Ik M6 - B1H+B2

PART 66 COURSE MODULE 6 (MATERIALS AND HARDWARE) B1/B2
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 2-11
2 PROPERTIES OF METALS ......................................................... 2-12
2.1 BRITTLENESS ............................................................................... 2-12
2.2 CONDUCTIVITY ............................................................................. 2-12
2.3 DUCTILITY .................................................................................... 2-12
2.4 ELASTICITY .................................................................................. 2-12
2.5 HARDNESS................................................................................... 2-12
2.6 MALLEABILITY.............................................................................. 2-12
2.7 PLASTICITY .................................................................................. 2-12
2.8 TENACITY .................................................................................... 2-13
2.9 TOUGHNESS................................................................................. 2-13
2.10 STRENGTH ................................................................................... 2-13
2.10.1 Tensile Strength ............................................................ 2-13
2.10.2 Yield Strength ............................................................... 2-13
2.10.3 Shear Strength .............................................................. 2-13
2.10.4 Bearing Strength ........................................................... 2-13
3 TESTING OF MATERIALS ........................................................... 2-14
3.1 TENSILE TESTING ......................................................................... 2-14
3.1.1 Tensile Strength ............................................................ 2-14
3.1.2 Load/Extension Diagrams ............................................. 2-17
3.1.3 Ductility ......................................................................... 2-20
3.1.4 Stress-Strain Curves ..................................................... 2-20
3.1.5 Proof Stress .................................................................. 2-20
3.1.6 Youngs Modulus........................................................... 2-22
3.1.7 Tensile Testing of Plastics ............................................. 2-22
3.2 COMPRESSION TEST..................................................................... 2-23
3.3 HARDNESS TESTING ..................................................................... 2-23
3.3.1 Brinell Hardness Test (HB) ............................................ 2-23
3.3.2 Vickers Test (Hv) ........................................................... 2-24
3.3.3 Rockwell Hardness Test (HR) ........................................ 2-24
3.4 IMPACT TESTING .......................................................................... 2-25
3.5 OTHER FORMS OF MATERIAL TESTING .......................................... 2-26
3.5.1 Creep ............................................................................ 2-26
3.5.2 Creep in Metals ............................................................. 2-26
3.5.3 Effect of Stress and Temperature on Creep .................. 2-27
3.5.4 The Effect of Grain Size on Creep ................................. 2-27
3.5.5 Creep in Plastics ........................................................... 2-28
3.5.6 Fatigue .......................................................................... 2-28
3.5.7 Fatigue Testing ............................................................. 2-28
3.6 S-N CURVES ................................................................................ 2-29
3.7 CAUSES OF FATIGUE FAILURE ...................................................... 2-31
3.8 VIBRATION ................................................................................... 2-32
3.9 FATIGUE METALLURGY ................................................................. 2-32
3.10 FATIGUE PROMOTERS .................................................................. 2-33
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3.10.1 Design .......................................................................... 2-34

3.10.2 Manufacture ................................................................. 2-34
3.10.3 Environment ................................................................. 2-34
3.11 FATIGUE PREVENTION .................................................................. 2-35
3.11.1 Cold Expansion (Broaching) ......................................... 2-35
3.12 STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING (SHM) ......................... 2-36
3.12.1 Fatigue Meters.............................................................. 2-36
3.12.2 Strain Gauges............................................................... 2-36
3.12.3 Fatigue Fuses ............................................................... 2-36
3.12.4 Intelligent Skins Development ....................................... 2-36
3.13 SMART STRUCTURES ................................................................... 2-36
4 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS.......................................... 3-38
4.1 IRON ........................................................................................... 3-38
4.1.1 Cast Iron ....................................................................... 3-38
4.2 STEEL ......................................................................................... 3-38
4.2.1 Classification of Steels.................................................. 3-39
4.3 ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEEL .................................................... 3-39
4.4 CARBON ...................................................................................... 3-39
4.4.1 Low-Carbon Steel ......................................................... 3-39
4.4.2 Medium-Carbon Steel ................................................... 3-39
4.4.3 High-Carbon Steel ........................................................ 3-40
4.5 SULPHUR .................................................................................... 3-40
4.6 SILICON ....................................................................................... 3-40
4.7 PHOSPHORUS .............................................................................. 3-40
4.8 NICKEL........................................................................................ 3-40
4.8.1 Nickel Alloys ................................................................. 3-40
4.9 CHROMIUM (CHROME) .................................................................. 3-41
4.9.1 Stainless Steels ............................................................ 3-41
4.9.2 Nickel-Chrome Steel and its Alloys ............................... 3-41
4.10 COBALT ...................................................................................... 3-43
4.11 VANADIUM ................................................................................... 3-43
4.12 MANGANESE ............................................................................... 3-43
4.13 MOLYBDENUM ............................................................................. 3-44
4.13.1 Chrome and Molybdenum............................................. 3-44
4.14 TUNGSTEN .................................................................................. 3-44
4.15 MARAGING STEELS ...................................................................... 3-44
4.16 HEAT-TREATMENT OF CARBON STEELS ........................................ 3-45
4.16.1 Hardening Process Quenching Mediums ................... 3-46
4.17 TEMPERING ................................................................................. 3-46
4.17.1 Annealing ..................................................................... 3-47
4.17.2 Normalising .................................................................. 3-48
4.18 SURFACE HARDENING OF STEELS ................................................ 3-48
4.18.1 Carburising ................................................................... 3-48
4.18.2 Nitriding ........................................................................ 3-49
4.18.3 Flame/Induction Hardening ........................................... 3-49
4.18.4 Other Surface Hardening Techniques ........................... 3-49
5 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - NON-FERROUS ................................ 4-51
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5.1 PURE METALS.............................................................................. 4-51

