, different sections related to dishes in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern
Ireland, use of academic discourse connectors and a concluding paragraph. Storytellers took
the opportunity to make use of formal, academic connectors in combination with support
images depicting the flags of the different UK countries and written text with the name of each
country, thus enhancing the creativity dimension of their talk in multimodal ways:
Example 7 _ Traditional Dishes in the UK
To begin with we will deal with Well now turn to Wales

England and its most popular dish:
Fish and Chips


Now lets move to Scotland Finally, we will explain a little bit about
Northern Ireland
Image 5. Visual connectors
Use of such academic discourse organization lent greater validity and credibility to their work. It
must further be noted that there is another subjectivity component in these discourse markers:
they are personalized through use of first person plural pronouns as in well now or in Now
lets . These help students meet both factual and subjective task requirements.
Another resource that allowed a creative stand was the presentation of the whole narrative as a
trip.
Example 8 _ Australia
Hello folks, you have enrolled on a trip that is going to take you to the core of Australia

Image 6. Narrative as trip
In the story titled Australia, above, tellers address the audience directly, through the opening
sentence of example 8, which is uttered as the bus in the picture travels around the country
leading the story.
Further, in this story students take on different social identities: one is a historian, another is a
fashion designer, while others become an expert chef, and a tour guide. These identities place
the students as experts, a position from which they can inform viewers of various matters with
authority and expertise.
A final pattern of discourse organization evoked viewers previous knowledge of the

filmmaking industry and thus marked their work as a creative piece.


Example 9 _ Two Men, One Fate

Image 7. Visual reinforcement of Nazi threat
Can you conceive a world controlled by Nazi Germany?
The story titled Two men one fate, example 9, underlines the important work of F.D.
Roosevelt and W. Churchill during the Second World War The narrative begins with an
embedded short image of the famous, roaring MGM lion. After this typical beginning at the start
of movies, tellers next make their main point through several discursive means. Firstly, they
translate the story title into German (German text on screen), which is then read in both
German and English. Secondly, tellers formulate a rhetorical question (can you conceive a
world controlled by Nazi Germany?) and reinforce the idea of the Nazi threat posed in the
question by showing a picture of Hitler. Through these means, tellers come across as persuasive
and creative. Their point was that the world today is not controlled by Nazi Germany due to the
efforts of two great men, Roosevelt and Churchill.
In a similar way, the story titled Mad Mens America, which focuses on the history and role of
advertising agencies in the 1960s US, has a double ending. One is creative and related to the
movie industry, while the other is factual and related to the academic world. The former is
achieved through the display of the text Starring followed by the names of all group members
in a list format; this invokes the style in which filmmakers announce the credits at the end of a
film. The latter includes all the references used in the production of the video clip and it is an
obligatory final section of all academic work.
Image 8. Typical movie ending
V. Conclusion
The study of a corpus of students digital narratives for their History and Culture class revealed
students ability to cope with new contents in their second language /culture. The analysis
showed that stories fluctuated from the discourse of factuality to the discourse of subjectivity
(cf. Patrona, 2005). It was argued that factuality allowed students to display their knowledge
while subjectivity was employed to include the required dimensions of creativity and
entertainment.


The analysis of multimodal discourse strategies in the data suggests their interdependence and
the ways in which they reinforce each other. Importantly, students needed to attend to the
need for factuality and the need for subjectivity to meet the educational requirements of the
task. It is possible to argue, in this context, that their attitude towards, and presentation of,
facts and of the whole story is constitutive of their identity as capable students in an academic
setting. Stories have been argued to promote learning and personal involvement (Gregori
2008a/b; Lowenthal, 2009; McLelland, 2006). This paper has unveiled the ways in which this is
achieved in the data.
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Copyright


Playing with the Team: The Development of Communities of

Practice in a Digital Storytelling Project
Peter John Westman
pwestman@gmail.com
University of Wolverhampton
United Kingdom
Abstract
Since its emergence in the early 1990's, digital storytelling has been variously
identified as a new media practice, a consumer and community-led movement,
and a textual system. However, given its relative nascent status, there remains
the need for further academic research focusing on the different forms it has
assumed. During the spring/summer of 2011, I conducted an examination of
Taking the Field (TTF), a digital storytelling project that aims to celebrate
grassroots cricket in the UK through the construction of stories by village and
county-level clubs. In contrast to most previous projects that aim to have the
participants speak by constructing their own stories, TTF stories are
researched and constructed by project staff with the assistance of the clubs.
My research centers on the experiences of two clubs in the project, Blaina CC

and Spondon CC, through interviews and elicitation techniques with club and
community members using the completed stories and the artifacts used in their
construction. Through the theoretical framework of Gell's anthropology of art, I
consider how digital stories act as objects that mediate social agency during
their creation and how the structure of this type of project contributes to the
formation of communities of practice in the 'performance' of collective identity.
.

Keywords
Community; Learning; Performance; Anthropology; Agency.


I. Digital Storytelling and the Taking the Field project
The Taking the Field (TTF) digital storytelling project is a two-year venture jointly run by the
University of Glamorgan's George Ewart Centre for Storytelling and the Marylebone Cricket Club
in St John's Wood, London. The latter, in addition to operating as a playing first-class club, is
also the framer and guardian of the official Laws of Cricket globally. The stated aims of the
project are to to reflect the diverse nature of cricket in both the UK and Sri Lanka, as well as
the character of cricket clubs and the communities they serve. It will chart the changes of both
good and bad, experienced by clubs and communities over the past century."('About Taking the
Field,'2011)
Over a six-week period in May/June 2011, I conducted ethnographic fieldwork with the TTF
project manager, Ms. Emma Peplow, at their headquarters at Lord's Cricket Ground and with
two participating clubs in the project. The first club, Blaina CC, is located in a small town in the
former iron and coal producing areas of the south Wales valleys, and was the pilot club involved
with the project. Their stories had been completed and uploaded to the project website. The
other club, Spondon CC, is based in a village on the outskirts of Derby, and was just beginning
to be interviewed by Ms. Peplow.
In the well-known Centre for Digital Storytelling (CDS) model, a digital story is a short (<5
minutes), narrated first-person story, created through the use of video and graphics
(Lowenthal, 2009). Stories made by the TTF project differ slightly in that the project manager
has editorial control, as she creates the stories by compiling and editing together interviews
and photos collected from club members.
To date, a substantial amount of the literature on digital storytelling has focused on its potential
for increasing participation and self-representation at the individual level. The definitions and
descriptions ascribed to the practice embed it in the community media movement and the
emancipatory strands of applied new media (Carpentier, 2009). However, the processes of
institutional mediation in storytelling projects, like TTF, also require further examination. As
Thumin observes, an inherent paradox is that part of the very processes of institutional
mediation shaping invited self-representations is an understanding of mediation itself, precisely,
as something to be minimized in order for participants realities to come across (Thumin,
2009).
As a composition of many different medias, digital storytelling is also a composition of different

expressive practices. Technologies are meaningful acts of social engagement with the material
world that express and contest social values and judgments. The experiential nature of
technological practice allows for the production of knowledge, skills, and values (Dobres, 2000).
The production of these artifacts and their use exists in socially constituted and materially
grounded contexts, not in the abstract (Dobres, 2000).
The stories told through the TTF project therefore are not simply copies of 'existing' stories told
in a new format, but entirely new artifacts created through their positioning in time and space.
Narratives inevitably will involve selectivity, the rearranging of elements, re-description, and
simplification in the reconstituting of events concerning the narrator's life or the history of the
wider community (James 2006, Hinchman and Hinchman 1997). By participating in TTF, clubs
are engaging in a 'performance', which necessitates embodied techniques (e.g. recollection and
communication) that act as a platform for creating and expressing identity and differentiation
(Dobres, 2000).
II. Gell's Theory of Art
My primary interest was in exploring how TTF digital stories, as effacious agents, acted to
mediate social relations during the process of their creation. In positing that the cultural
significance of objects and those who make and use them is situated in how technical acts and
gestures materially unfold in a social milieu, my research questions were structured through the


analytical framework of Gell's anthopological theory of art, in which he argues that art objects
are the equivilant of persons, or more precisely, social agents. (Gell, 1998)
As art object status is not institutional, nor aestehtical or semiotic, but rather theoretical, the
anthropological theory of art merges with the social anthropology of individuals and their bodies
(Gell 1998). Agency as a process involves indexes and effects, in which indexes stand in a
variety of relations to artists, prototypes, and recipients (Thomas, 2001). Gell goes on to clarify
these terms as follows within his art nexus (see Appendix I):
Indexes: material entities which motivate abductive inferences, cognitive

interpretations, etc.
Artists: to whom are ascribed, by abduction, causal responsibility for the existence and
characteristics of the index.
Recipients: those in relation to whom, by abduction, indexes are considered to exert
agency, or who exert agency via the index.
Prototypes: entities held, by abduction, to be represented in the index, often by virtue
of visual resemblance, but not necessarily (Gell, 1998).
III. The Process of Creating Stories
In applying Gell's art nexus to the CDS model, the relationship would be correctly expressed as
[[Artist-A]->Index-A]-->Artist-P. The storyteller, as artist, is a patient with respect to the
agency s/he exercises, as otherwise artistic agency cannot proceed (Gell, 1998). The embodied
experience of creating a self-narrative, that is, the individual's bodily engagement with the
material and social conditions associated with creating a digital story, helps allow them to
explore themselves and their place in the wider social community (Dobres, 2000).
We again invoke Gell's art nexus in order to describe the more complex relations occurring
during the creation of TTF digital stories. This expression, [[[Prototype-A]->Artist-A]->Index-
A]-->Recipient-P, refers to a nexus of agent/patient relationships so that the recipient is the
patient and the agent acting on him/her is the index. The digital story is an index of the
appearance of the club, which is mediated by Ms. Peplow's performance in creating the index
(e.g. types of questions, her perception of key themes, etc.) which mediates the prototype to
the recipient (audience). In considering this entire expression, the ultimate source of agency
would seem to rest with Ms. Peplow (prototype), as she is not seen as responsible for the
compelling aspects of the story (the club's history, accomplishments, etc.) (Gell, 1998).
IV. Communities of Practice
Due to the unique structure of this project, I would argue that what emerges are communities
of practice within the participating clubs. This concept, first proposed by Lave and Wenger,
refers to groups formed by individuals who engage in a process of collective learning in a shared
domain of human endeavor. There are three crucial characteristics for communities of practice:
domain, community, and practice (Wenger, 2009).
Domain
Communities of practice have an identity defined by a shared domain of interest. In this case, it
is in the perpetuation of memories, values, and relationships relating to the club, that is, the
club's 'identity', through the creation of digital stories as material artifacts. As a 'person', the
club is a 'spread of biographical events and memories of events, and a dispersed category of
material objects, traces, and leavings (Gell, 1998). These objects are distributed throughout
different individuals, and so although outsiders to the community may not necessarily recognize
them as expertise, the collective competence of others is valued within the group. An example
is former club members being asked to return and be interviewed (Wenger,1999).
Community
Through the pursuit of their interest in the domain, community members engage in activities
and discussions, share information, and help one another. By discussing memories, sharing
photographs, and locating data, the historical archiving being undertaken entails a great deal of