5.1.1 Pure Aluminium ............................................................. 4-51
5.1.2 Pure Copper.................................................................. 4-52
5.1.3 Pure Magnesium ........................................................... 4-52
5.1.4 Pure Titanium................................................................ 4-52
5.2 ALUMINIUM ALLOYS ..................................................................... 4-53
5.3 IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS IN ALUMINIUM ALLOYS .................... 4-53
5.4 CLAD MATERIALS......................................................................... 4-55
5.5 HEAT-TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS .................................... 4-55
5.5.1 Solution Treatment ........................................................ 4-56
5.5.2 Age-Hardening .............................................................. 4-56
5.5.3 Annealing ...................................................................... 4-57
5.5.4 Precipitation Treatment ................................................. 4-57
5.6 IDENTIFICATION OF HEAT-TREATED ALUMINIUM ALLOYS ................ 4-58
5.7 MARKING OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY SHEETS....................................... 4-59
5.8 CAST ALUMINIUM ALLOYS ............................................................ 4-59
5.9 MAGNESIUM ALLOYS .................................................................... 4-60
5.10 COPPER ALLOYS .......................................................................... 4-60
5.11 TITANIUM ALLOYS ........................................................................ 4-61
5.12 WORKING WITH TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS .......................... 4-62
5.12.1 Drilling Titanium ............................................................ 4-62
6 METHODS USED IN SHAPING METALS .................................... 5-65
6.1 CASTING ...................................................................................... 5-65
6.1.1 Sand-Casting ................................................................ 5-65
6.1.2 Advantages/Disadvantages of Sand-Casting ................ 5-67
6.1.3 Typical Casting Defects................................................. 5-67
6.1.4 Shell-Moulding .............................................................. 5-67
6.1.5 Centrifugal-Casting ....................................................... 5-67
6.1.6 Die-Casting ................................................................... 5-68
6.1.7 Investment-Casting (Lost Wax) ..................................... 5-68
6.2 FORGING ..................................................................................... 5-69
6.2.1 Drop-Stamping .............................................................. 5-69
6.2.2 Hot-Pressing ................................................................. 5-69
6.2.3 Upsetting ....................................................................... 5-70
6.3 ROLLING ...................................................................................... 5-70
6.4 DRAWING ..................................................................................... 5-70
6.5 DEEP DRAWING/PRESSING ........................................................... 5-71
6.6 PRESSING .................................................................................... 5-71
6.7 STRETCH-FORMING ...................................................................... 5-71
6.8 RUBBER-PAD FORMING ................................................................ 5-71
6.9 EXTRUDING .................................................................................. 5-71
6.9.1 Impact-Extrusion ........................................................... 5-72
6.10 SINTERING ................................................................................... 5-72
6.11 SPINNING ..................................................................................... 5-72
6.12 CHEMICAL MILLING ...................................................................... 5-73
6.13 ELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING .................................................. 5-73

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6.14 ELECTRO-DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)..................................... 5-73

6.15 CONVENTIONAL MACHINING ......................................................... 5-74
6.16 SUPERPLASTIC FORMING ............................................................. 5-76
7 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC . 6-77
7.1 PLASTICS .................................................................................... 6-77
7.1.1 Thermoplastic Materials ................................................ 6-78
7.1.2 Use of Thermoplastics .................................................. 6-78
7.1.3 Thermosetting Materials ............................................... 6-80
7.1.4 Resins .......................................................................... 6-80
7.1.5 Polyester Resin ............................................................ 6-81
7.1.6 Thixotropic Agents ........................................................ 6-81
7.1.7 Epoxy Resin ................................................................. 6-81
7.1.8 Elastomers ................................................................... 6-82
7.2 PRIMARY ADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS ........................................... 6-83
7.3 PRIMARY DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS ...................................... 6-83
7.4 PLASTIC MANUFACTURING PROCESSES ........................................ 6-84
7.5 COMPOSITE MATERIALS ........................................................ 6-85
7.5.1 Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic (GFRP)......................... 6-85
7.5.2 Ceramic Fibres ............................................................. 6-86
7.5.3 Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) ...................... 6-86
7.5.4 Aramid Fibre Reinforced Plastic (AFRP) ....................... 6-87
7.5.5 General Information ...................................................... 6-87
7.5.6 Laminated, Sandwich and Monolithic Structures ........... 6-89
7.6 NON-METALLIC COMPONENTS ...................................................... 6-90
7.6.1 Seals ............................................................................ 6-90
8 DETECTING DEFECTS IN COMPOSITE MATERIALS ............... 7-92
8.1 CAUSES OF DAMAGE ................................................................... 7-92
8.2 TYPES OF DAMAGE ...................................................................... 7-92
8.3 INSPECTION METHODS ................................................................. 7-94
8.3.1 Visual Inspection .......................................................... 7-94
8.3.2 Ring or Percussion Test ............................................... 7-94
8.3.3 Ultrasonic Inspection .................................................... 7-94
8.3.4 Radiography ................................................................. 7-95
8.4 ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGE............................................................ 7-95
9 BASIC COMPOSITE REPAIRS .................................................... 8-96
9.1 REPAIR OF A SIMPLE COMPOSITE PANEL ...................................... 8-97
9.2 REPAIR OF A SANDWICH PANEL .................................................... 8-98
9.3 GLASS FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITE REPAIRS ......................... 8-101
9.4 TYPES OF GLASS REINFORCEMENT .............................................. 8-101
9.4.1 Uni-Directional Cloth ..................................................... 8-102
9.4.2 Bi-directional Cloth........................................................ 8-102
9.4.3 Chopped Strand Mat..................................................... 8-102
9.5 RESIN ......................................................................................... 8-102
9.5.1 Resin Mixing ................................................................. 8-102
9.5.2 Pot Life ......................................................................... 8-104
9.6 CURING ....................................................................................... 8-104
9.7 GEL COAT ................................................................................... 8-105
9.8 STORAGE OF GFRP MATERIALS .................................................. 8-105