communal interdependence, although they may not interact on a regular basis (Wenger,1999).
Practice
Members of a community of practice are practitioners, and so they will develop a shared portal
of resources (e.g. tools, experiences, etc.). This requires time and sustained interaction, and
the development of shared practice may not be self-conscious. I believe that the reflexivity
needed to participate in storytelling, in evaluating and assessing varying accounts and
materials, contributes to the shaping of this practice. In this sense, certain people may be seen
as skilled at remembering particular eras or at organizing old scorebooks, so that they take on
roles as communal resources (Wenger, 1999).
Learning requires participating in the community of practice. This participation 'refers not just to
local events of engagement in certain activities with certain people, but to a more encompassing
process of being active participants in the practices of social communities and constructing
identities in relation to these communities (Wenger, 1999). Although Ms. Peplow possess the
technical abilities needed to produce a digital story, as someone entering the culture of the
club, there is a need for her to see how the qualified practitioners of the club's culture behave in
order to impart this when she later edits the stories (Brown et al. 1989). During the interview
process, she is not directly participating (for the most part) in the 'performance', but at the
same time, is learning a great deal from her position.
V. Conclusions
Digital storytelling is a useful topic through which to evaluate two concepts for understanding
the broader social consequences of media (including new media) : mediatization and mediation
(Couldry, 2008). Due to its complexity as both a narrative and social process, digital storytelling
presents the opportunity to clarify the respective advantages and disadvantages of these
concepts while attempting to form an understanding of the social life of digital stories
themselves (Couldry, 2008). As Couldry observes,
Digital storytelling represents a novel distribution of a scarce resource the ability to

represent the world around us using a shared infrastructure...People who have never
done so before are telling personal stories through digital forms, storing and exchanging
those stories in sites and networks that would not exist without the world wide web and
which, because of the remediation capacity of digital media, have multiple possibilities
for transmission, retransmission and transformation available to them (2008).
As the concept of mediation has a substantial history and has been used in multiple contexts
(Couldry 2008), Silverstone's definition is most useful for our purposes:
Mediation, in the sense in which I am using the term, describes the fundamentally, but
unevenly, dialectical process in which institutionalized media of communication (the
press, radio and television, and increasingly the world wide web), are involved in the
general circulation of symbols in social life (Silverstone, 2002, pp.762).
He clarifies this definition by observing that an understanding of mediation requires an

examination of how processes of communication change the social and cultural environments
that support them, the relationships formed by institutions and individuals to the environment,
and the relationships to each other. Mediation is therefore a non-linear process (Couldry, 2008).
Mediatization is the processes through which core elements of a cultural or social activity (e.g.
politics, religion, language) assume media form (Hjarvard, 2007). Schulz breaks the term down
into four processes: extension, substitution, amalgamation and accommodation. However, this
in turn affirms a linear structure of transformation (Couldry 2008). Instead, I see mediation as a
better tool through which to understand digital storytelling, since it permits the capture the
range of dynamics within media flows, including those of production, circulation, interpretation
or reception, and recirculation (Couldry, 2008).
Therefore, to consider the sociality of digital stories, it requires the acknowledgment that as a
media they are articulated both as a technology of transmission and representational content
(Couldry, 2008). Accordingly, this requires a discussion on how both the contexts and process


of story production for TTF relate to what are considered accepted practices and interpretative
styles of digital storytelling in general. Furthermore, this approach necessitates understanding
how the TTF project's outputs are circulated and exchanged amongst various stakeholders
(Couldry, 2008). In order to acheive this latter objective, I observed activity on the TTF
Facebook page and their recently unveiled website (see Appendix II).
By hosting the digital stories on its website and Facebook group, the TTF project hints at the
possibility of participatory storytelling beyond the completion of the original artifact. The ability
to post comments and construct conversations from these comments could lead to a future
scenario in which story drafts are uploaded by institutions and then discussed and revised
during the production process. Stories on similar themes, but by different authors, could also
be situated side-by-side as a method to engage reflexivity. In the case of institutional
storytelling, the producer is acknowledging his or her entry upon the world of the subjects, but
is soliciting them to imprint directly upon the media aspects of their own community and
culture. By permitting them greater access, the corrections, additions, and illuminations that
only the subjects' responses to the material can elicit are made possible (MacDougall, 1998).
As future clubs may choose to produce their own stories, the idea of the quality outcome may
be complicated as framed self-representations would be judged alongside the professionally
produced outcomes on the TTF website. Individually-generated content may be perceived as
more authentic or as less objective than that produced by the institution. This situation evokes
Gell's assertion that culture may dictate the practical and/or symbolic significance of artefacts,
and their iconographic interpretation, but the only factor which governs the visual appearance of
artefacts is their relationship to other artefacts in the same style (Gell, 1998).
The outcomes of TTF are important because the representations of the clubs that are produced
under the auspices of the project must therefore meet the standards of the supporting
institutions and the expectations of the anticipated audience for a certainly quality of text. At
the same time, it is also vital that the participants, as members of the audience, have a positive
experience of working with the project and the institutions (Thumim, 2009). As Emma explains,
participants will both self-edit and provide feedback directly to her to ensure a positive
depiction:
People didn't want to say anything that would offend people....These being cricket
clubs, there's lots of stories they won't tell me which might be because I'm a woman
and they won't tell me what they got up to on tour. They're aware its a public forum and
its going up on the internet. There might be certain embarrassing stories they don't
want told. There is that awareness that it's going on line and there may be that when
you get something on line it's difficult to get rid of it. Everyone I've interviewed I've
been able to put into a digital story They have corrected a few things that I've done.
I've named people wrongly for example.
Mitcham states that technology is not so much the application as [it is] a form of knowledge,
one persistently dependent on technical skill (Mitcham, 1994). It can be said that the current
and future participants in TTF will have varying levels of the technical skills needed to produce
digital stories, and thus also distinct stores of knowledge as far as their comprehension of how
these artifacts came into being. Consequentially, one must consider Gell's point that the
attitude of the spectator towards a work of art is fundamentally conditioned by his notion of the
technical processes which gave rise to it, and the fact that it was created by the agency of
another person, the artista (Gell, 1992). An area that warrants further anthropological
investigation is evaluating how the power of digital stories, as artifacts of 'historical record',
stems from the technical processes they objectively embody depending on varying degrees of
enchantment of technology (Gell, 1992).
By extending the theoretical framework of Gell's anthropology of art to the digital story, it has
been shown these artefacts act to mediate social relations during their creation while also
highlighting the processes and practices associated with different storytelling styles. Digital
storytelling, as a technological practice, is not simply the activities and physical actions guiding
the production and use of the story as artifact. It is an unfolding of a sensuous, engaged,
mediated, meaningful, and materially grounded experience that influences individuals and
collectives to comprehend and act in the world as they do (Dobres, 2000).


Appendix I: The Art Nexus
(Gell, 1998, pp. 29)


Appendix II: TTF Facebook Wall Dialogues


References.
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Individual Innovativeness Levels of Educational Administrators
Ahmet Naci Coklar
ahmetcoklar@hotmail.com
Computer Education and Instructional Technologies Department
Faculty of Education
Necmettin Ebakan University, Turkey
Abstract
In the present study carried out with 190 educational administrators, the
individual innovativeness of educational administrators was examined. As a
result of the study, it was found out that the educational administrators
considered themselves as early adaptors. It was also revealed that professional
seniority was not important in terms of individual innovativeness and those
educational administrators with professional experience of 10 years or over had
the same level of innovativeness as those with experience below 10 years did.
The results also demonstrated that educational administrators with experience
below 10 years had the same level of individual innovativeness. In addition, the
results obtained revealed a difference between the computer use frequencies of
educational administrators and their individual innovativeness. In other words,
it was found out that educational administrators using the Internet everyday
were more innovative than those using the Internet a few times a week or a
month. Depending on the results obtained in the study, various suggestions
were put forward for applied and future studies.

Keywords
Educational administrators; individual innovativeness; new technologies in

education; education and control.


I. Introduction
In todays world, a new technology penetrates into our daily lives every new day. Technological
innovations force individuals to renovate themselves. In order to be successful in business life,
institutions and individuals should keep up with these innovations (Sabherwal, Hirscheim and
Goles, 2001). Administrators directing especially the institutions are also supposed to keep up
with the innovations. Among administrative processes, innovation is another important factor
besides alignment and culture (Vishwanath and Chen, 2006).
It is especially important for educational administrators to become innovative so that

innovations can be spread throughout institutions in educational industry expected constantly to
have a dynamic and innovative structure. Administrators innovativeness in educational
institutions will help such sharers of the educational process as teachers, students and parents
to adopt and follow innovativeness. Depending on this importance, the present study
investigated educational administrators levels of innovativeness with respect to different
dimensions.
a. Individual Innovativeness Theory
Rogers gave inspiration to a number of studies regarding innovation and individual

innovativeness (Brandon, 2008;Gillard, Bailey and Nolan, 2008; Jackson, Yi and Park, 2010;
Janssen, Van De Vliert and West, 2004; Kilicer and Odabasi, 2010; Yuan and Woodman, 2010).
Rogers defines innovation as an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an
individual or other unit of adoption (Rogers, 2003). Individual innovativeness is defined as
developing, adopting or implementing an innovation (Yuan and Woodman, 2010). Rogers
(2003) states that in individual innovativeness theory, there is always new information within
the social system and that this new information is processed by adopters (Rogers, 2003).
In the process of adaptation, adopters act upon their perceptions regarding the characteristics
of the innovation. Although there are a number of contextual factors, some findings are
influential on adopters decisions regarding adaptation to innovation. In other words, individuals
are likely to have certain perceptions regarding a new technology that they have met in their
social environments. These perceptions are quite important in terms of innovativeness. It is
seen that individuals have different degrees of adaptation to innovation. In general, the
population distribution of adaptation to innovation is expected to have almost normal
distribution (Jackson, Yi and Park, 2010).
However, Rogers (2003) states that there is no normal distribution due to different determiners
such as resistance to technology and material dimension regarding the innovation distribution;
that in a society, there are not many innovative individuals; and that there is a bell-shaped
distribution (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Categories of adopters individual innovativeness (Rogers, 2003)