9.8.1 Storing Resin ................................................................ 8-105

9.8.2 Storing Hardener ........................................................... 8-105
9.8.3 Storing Fabrics .............................................................. 8-105
9.9 PREPARATION FOR REPAIR ........................................................... 8-106
9.9.1 Surface Preparation ...................................................... 8-107
9.9.2 Composite Fibre Laying-Up Techniques ....................... 8-107
10 ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS .................................................... 9-108
10.1 THE MECHANICS OF BONDING....................................................... 9-108
10.1.1 Stresses on a Bonded Joint .......................................... 9-108
10.1.2 Advantages of Adhesives .............................................. 9-110
10.1.3 Disadvantages of Adhesives ......................................... 9-110
10.1.4 Strength of Adhesives ................................................... 9-110
10.2 GROUPS AND FORMS OF ADHESIVES ............................................. 9-111
10.2.1 Flexible Adhesives ........................................................ 9-111
10.2.2 Structural Adhesives ..................................................... 9-111
10.2.3 Adhesive Forms ............................................................ 9-111
10.3 ADHESIVES IN USE ....................................................................... 9-111
10.3.1 Surface Preparation ...................................................... 9-112
10.3.2 Final Assembly .............................................................. 9-112
10.3.3 Typical (Abbreviated) Process....................................... 9-113
10.4 SEALING COMPOUNDS .................................................................. 9-113
10.4.1 One-Part Sealants......................................................... 9-113
10.4.2 Two-Part Sealants......................................................... 9-113
10.4.3 Sealant Curing .............................................................. 9-114
11 CORROSION ................................................................................ 10-116
11.1 CHEMICAL (OXIDATION) CORROSION ............................................. 10-116
11.1.1 Effect of Oxide Thickness.............................................. 10-117
11.1.2 Effect of Temperature ................................................... 10-118
11.1.3 Effect of Alloying ........................................................... 10-118
11.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL (GALVANIC) CORROSION ................................ 10-119
11.2.1 The Galvanic Cell .......................................................... 10-119
11.2.2 Rate of Galvanic Corrosion. .......................................... 10-120
11.3 TYPES OF CORROSION ................................................................. 10-122
11.3.1 Surface Corrosion ......................................................... 10-122
11.3.2 Dissimilar Metal Corrosion ............................................ 10-123
11.3.3 Intergranular Corrosion ................................................. 10-123
11.3.4 Exfoliation Corrosion ..................................................... 10-124
11.3.5 Stress Corrosion ........................................................... 10-124
11.3.6 Fretting Corrosion ......................................................... 10-125
11.3.7 Crevice Corrosion ......................................................... 10-125
11.3.8 Filiform Corrosion .......................................................... 10-125
11.3.9 Pitting Corrosion ........................................................... 10-126
11.3.10 Corrosion Fatigue.......................................................... 10-127
11.3.11 Microbiological Contamination....................................... 10-127
11.3.12 Hydrogen Embrittlement of Steels ................................. 10-127
11.4 FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION ................................................ 10-128
11.4.1 Climatic ......................................................................... 10-128
11.4.2 Size and Type of Metal ................................................. 10-128
11.4.3 Corrosive Agents........................................................... 10-128

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11.5 COMMON METALS AND CORROSION PRODUCTS ............................ 10-129

11.5.1 Iron and Steel ............................................................... 10-129
11.5.2 Aluminium Alloys .......................................................... 10-129
11.5.3 Magnesium Alloys ........................................................ 10-129
11.5.4 Titanium........................................................................ 10-130
11.5.5 Copper Alloys ............................................................... 10-130
11.5.6 Cadmium and Zinc........................................................ 10-130
11.5.7 Nickel and Chromium ................................................... 10-130
12 AIRCRAFT FASTENERS ............................................................. 10-131
12.1 TEMPORARY JOINTS .................................................................... 10-131
12.2 PERMANENT JOINTS .................................................................... 10-131
12.3 FLEXIBLE JOINTS ......................................................................... 10-131
12.4 SCREW THREADS ........................................................................ 10-132
12.4.1 The Inclined Plane and the Helix .................................. 10-132
12.5 SCREW THREAD TERMINOLOGY .................................................... 10-135
12.5.1 British Standard (BS) Threaded Fasteners ................... 10-135
12.5.2 American Standard Fasteners ...................................... 10-135
12.5.3 Screw Thread Forms .................................................... 10-137
12.5.4 Classes of Fit ................................................................ 10-138
12.5.5 Measuring Screw Threads ............................................ 10-138
12.6 BOLTS......................................................................................... 10-139
12.6.1 British Bolts .................................................................. 10-139
12.6.2 Identification of BS Unified Bolts ................................... 10-140
12.6.3 American Bolts ............................................................. 10-142
12.6.4 Identification of AN Standard Bolts ............................... 10-142
12.6.5 Special-to-Type Bolts.................................................... 10-144
12.6.6 Metric Bolts ................................................................... 10-145
12.7 NUTS .......................................................................................... 10-146
12.7.1 Stiffnuts Nuts ................................................................ 10-147
12.7.2 Anchor nuts .................................................................. 10-148
12.8 SCREWS ...................................................................................... 10-149
12.8.1 Machine Screws ........................................................... 10-149
12.8.2 Structural Screws ......................................................... 10-150
12.8.3 Self-Tapping Screws..................................................... 10-150
12.9 STUDS......................................................................................... 10-151
12.9.1 Standard Studs ............................................................. 10-151
12.9.2 Waisted Studs .............................................................. 10-152
12.9.3 Stepped Studs .............................................................. 10-152
12.9.4 Shouldered Studs ......................................................... 10-152
12.10 THREAD INSERTS ......................................................................... 10-152
12.10.1 Wire Thread Inserts ...................................................... 10-153
12.10.2 Thin Wall Inserts ........................................................... 10-153
12.11 DOWELS AND PINS ....................................................................... 10-154
12.11.1 Dowels.......................................................................... 10-154
12.11.2 Roll Pins ....................................................................... 10-154
12.11.3 Clevis Pins .................................................................... 10-155
12.11.4 Taper Pins .................................................................... 10-155
12.12 LOCKING DEVICES ....................................................................... 10-156
12.12.1 Spring Washers ............................................................ 10-156
12.12.2 Shake-Proof Washers................................................... 10-157

12.12.3 Tab Washers................................................................. 10-158

12.12.4 Lock Plates ................................................................... 10-159
12.12.5 Split (Cotter) Pins .......................................................... 10-159
12.13 LOCKING WIRE............................................................................. 10-160
12.13.1 Use of Locking Wire with Turnbuckles........................... 10-162
12.13.2 Use of Locking Wire with Locking Tabs. ........................ 10-162
12.13.3 Thin Copper Wire .......................................................... 10-163
12.14 QUICK-RELEASE FASTENERS (QRF) ............................................. 10-163
12.14.1 Dzus Fasteners ............................................................. 10-163
12.14.2 Oddie Fasteners ........................................................... 10-164
12.14.3 Camloc Fasteners ......................................................... 10-165
12.14.4 Airloc Fasteners ............................................................ 10-165
12.14.5 Locking Indications........................................................ 10-166
12.14.6 Pip-Pins ........................................................................ 10-166
12.14.7 Circlips and Locking Rings ............................................ 10-167
12.14.8 Keys and Key-ways ....................................................... 10-168
12.14.9 Peening ......................................................................... 10-169
12.15 GLUE/ADHESIVE BONDED JOINTS ................................................. 10-170
12.15.1 Locking by Adhesives ................................................... 10-170
12.15.2 Loctite ........................................................................... 10-171
12.15.3 Synthetic Resin Adhesives ............................................ 10-171
12.15.4 Testing of Adhesive Joining Techniques ....................... 10-171
13 AIRCRAFT RIVETS ...................................................................... 11-172
13.1 SOLID RIVETS .............................................................................. 11-172
13.2 RIVET IDENTIFICATION .................................................................. 11-173
13.2.1 Solid Rivets (British) ...................................................... 11-173
13.2.2 Rivet Identification (British) ............................................ 11-173
13.2.3 Rivet Material Identification (British) .............................. 11-174
13.2.4 Solid Rivets (American) ................................................. 11-175
13.2.5 Rivet Identification (American)....................................... 11-175
13.2.6 Rivet Material Identification (American) ......................... 11-176
13.3 HEAT-TREATMENT/REFRIGERATION OF SOLID RIVETS .................... 11-177
13.3.1 Heat-Treatment. ............................................................ 11-177
13.3.2 Refrigeration ................................................................. 11-178
13.3.3 Rivet Head Types.......................................................... 11-178
13.4 BLIND AND HOLLOW RIVETS ......................................................... 11-179
13.4.1 Friction Lock Rivets ....................................................... 11-179
13.4.2 Mechanical Lock Rivets................................................. 11-180
13.4.3 Tucker Pop Rivets ......................................................... 11-180
13.4.4 Avdel Rivets .................................................................. 11-182
13.4.5 Chobert Rivets .............................................................. 11-182
13.4.6 Cherry Rivets ................................................................ 11-183
13.4.7 Huck Rivets and Huck Bolts .......................................... 11-184
13.4.8 Grip Range.................................................................... 11-185
13.5 MISCELLANEOUS FASTENERS ....................................................... 11-186
13.5.1 Hi-Lok Fasteners ........................................................... 11-186
13.5.2 Hi-Tigue Fasteners........................................................ 11-187
13.5.3 Hi-Shear Fasteners ....................................................... 11-187
13.6 SPECIAL PURPOSE FASTENERS .................................................... 11-188
13.6.1 Jo-Bolts ......................................................................... 11-188

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13.6.2 Tubular Rivets. ............................................................. 11-189

13.6.3 Rivnuts ......................................................................... 11-190
14 SPRINGS ...................................................................................... 11-191
14.1 SPRING FORCES .......................................................................... 11-191
14.2 TYPES OF SPRINGS ...................................................................... 11-191
14.2.1 Flat Springs .................................................................. 11-191
14.2.2 Leaf Springs ................................................................. 11-192
14.2.3 Spiral Springs ............................................................... 11-192
14.2.4 Helical Compression and Tension Springs ................... 11-192
14.2.5 Helical Torsion Springs ................................................. 11-192
14.2.6 Belleville (Coned Disc) Springs ..................................... 11-192
14.2.7 Torsion-Bar Springs ...................................................... 11-192
14.3 SPRING MATERIALS ..................................................................... 11-192
14.3.1 Steels used for Cold-Wound Springs ............................ 11-193
14.3.2 Steels used for Hot-Wound Springs .............................. 11-193
14.3.3 Steels used for Cold-Rolled, Flat Springs ..................... 11-194
14.3.4 Non-Ferrous Metals used for Springs ........................... 11-194
14.3.5 Composite Materials used for Springs .......................... 11-195
14.4 SPRING CHARACTERISTICS .......................................................... 11-195
14.5 APPLICATIONS OF SPRINGS IN AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING ................. 11-196
15 PIPES AND UNIONS .................................................................... 12-197
15.1 RIGID PIPES................................................................................. 12-197
15.2 SEMI-RIGID PIPES ........................................................................ 12-197
15.2.1 Flared End-Fittings ....................................................... 12-198
15.2.2 Flare-Less Couplings .................................................... 12-199
15.3 FLEXIBLE PIPES (HOSES) ............................................................. 12-200
15.3.1 Low-Pressure Hoses .................................................... 12-200
15.3.2 Medium-Pressure Hoses .............................................. 12-201
15.3.3 High-Pressure Hoses.................................................... 12-201
15.3.4 Hose Identification ........................................................ 12-202
15.4 UNIONS AND CONNECTORS .......................................................... 12-203
15.4.1 Aircraft General Standards (AGS)................................. 12-203
15.4.2 Air Force and Navy (AN) ............................................... 12-203
15.4.3 Military Standard (MS) .................................................. 12-203
15.5 QUICK-RELEASE COUPLINGS ....................................................... 12-204
16 BEARINGS ................................................................................... 13-205
16.1 RADIAL AND AXIAL LOADS ........................................................... 13-205
16.2 BALL BEARINGS .......................................................................... 13-207
16.2.1 Radial Bearings ............................................................ 13-207
16.2.2 Angular-Contact Bearings ............................................. 13-207
16.2.3 Thrust Bearings ............................................................ 13-208
16.2.4 Instrument Precision Bearings ...................................... 13-208
16.3 ROLLER BEARINGS ...................................................................... 13-208
16.3.1 Cylindrical Roller Bearings ............................................ 13-208
16.3.2 Spherical Roller Bearings ............................................. 13-209
16.3.3 Tapered Roller Bearings ............................................... 13-209
16.4 BEARING INTERNAL CLEARANCE .................................................. 13-210
16.4.1 Group 2 One Dot Bearings .......................................... 13-210
16.4.2 Normal Group Two Dot Bearings ................................ 13-210