As can be seen in Figure 1, Rogers (2003) stated that in the society, people demonstrate
different responses to innovation depending on their personality traits. In line with these
responses, the researcher divides individual innovativeness into five different categories from
earliest to latest: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards. In
addition, the researcher determines the distribution of individuals in a society belonging to each
category.
Accordingly, among all the individuals in a society, only 2.5% of them are in the category of
innovative, 13.5% of them are in the category of early adaptors, 34% of them are in the
category of early majority, 34% of them are in the category of late majority and 16% of them
are in the category of laggards. Rogers (2003) explains the characteristics of people in this
group as follows;
Innovators- the risk takers willing to take the initiative and time to try something new.
(What is it?)
Early Adopters - tend to be respected group leaders, the individuals essential to
adoption by whole group. (What problem will it potentially solve?)
Early Majority - the careful, safe, deliberate individuals unwilling to risk time or other
resources. (What problem will it solve now?)
Late Majority - those suspect of or resistant to change. Hard to move without significant
influence. (Does it work?)
Laggards - these are those who are consistent or even adamant in resisting change.
Pressure needed to force change. (Do I have to use this thing?)
It is important that individuals in the administrative position for groups be innovative and thus
choose the directors of corporate or institutions who will apply for the position of
administrator - as innovators (Brandon, 2008). Depending on their psychological states, it is
possible to determine the individual innovativeness of individuals (Rogers, 2003; Yuan and
Woodman, 2010). In this respect, determining educational administrators innovativeness will
help them play the leading role in innovation and changes in their institutions and will allow
various studies to be conducted.
b. Literature Review
Studies on innovation and innovativeness in related literature date back to 1965 and 1970s, yet
they have generally focused on the field of business. Most of these studies were carried out to
determine the characteristics of adjustment to innovation and innovativeness in organizations
(Damanpour and Schneider, 2009; Damanpour and Schneider, 2006).
It was also seen that some studies in related literature focused on a certain innovation. One
study carried out with 142 teachers by Knings, Gruwel and Merrienboer (2007) examined
teachers perceptions of innovations in learning environments with respect to such variables as
years of teaching, gender and the number of courses taught. Besides these studies, in some
other studies, a certain technology, technologies in general, was considered as an innovation
parallel to technological developments. As an example, one study examined how features
perceived as MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service) differed with respect to categories of
innovativeness (Hsu, Lu and Hsu, 2007). Another study was conducted to investigate the
innovativeness profiles of faculty regarding the adoption of new instructional technology into the
instructional process (Hall and Elliott, 2003). Similarly, in another study, the relationship
between the categories of innovativeness and technology use levels of faculty in computer use
for instructional purposes (Sahin and Thompson, 2006).
It is seen in literature that studies related to innovativeness have a tendency towards the
investigation of technology adaption parallel to technological developments. These studies
examined individuals technology adaption and innovativeness with respect to the adopter
innovativeness category based on the model of Diffusion of Innovation developed by Rogers(Lin,
2004; Sahin and Thompson, 2006; Vishwanath and Chen, 2006). In addition, it is seen that
studies on innovativeness generally focused on educational change. According to the overall
results of these studies, individual innovativeness influences educational change (Tondeur,
Devos, Van Houtte, Van Braak and Valcke, 2009; Hannon, 2009). However, in related literature,


there is no research conducted to examine educational administrators levels of innovativeness.
c. Purpose
The purpose of this study was to determine educational administrators individual

innovativeness. For this purpose, the following research questions were directed:
1. What are the individual innovativeness states of educational administrators?

2. Is there a difference between educational administrators professional experience and
their individual innovativeness?
3. Is there a difference between educational administrators Internet use frequencies and
their individual innovativeness?
II. Method
a. Participants of the Study
The participants of the study were 190 educational administrators from seven different regions
in Turkey in the academic year of 2010-2011. Among the participants of the study, 116 of them
(61%) had professional experience of more than 10 years, while 74 of them (39%) had
professional experience of less than 10 years. In terms of Internet use frequency, more than
half of all the participants (56) used the Internet every day. Among the participants, 23% of
them used the Internet a few times a week, while 21% of them used the Internet a few times a
month.
b. Data Collection Tool
The data collection tool was made up of two parts. The first part covered such personal
information about the educational administrators as their years of seniority, gender and years of
their Internet use. The second part included items constituting the Individual Innovativeness
Scale. The Individual Innovativeness Scale developed by Hurt, Joseph and Cook (1977) on the
basis of Rogerss individual innovativeness theory and adapted to Turkish by Kilicer and Odabasi
(2010) was used. The scale was made up of a total of 20 items and four factors. The internal
consistency coefficient of the scale was found as 0.87. The necessary written and oral
permissions were taken for the application of the scale in the present study.
c. Data Collection and Analysis
The measurement tool was applied by the researchers to the educational administrators
participating in the in-service training process. The items constituting the individual
innovativeness scale of the measurement tool were five-point Likert-type items. While
transferring these items into the computer environment, such scoring as 1 I strongly
disagree, 2- I dont agree, 3- I am not sure, 4- I agree and 5- I strongly agree was
used. For the scoring of the scale as a whole, the scoring system of Individual Innovativeness
Score = 42 + (total scores of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 8th, 9th, 11th, 12th, 14th, 16th, 18th and 19th
items) (total scores of the 4th, 6th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 15th, 17th and 20th items) suggested by
Kilicer and Odabasi (2010) for the scoring of the scale items was used. For evaluation, the
evaluation criteria presented in Table 1 were used (Kilicer and Odabasi, 2010).