16.4.3 Group 3 Three Dot Bearings ........................................ 13-210

16.4.4 Group 4 Four Dot Bearings.......................................... 13-210
16.5 BEARING MAINTENANCE ............................................................... 13-211
16.5.1 Lubrication .................................................................... 13-211
16.5.2 Inspection ..................................................................... 13-211
17 TRANSMISSIONS ........................................................................ 14-212
17.1 BELTS AND PULLEYS .................................................................... 14-212
17.2 GEARS ........................................................................................ 14-215
17.2.1 Gear Trains and Gear Ratios ........................................ 14-215
17.2.2 Spur Gears.................................................................... 14-215
17.2.3 Helical Gears ................................................................ 14-216
17.2.4 Bevel Gears .................................................................. 14-216
17.2.5 Worm and Wheel Gears ................................................ 14-217
17.2.6 Planetary (Epicyclic) Reduction Gear Train ................... 14-217
17.2.7 Spur and Pinion Reduction Gear Train .......................... 14-218
17.2.8 Accessory Unit Drives ................................................... 14-219
17.2.9 Meshing Patterns .......................................................... 14-219
17.3 CHAINS AND SPROCKETS ............................................................. 14-221
17.3.1 Typical Chain Arrangements ......................................... 14-223
17.4 MAINTENANCE INSPECTIONS ......................................................... 14-224
18 CONTROL CABLES ..................................................................... 15-225
18.1 TYPES OF CABLES ....................................................................... 15-225
18.2 CABLE SYSTEM COMPONENTS ...................................................... 15-226
18.2.1 End-Fittings ................................................................... 15-226
18.2.2 Turnbuckles .................................................................. 15-226
18.2.3 Cable Tensioning Devices............................................. 15-227
18.2.4 Cable Fairleads ............................................................. 15-228
18.2.5 Pulleys .......................................................................... 15-228
18.3 FLEXIBLE CONTROL SYSTEMS ...................................................... 15-229
18.3.1 Bowden Cables ............................................................. 15-229
18.3.2 Teleflex Control Systems .............................................. 15-231
19 ELECTRICAL CABLES & CONNECTORS .................................. 16-233
19.1 CABLE SPECIFICATION ................................................................. 16-233
19.2 CABLE IDENTIFICATION ................................................................. 16-233
19.3 DATA BUS CABLE ........................................................................ 16-237
19.4 CONDUCTOR MATERIAL & INSULATION .......................................... 16-238
19.5 WIRE SIZE ................................................................................... 16-239
19.6 WIRE RESISTANCE ....................................................................... 16-240
19.7 CURRENT CARRYING CAPABILITY ................................................. 16-240
19.8 VOLTAGE DROP ........................................................................... 16-242
19.9 WIRE IDENTIFICATION ................................................................... 16-243
19.10 WIRE INSTALLATION AND ROUTING ............................................... 16-244
19.11 OPEN WIRING .............................................................................. 16-244
19.12 WIRE & CABLE CLAMPING ............................................................ 16-245
19.13 CONDUIT ...................................................................................... 16-246
19.14 CONNECTORS .............................................................................. 16-248

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19.15 CRIMPING .................................................................................... 16-251

19.16 CRIMPING TOOLS ......................................................................... 16-252
19.17 WIRE SPLICING ............................................................................ 16-253
19.18 BEND RADIUS .............................................................................. 16-254

INTRODUCTION
The variety of materials and hardware used in aircraft engineering is vast, and
this module will only deal with a broad group of materials, their main
characteristics, identification and uses.
These materials can be classed into the three main categories of Ferrous Metals,
Non-Ferrous Metals and Non-Metallic materials. Additionally, combinations
(Composites) of many of these materials will be found in the aerospace industry.
The usefulness of any materials may be enhanced as a result of the addition of

other materials that alter the basic characteristics to suit the specific requirements
of the aircraft designer.
A metals usefulness is governed principally by the physical properties it

possesses. Those properties depend upon the composition of the metal, which
can be changed considerably by alloying it with other metals and by heat-
treatment. The strength and hardness of steel, for example, can be intensified by
increasing its carbon content, adding alloying metals such as Nickel and
Tungsten, or by heating the steel until red-hot and then cooling it rapidly.
Apart from the basic requirement of improved strength from metals, other less
obvious characteristics can also be added or improved upon, when such features
as permanent magnetism, corrosion resistance and high-strength whilst operating
at elevated temperatures, are desired.
Composites make up a large part of the construction of modern aircraft, and are
utilised in major structural and load-carrying. Composite materials, in addition to
maintaining or increasing component strength, contribute to the important factor
of weight saving. There are also many modern light aircraft that are almost totally
manufactured from composites and contain little metal at all.

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PROPERTIES OF METALS
The various properties of metals can be assessed, by accurate laboratory tests

on sample pieces. The terminology, associated with these properties, is outlined
in the following paragraphs.
1.1 BRITTLENESS
The tendency of the metal to shatter, without significant deformation. It will shatter
under a sudden, low stress but will resist a slowly-applied, higher load.
1.2 CONDUCTIVITY
The ability of a metal to conduct heat, (thermal conductivity) and electricity. Silver
and copper are excellent thermal and electrical conductors.
1.3 DUCTILITY
The property of being able to be permanently extended by a tensile force. It is

measured during a tensile, or stretching, test, when the amount of stretch
(elongation), for a given applied load, provides an indication of a metals ductility.
1.4 ELASTICITY
The ability of a metal to return to its original shape and size after the removal of
any distorting force. The Elastic Limit is the greatest force that can be applied
without permanent distortion.
1.5 HARDNESS
The ability of a metal to resist wear and penetration. It is measured by pressing a

hardened steel ball or diamond point into the metals surface. The diameter or
depth of the resulting indentation provides an indication of the metals hardness.
1.6 MALLEABILITY
The ease with which the metal can be forged, rolled and extruded without
fracture. Stresses, induced into the metal, by the forming processes, have to be
subsequently relieved by heat-treatment. Hot metal is more malleable than cool
metal.
1.7 PLASTICITY
The ability to retain a deformation after the load producing it has been removed.
Plasticity is, in fact, the opposite of elasticity.

1.8 TENACITY
The property of a metal to resist deformation when subjected to a tensile load. It

is proportional to the maximum stress required to cause the metal to fracture.
1.9 TOUGHNESS
The ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads. A metals toughness is

tested by impact with a swinging pendulum of known mass.
1.10 STRENGTH
There are several different measurements of the strength of a metal, as may be

seen from the following sub-paragraphs:
1.10.1 Tensile Strength
The ability to resist tension forces applied to the metal.
1.10.2 Yield Strength
The ability to resist deformation. After the metal yields, it is said to have passed
its yield point.
1.10.3 Shear Strength
The ability to resist side-cutting loads such as those, imposed on the shank of a
rivet, when the materials it is joining attempt to move apart in a direction normal
to the longitudinal axis of the rivet.
1.10.4 Bearing Strength
The ability of a metal to withstand a crushing force.

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2 TESTING OF MATERIALS
The mechanical properties of a material must be known before that material can
be incorporated into any design. Mechanical property data is compiled from
extensive material testing. Various tests are used to determine the actual values
of material properties under different loading applications and test conditions.
2.1 TENSILE TESTING
Tensile testing is the most widely-used mechanical test. It involves applying a

steadily increasing load to a test specimen, causing it to stretch until it eventually
fractures. Accurate measurements are taken of the load and extension, and the
results are used to determine the strength of the material. To ensure uniformity of
test results, the test specimens used must conform to standard dimensions and
finish as laid down by the appropriate Standards Authority (BSI, DIN, ISO).
The cross-section of the specimen may be round or rectangular, but the

relationship between the cross-sectional area and a specified gauge length, of
each specimen, is constant. The gauge length is that portion of the parallel part of
the specimen, which is to be used for measuring the subsequent extension during
and after the test.
2.1.1 Tensile Strength
Tensile strength in a material is obtained by measuring the maximum load in

Newtons (N), which the test piece is able to sustain, and dividing by the original
cross-sectional area (CSA), in metres (m), of the specimen.
The value derived from this simple calculation is called stress.
Stress = Load (N)

Original CSA (m2)
The SI unit of stress is the N/m2 and as 1 N/m2 is a very small force, units of
stress are often quoted in kN/m2 or MN/m2. Another unit of stress is the Pascal
(Pa) which is equal to1 N/m2, and again kilo Pascals (kPa) or Mega Pascals
(MPa) are often used.

Example 1
A steel rod, with a diameter of 5 mm, is loaded in tension with a force of 400 N.
Calculate the tensile stress.
Stress = Load 400 = 400 = 20.37 N/mm2

Area r2 r 2.5 2
Exercise 1
Calculate the tensile stress in a steel rod, with a cross-section of 10 mm x 4 mm,

when it is subjected to a load of 100 N.
Exercise 2
Calculate the cross-sectional area of a tie rod which, when subjected to a load of
2100N, has a stress of 60 N/mm2.
When calculating stress in large structural members, it usually more convenient

to measure the load in MN and the area in square metres (m 2). When using such
units, the numerical value is identical to that if the calculation had been made
using Newtons and mm2. A Stress of 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2
Example 2
A structural member, with a cross-sectional area of 05m2, is subjected to a load

of 10 MN. Calculate the stress in the member in MN/m2 and N/mm2
10 = 20 MN/m2
0.5
As 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2 the answer could also be written as 20 N/mm2 or 20 MPa

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As the load in the tensile test is increased from zero to a maximum value, the
material extends in length. The amount of extension, produced by a given load,
allows the amount of induced strain to be calculated. Strain is calculated by
measuring the extension and dividing by the original length of the material.
Strain is always expressed as a percentage as both measurements use the same

units of length.
Strain = Extension
Original Length
Example 3
An aluminium test piece is marked with a 20 mm gauge length. It is subjected to

tensile load until its length becomes 2115 mm. Calculate the induced strain.
Extension = 21.15 20 = 1.15 mm
Strain = Extension = 1.15 = 0.0575 or 5.75%

Original Length 20
Exercise 3
A tie 1.5m long under a tensile load of 500 N extends by 12 mm. Calculate the
strain.

2.1.2 Load/Extension Diagrams
If a gradually increasing tensile load is applied to a test specimen while the load
and extension are continuously measured, the results can be used to produce a
Load/Extension graph. Depending on the material type and condition, different
forms of graph will be obtained. This example (refer to Fig. 1) shows a
Load/Extension diagram which typifies many metallic materials that have a tensile
load applied.
B
A
Load C
O
Extension
Load/Extension Graph
Fig. 1
The graph comprises of two major regions, the Elastic Region between the Origin
(O) and point A, and the Plastic Region between points A and B.
In the elastic region the material conforms to Hooke's Law. The extension is
directly proportional to the applied load, and when the load is removed the
material will return to its original size and shape. This point is also known as the
Limit of Proportionality as after this point the extension is no longer proportional to
the force.
Once the elastic limit has been exceeded the material enters the plastic region
and permanent deformation occurs. The cross-sectional area of the test
specimen will begin reduce or neck as the load is increased. The material
continues to extend as the load increases until point B is reached. At this point
the load begins to decrease as the necking of the specimen increases, until it
fractures at point C.