Evaluation Range Evaluation Criteria
80 and above Innovator
Between 69 and 80 Early Adopters
Between 57 and 68 Early Majority
Between 47 and 56 Late Majority
46 and below Laggard
Table 1. Evaluation criteria for educational administrators
In order to determine the educational administrators individual innovativeness, such descriptive

statistics as arithmetic means, percentages and frequencies were used. In addition, for the
purpose of determining whether the educational administrators individual innovativeness
differed with respect to their professional seniority (less than 10 years, 10 years and more
than10 years), independent sample t test was applied, and the analysis technique of one-way
ANOVA was run to determine whether their individual innovativeness differed with respect to
their Internet use frequencies (everyday, a few times a week and a few times month). The
significance level of the data was taken as .05 for analysis. In addition, for the statistical
analysis, the package program of SPSS 17.0 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) was
used.
III. Findings
The results obtained for the evaluation of the educational administrators individual
innovativeness with respect to different variables are presented under the following headings:
a. The Educational Administrators Individual Innovativeness
The educational administrators individual innovativeness mean score produced by the

Individual Innovativeness Scale was calculated as = 71,54 and sd=9,24. It was also seen
that the educational administrators were leaders with respect to individual innovativeness (69
<80). In addition, the educational administrators individual innovativeness frequencies are
presented in Table 2.
Levels of Innovativeness n %
1 Innovator 38 20,0
2 Early Adopters 81 42,7
3 Early Majority 62 32,6
5 Late Majority 9 4,7
8 Laggard 0 0,0
Total 190 100
Table 2. Distribution of educational administrators with respect to their levels of

innovativeness
As can be seen in Table 2, a majority of the educational administrators considered themselves

as early adopters (42,7%) and early majority (32,6%). In addition, 20% of them were found to
be innovator. It was also revealed that only 4,7% of the educational administrators found
themselves as late majority. Moreover, no educational administrator was found to be laggard.


The educational administrators responses to the items of the Individual Innovativeness Scale
were analyzed considering their innovativeness as either positively or negatively worded. The
results of the analysis for the items in each group are presented in Table 3.
Positively Worded Items Negatively Worded Items
Item
Item No Items sd
No
Items sd
My friends ask me for

In general, I am careful about
1 suggestions or for 3,56 ,731 4 2,69 ,983
adopting new ideas.
information.
2,22
I am skeptic about new
2 I like trying new ideas. 4,24 ,699 6 ,965
inventions and new thoughts.
I dont normally give

I look for new ways of doing a importance to new ideas until I
3 4,21 ,694 7 2,20 1,07
thing. see the majority of people
around me adopt these ideas.
While solving a problem, I

I think I am one of the last
mostly develop new methods
5 3,92 ,700 10 among my friends to adopt a 1,84 ,829
of solving that question if the
new thing.
answer is not clear.
I believe I am an effective I am reluctant to adopt new

8 individual in my group of 3,76 ,786 13 ways of doing a thing until I 2,29 ,940
friends. see these ways work.
I find myself creative and I believe it is best to have old

9 genuine in my thoughts and 3,92 ,765 15 way of living and to do things 1,83 ,883
attitudes. with the old methods.
Before considering the

innovations, I should see
11 I feel myself creative. 3,79 ,766 17 2,39 1,01
other people benefit from
these innovations.
I like undertaking the

I am mostly skeptic about new
12 leadership responsibilities of 3,66 ,950 20 2,27 ,964
ideas.
my group.
I find it exciting to be
14 genuine in my thoughts and 4,22 ,763
attitudes.
Uncertainties and unsolved

16 problems are motivating for 3,75 ,871
me.
18 I am open to new ideas. 4,39 ,725
Questions with unclear

19 3,85 ,931
answers excite me.
Table 3. Educational administrators individual innovativeness
As can be seen in Table 3, the educational administrators responses to the positively worded
items in the scale ranged from = 4,39 to = 3,56 for the positively items and from =
1,83 to = 2,69 for the negatively worded items. High means of positively items and low
means for negatively items are important for revealing that educational administrators have
tendencies to become innovators. In addition, the educational administrators reported


themselves to be innovators with high means especially for such items as being open to new
ideas ( = 4,39), enjoying trying new ideas ( = 4,24), looking for new ways of doing things
( = 4,21) and with low means for such negatively items as believing it to be best to do things
with the old methods ( = 1,83), being among the last to adopt new things ( = 1,84) and
being skeptic about new inventions and new thoughts.
b. Educational Administrators Innovativeness with Respect to Their Professional

Seniority
The study also examined whether the educational administrators innovativeness that had less
than 10 years of professional experience and the educational administrators innovativeness
who had more than 10 years of professional experience differed. The results obtained are
presented in Table 4.
Seniority n Sd df t P
Less than 10 years 74 71,93 9,06 188 .464 .643
10 years or more 116 71,29 9,38
Table 4.Educational administrators innovativeness with respect to their professional seniority
As can be seen in Table4, there was no difference between the educational administrators
Innovativeness and their professional seniority [t(188)=0.464, p>.05]. The individual
innovativeness scores of the educational administrators with less than 10 years of professional
seniority ( =71.93) and those of the educational administrators with 10 years or more of
professional seniority ( =71.29)were quite close to each other. It was also found out that the
educational administrators in both groups could be said to be early adopters.
c. Educational Administrators Individual Innovativeness with Respect to Their

Internet Use Frequencies
In the study, the educational administrators individual innovativeness was examined with
respect to their Internet use frequencies. The results obtained are presented in Table 5.
Standard
Internet Use Frequency n Sd
Error
A- Everyday 107 74,22 8,45 0,817
B- A few times a week 43 68,55 9,30 1,418
C- A few times a month 40 67,57 9,00 1,423
Overall Mean 190 71,54 9,24 0,670
Table 5.The educational administrators individual innovativeness scores with respect to their
internet use frequencies
When Table 5 is examined, it is seen that the educational administrators mean scores with
respect to their individual innovativeness ranged between 67,57 and 74,22. In order to
determine the difference between the groups, one-way ANOVA was applied. The results
obtained are presented in Table 6.