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Aircraft Maintenance Engineers use the properties of the plastic region to assist
with forming materials to the required shape.
A graph produced from a tensile test on mild steel (refer to Fig. 2), shows that
considerable plastic extension occurs without any increase in load shortly after
the elastic limit is reached. The increase in extension without a corresponding
increase in load, at point B, is known as the Yield Point (or Yield Stress). This is a
characteristic of mild steel and other relatively ductile materials.
UTS
Load
Yield
Point
O
Extension
Load/Extension Graph for Mild Steel

Fig. 2
If the load is further increased after passing the yield point, it may be seen that
mild steel is capable of withstanding this increase until the Ultimate Tensile
Stress (UTS) is reached.
Severe necking then occurs and the material will fracture at a reduced load. The
ability of mild steel to accept more load after yielding is due to the effects of work-
hardening of the material.
Work-hardening is carried out on many materials to increase their Tensile

Strength, but the materials other properties will also change. An increase in
tensile strength means an increase in hardness and brittleness.

Various forms of load/extension curves may be constructed for other materials

(refer to Fig 3), and their slopes will depend on whether the materials are brittle,
elastic or plastic.
The shape of the fractured test specimen (refer to Fig 4) will also give an
indication of the materials properties.
Load Load Load
O O O
Extension Extension Extension
Load/Extension Graph Load/Extension Graph Load/Extension Graph

for Brittle Material for Elastic Material for Plastic Material
Fig. 3a Fig. 3b Fig. 3c
Zero Small Large

Elongation Elongation Elongation
Brittle Material Test Specimen Elastic Material Test Specimen Plastic Material Test Specimen
Fig. 4a Fig. 4b Fig. 4c

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2.1.3 Ductility
After fracture of a test specimen, following tensile testing, an indication of a

materials ductility can be shown, by establishing the amount of plastic
deformation that has occurred. The two indicators of ductility are:
Elongation
Reduction in area (at the neck)
Elongation is the more reliable, because it is easier to measure the extension of

the gauge length than the reduction in area. The standard measure of ductility is
to establish the percentage elongation after fracture.
Percentage Elongation = Final Extension x 100

Original Gauge Length
Example 4
In a tensile test, on a specimen with 150 mm gauge length, the length over the
gauge marks at fracture were 180 mm. What was the percentage elongation?
Percentage Elongation = 180 150 x 100 = 20%

150
2.1.4 Stress-Strain Curves
A better way to show the results of tensile testing is to use stress and strain as
opposed to force and extension values. This allows direct comparison of results
using specimens of different sizes. The stress-strain graph can be plotted from
the results of the load-extension graph.
2.1.5 Proof Stress
Many materials do not exhibit a well-defined yield point, so a substitute value

must be employed, this is the Proof Stress. This is the tensile stress, which is just
sufficient to produce a non-proportional elongation that is equal to a specified
percentage of the original gauge length.
A value of 0.1% or 0.2% Proof Stress is normally used and is referred to as either
the 0.1% Proof Stress or the 0.2% Proof Stress respectively. The Proof Stress
may be acquired from the relevant load-extension or stress-strain graph (refer to
Fig 5) as follows:

If the 0.2% Proof Stress is required, then 0.2% of the gauge length is marked on
the extension axis, and a line, parallel to the straight-line portion of the graph, is
drawn until it intersects the non-linear portion of the curve. The corresponding
load or stress is then read from the graph. Proof Stress can be calculated by
dividing the load or stress by the original cross-sectional area or the strain,
depending on which graph is being used.
0.1% Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one thousandth of
the specimen's original length, whilst 0.2% Proof Stress will produce permanent
set equivalent to one five hundredth of the original length.
Stress
0.2% Proof
Stress
0.1% Proof
Stress
0
Strain
Proof Stress
Fig. 5

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2.1.6 Youngs Modulus
If the strain is compared to the stress causing the materials extension, it will
indicate a measure of its stiffness or rigidity, within the elastic range of that
material. This is known as the Modulus of Elasticity, or Youngs Modulus, and is
signified by use of the symbol E. This is shown on a graph as the portion of a
stress-strain graph from the origin up to the limit of proportionality, (refer to Fig 6).
Stress
Youngs
Modulus
0 Strain
Youngs Modulus
Fig. 6
The SI unit of Youngs Modulus is the Pascal (Pa), but it is often quoted in N/m 2,
or the equivalent Imperial values of lbf/in2. As both the Pa and N/m2 are very
small force units, kPa, MPa or GPa and kN/m 2, MN/m2, and GN/m2 are often
used. Typical values for Youngs Modulus are:
Steel 210 GN/m2

Aluminium 70 GN/m2
Glass 14 GN/m2
Polypropylene 1.5 GN/m2
2.1.7 Tensile Testing of Plastics
This is conducted in the same way as for metals, but the test piece is usually
made from sheet material. Although the basic load/extension curve for some
plastics is somewhat similar to metal curves, changes in test temperature or the
rate of loading can have a major effect on the results.
Even though the material under test may be in the elastic range, the specimen
may take some time to return to its original size after the load is removed.

2.2 COMPRESSION TEST
Machines for compression testing are often the same as those used for tensile
testing, but the test specimen is in the form of a short cylinder.
The load-deflection or stress-strain graphs in the elastic phase for ductile

materials are similar to that in the tensile test, with the value of E being the same
in compression as it is in tension. Compression testing is seldom used to test
metallic or plastic materials except for cast iron.
Compression testing is generally restricted to building materials, such as concrete

and research into the properties of new materials.
2.3 HARDNESS TESTING
The hardness of materials is found by measuring their resistance to indentation.

Various methods are used, but the most common are those of the Brinell, Vickers
and Rockwell Hardness Tests.
2.3.1 Brinell Hardness Test (HB)
In the Brinell Hardness Test (refer to Fig. 7), a 10mm diameter hardened steel
ball is forced into the surface of a prepared specimen, using a known force, for a
specified time. The diameter of the resulting indentation is then measured
accurately, using the cross hairs of a graduated microscope. The Brinell
Hardness Number is determined by comparing the measured diameter with a
chart.
Steel Ball
Forced into Test
Specimen Indentation
measured by
Cross Hairs on
Graduated
Microscope
Material under Test
Brinell Hardness Test

Fig. 7

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2.3.2 Vickers Test (Hv)
The Vickers Hardness Test is similar to the Brinell test but uses a pyramid
shaped diamond indenter (refer to Fig. 8), with the opposite faces of the pyramid
set to an angle of 136.
The diagonals, of the indentation, are accurately measured, by a special

microscope, and the hardness value is again determined by reference to a chart.
Indentation
Diamond Pyramid
measured by
Forced into Test
Cross Hairs on
Specimen
Graduated
Microscope
Material under Test
Vickers Hardness Test

Fig. 8
2.3.3 Rockwell Hardness Test (HR)
The Rockwell Hardness Test also utilises indentation of the material as its basis,
but two types of indenter are used. A conical diamond indenter is employed for
hard materials and a steel ball is used for soft materials.
The hardness number, when using the steel ball, is referred to as Rockwell B
(HRB) (e.g. RB 80) and the diamond pyramid hardness number is known as
Rockwell C (e.g. RC 65).
Both Rockwell values are based upon the depth of the indentation, as opposed to
the Brinell and Vickers hardness values being based upon the area of
indentation.
No precise relationship exists between the various hardness numbers, but

approximate relationships are usually published in graph form. Some comparative
values between Brinell Vickers and Rockwell are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1
COMPARATIVE HARDNESS VALUES
Material HB HV HR
Aluminium alloy 100 100 B 57
Mild steel 130 130 B 73
Cutting tools 650 697 C 60
2.4 IMPACT TESTING
The impact test is designed to determine the toughness of a material and the two
most commonly used methods are those using the Charpy and Izod impact-
testing machines.
The Izod test (refer to Fig. 9) uses a notched specimen supported on one side
only. The pendulum strikes the specimen that is not held by the machine. The
Charpy test also uses a notched sample, but this is supported on both sides with
the pendulum hammer striking the middle of the specimen.
Both tests use specimens of standard dimensions, which record the energy
absorbed by the test piece on impact to give a measure of toughness. A brittle
material will break easily and will absorb little energy, so the swing of the
pendulum (which is recorded against a calibrated scale) will not be reduced
significantly. A tough material will absorb considerably more energy, and greatly
reduce the recorded pendulum swing.
Pendulum
Hammer
Notched
Test Piece
Izod Impact Test

Fig. 9

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Most materials show a drop in toughness with a reduction in temperature, though

some materials show a rapid drop as the temperature is progressively reduced.
This temperature range is called the Transition Zone, and components, which are
designed for use at low temperature, should be operated above the materials
Transition Temperature.
2.5 OTHER FORMS OF MATERIAL TESTING
Although some of the more important forms of material testing have already been
discussed, there are several other forms of material testing to be considered, not
least important of which are those associated with Creep and Fatigue Testing.
2.5.1 Creep
Creep can be defined as the continuing deformation of a material that is

subjected to a prolonged stress. This deformation is plastic and occurs even
though the acting stress may be well below the yield stress of the material.
At temperatures below 0.4T (where T is the melting point of the material in

Kelvin), the creep rate is very low, but at higher temperatures, it becomes more
rapid.
For this reason, creep is commonly regarded as being a high-temperature

phenomenon, associated with super-heated steam plant and gas turbine
technology. However, some of the soft, low-melting point materials will creep
significantly at, or a little above, ambient temperatures and some aircraft
materials may creep when subjected to over-heat conditions.
2.5.2 Creep in Metals
When a metallic material is suitably stressed, it undergoes immediate elastic

deformation. This is then followed by plastic strain, which occurs in three stages
Primary, Secondary and Tertiary (refer to Fig. 10).
Primary Creep begins at a relatively rapid rate, but then decreases with time as
strain-hardening sets in. The Secondary Creep phase has a uniform and low rate
of strain. Finally with the Tertiary Creep phase the rate of strain increases rapidly,
leading to failure. This final stage coincides with gross necking of the component,
just prior to failure, when the rate of creep is at a maximum.

Primary Secondary Tertiary
Strain
0
Time
Stages of Creep
Fig. 10
2.5.3 Effect of Stress and Temperature on Creep
Both stress and temperature have an effect on creep. At low temperature or very
low stress, primary creep may occur, but this falls to a negligible value in the
secondary stage, due to strain-hardening of the material. At higher stress and/or
temperature, however, the rate of secondary creep will increase and lead to
tertiary creep and inevitable failure.
It is clear, from the foregoing, that short-time tensile tests do not give reliable
information for the design of structures, which must carry static loads over long
periods of time, at elevated temperatures. Strength data, determined from long-
time creep tests (up to 10,000 hours), are therefore essential.
Although actual design data are based on the long-time tests, short-time creep
tests are sometimes used as acceptance tests.
2.5.4 The Effect of Grain Size on Creep
Since the creep mechanism is partly due to microscopic flow along the grain
boundaries, creep resistance is improved by increased grain size, due to the
reduced grain boundary region per unit volume. It is mainly for this reason that
some modern, high-performance turbine blades are being made from directionally
solidified (and alternatively improved single-crystal) castings.

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2.5.5 Creep in Plastics
Plastics are also affected by creep and show similar, though not identical,
behaviour to that described for metals. Since most plastics possess lower thermal
properties than metals, the choice of plastic for important applications, particularly
at elevated temperature, must take creep considerations into account.
2.5.6 Fatigue
An in-depth survey, in recent years, revealed that over 80 percent of failures of

engineering components were caused by fatigue. Consequences of modern
engineering have led to increases in operating stresses, temperatures and
speeds. This is particularly so in aerospace and, in many instances, has made
the fatigue characteristics of materials more significant than their ordinary, static
strength properties.
Engineers became aware that