p Significant
Difference
Source of Sum of Mean (p<0.05
Variance Squares df Square f )
Between Groups 1782,167 2 891,083 11,592 ,001 A-B,
Within Groups 14374,996 187 76,872 A-C
Total 16157,163 189
Table 6.The results of analysis regarding the relationship between the educational administrators
individual innovativeness and their internet use frequencies
It could be stated that there was a relationship between the educational administrators
individual innovativeness and their Internet use frequencies (Table 6). The educational
administrators Internet use frequencies (everyday, a few times a week and a few times a
month) influenced their individual innovativeness [F(2-187)=11,592, p<.05]. In other words,
Internet use frequency was a predictor of individual innovativeness. The individual
innovativeness mean scores of the educational administrators who reported that they used the
Internet everyday ( = 74,22) were significantly higher than those of the educational
administrators who reported that they used the Internet for a few times a week ( = 68,55) as
well as those of the educational administrators who reported that they used the Internet for a
few times a month ( = 67,57). With respect to individual innovativeness, individuals using the
Internet everyday were in the group of early adopters(69 <80) and those using the
Internet for a few times a week and those using the Internet for a few times a month were in
the group of early majority (67 <68). Although the individuals using the Internet for a few
times a week had a higher mean than those using the Internet for a few times a month, the
difference in-between was not statistically significant.
IV. Discussions
Surry and Furquhar (1997) mention two basic perspectives regarding innovativeness such as
determinism (developer-based) and instrumentalism (adaptor-based). Such determinist
characteristics as being quick, guiding the society, becoming a leader in using the technology
and doing renovations in the process of production are considered important for administrators
in business life. Today, the current rapid changes are influential on all areas such as technology,
marketing techniques, bilateral relationships and institutional structuring. In addition, it is
important for administrators to keep up with these changes and shape the staff and the
institutions taking the current innovations into consideration. It is also important for
administrators to be innovators in the field of education (Brandon, 2008; ISTE, 2009).The
present study investigated the educational administrators innovativeness who are a part of the
educational process and who inspect and help shape education. This study was conducted with
190 educational administrators from seven different geographical regions in Turkey.
The findings of the present study revealed that educational administrators were generally in the
group of early adopters in terms of individual innovativeness. In addition, it was also found out
that the frequency distributions of the educational administrators individual innovativeness
scores were early adopters (42,7%), early majority (32,6%) and innovators (20%),
respectively. Of all the participants, only 4,7% of them considered themselves as late majority,
while none of the educational administrators found themselves as laggards. When compared to
Rogerss (2003) innovativeness categories, the educational administrators were found to be
more innovative. The rate of innovators supposed to be 2,5% according to Rogerss theory was
found as 20%; and the rate of early adopters supposed to be 13,5% was found as 42,7%; the
rate of early majority supposed to be 34% was found as 32,6%; the rate of late majority
supposed to be 34% was found as only 4,7%; and the rate of laggards was found as 0%. In
another study, Hall and Elliott (2003) determined the faculty innovativeness scores. In the
study, 3% of the faculties were found as innovators; 10% as early adopters; 35% as early


majority; 35% as late majority; and 17% of the faculty were found as laggards. Depending on
this, it could be stated that educational administrators innovativeness scores were higher than
the faculty innovativeness scores. In addition, this difference could be attributed to the fact that
the studies were carried out at different times. Considering the educational administrators
individual innovativeness scores obtained in the study, it could be said that the educational
administrators were appointed depending on the exam results they had taken in Turkey.
Successful teachers who teach for a certain period of time without being officially punished in
any way take the educational administrators exam. Those successful in the exam and
appointed to the position of educational administrator take a number of related trainings (Boz,
2006). Flanagan and Jacobsen (2003) reported that school directors are leaders and that this
leadership causes them to have difficulties in innovating themselves. In other words, it could be
stated that administrative issues as well as the directives of the Ministry of National Education
increase educational administrators levels of innovativeness (Boz, 2006).
The educational administrators individual innovativeness was examined with respect to their
years of seniority. In related literature, the variables of professional seniority and age are
reported to be influential on technology use (Reid et al., 2011; Chua, Der-Thang and Angela,
1999; Jegede, 2009). In addition, Hite, Williams, Hilton and Baugh (2006), in their study, found
out that demographic information such as age and experience were related to administrators
being perceived as innovative. Therefore, the present study investigated whether
innovativeness changed with respect to professional seniority or not. However, no difference
was found between the individual innovativeness scores of the educational administrators with
less than 10 years of professional experience and those of the educational administrators with
10 years or more of professional experience. It could be stated that regardless of professional
seniority, all the educational administrators had the same level of innovativeness.
In the present study, the influence of the technology use skill on the prediction of
innovativeness was examined. For this purpose, the educational administrators individual
innovativeness was examined with respect to their Internet use frequencies. As a result, it was
found out that the Internet use frequency was an important indicator of individual
innovativeness. The educational administrators using the Internet everyday were early adopters
and more innovative than those who were in the group of early majority using the Internet a
few times weeks or a month. New technologies such as the Internet, mobile technologies, LED
TVs are important tools used in determining innovativeness. This constitutes the basis of the
innovativeness categories mentioned by Rogers (2003). Individuals levels of innovativeness
increase as they use technologies. In studies on ICT use, the Internet use frequency is reported
to be the predictor of ICT use (Jegede, 2006; Jung, 2005; Sahin and Thompson, 2006).
Consequently, it can be said that the ICT use frequencies of educational administrator
increases, their level of individual innovativeness increases.
V. Conclusions
When the results obtained in the present study are taken into consideration as a whole, it is
generally seen that almost half of the educational administrators were in the group of early
adaptors with respect to their levels of individual innovativeness. In addition, it was revealed
that the educational administrators levels of innovativeness did not differ with respect to
professional experience. Also, it was seen that as the educational administrators levels of
innovativeness increased in parallel to their Internet use frequencies.
The results that with respect to their innovativeness levels, the participating educational
administrators were in the group of early adaptors and that their innovativeness levels did not
differ depending on their professional experience could be considered important for the
expectation that educational administrators are leaders in educational change. In addition, in
related literature, it is reported that manager characteristics influence the adoption of
innovation (Damanpour and Schneider, 2009). In other words, educational administrators
constitute the source of human force that leads to spread of innovations into educational
institutions and thus to educational change. Therefore, various in-service educational activities
to be organized regarding innovation, innovativeness and creativity to increase educational
administrators levels of innovativeness could help them develop a perspective of
innovativeness. According to another result obtained in the study, the educational
administrators more frequent use of ICTs could influence their levels of innovativeness. In


addition, it is emphasized in literature that the innovative image of an organization, individuals
perception of innovation and the duration of individuals interaction with technology all influence
their adoption or refusal of technological innovations (Brahier, 2006). Depending on this, it
could be stated that one of the important variables that lead to educational change and
innovation involves increasing and spreading the opportunities for educational administrators
use of technology.
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Number 22, December 2012

MONOGRAPHIC ABOUT DIGITAL STORYTELLING

Guests Editors Introduction

Digital Storytelling as a Pedagogical Tool within a Didactic Sequence in

Aprendiendo en el aula: contando y hacienda relatos digitales personales

What Educators Should Know about Teaching Digital Storytelling

El valor de una historia digital en el context europeo de aprendizaje integrado

El uso educativo de los relatos digitales personales como herramienta para

Multimodal Discourse Strategies of Factuality and Subjectivity in Educational

Playing with the Team: The Development of Communities of Practice in a

PEER REVIEW ARTICLES

Individual Innovativeness Levels of Educational Administrators

Number 22, December 2012

Pg.de la Vall dHebron, 171

08035 Barcelona, Spain

Associate Editor: Ana Teberosky, Universitat de Barcelona (Spain)

Elena Barber, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (Spain)

Editorial Board: Jordi Adell, Universitat Jaume I (Spain)

Fernando Albuquerque Costa, Universidade de Lisboa (Portugal)

Mario Barajas, Universitat de Barcelona (Spain)

Csar Coll, Universitat de Barcelona (Spain)

Vivien Hodgson, Lancaster University (UK)

Mnica Kaechele, Universidad Catlica de Temuco (Chile)

Pierpaolo Limone, Universit degli Studio di Foggia (Italy)

Carles Monereo, Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona (Spain)

Jordi Quintana Albalat, Universitat de Barcelona (Spain)

Jos Armando Valente, Universidade Estadual de Campinas

Editorial Assistant: Nria Molas Castells, Universitat de Barcelona (Spain)

Digital storytelling as a genre of mediatized self-

Carmen Gregori-Signes & Barry Pennock-Speck

Departament de Filologia Anglesa i Alemanya

Facultat de Filologia, Traducci i Comunicaci

IULMA. Universitat de Valncia

Digital storytelling; multimodal; education

Carmen Gregori-Signes & Barry Pennock-Speck

Departament de Filologia Anglesa i Alemanya

Facultat de Filologia, Traducci i Comunicaci

IULMA. Universitat de Valncia

Relatos digitales; multimodal; educacin

b. The democratic dimension of digital storytelling

As digital storytelling develops, so do the techniques it employs. As Lambert (2010) explains

facilitates the convergence of four student-centered learning strategies: student

it inspires dedication, encourages creativity to work, promotes problem solving,

a. Student: self-reflection and agency

In this number Herreros-Navarro analyses stories produced by secondary school students

IV. ICTs and Digital Storytelling

Castell, M. (2002). De la investigacin sobre el proceso de composicin a la enseanza de la

Center for Digital Storytelling. http://www.storycenter.org/index1.htm. First accessed, 1 June,

Gregori-Signes, C. (2011). El relato digital desde una perspectiva socio-educativa. Jornada

Gregori-Signes, C. (2013, in press). Digital storytelling and multimodal literacy in secondary

Hjarvard, S. (2008). Mediatization: An institutional approach. Nordic Review, 29 (2).

Lundby, K. (2008). Digital storytelling, mediatized stories: Self-representations in new media.

Martin-Barbero, J. 1993. Communication, culture and hegemony: From the media to

Meadows, D. (2003). Digital Storytelling: Research-Based Practice in New Media. Visual

Miller, C. (2004). Digital Storytelling: A Creator's Guide to Interactive Entertainment. Oxford:

Robin, B. R. (2005). Educational Digital Storytelling. Retrieved 2007 from

Robin, B. R. (2006). The Educational Uses of Digital Storytelling. Retrieved from

Gregori, C. And Pennock, B. (2012) Digital storytelling as a genre of mediatized self-

Digital Storytelling as a Pedagogical Tool within a Didactic

Agustn Reyes Torres

Facultad de Magisterio, Universidad de Valncia, Spain

Eva Pich Ponce

Facultad de Filologa, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain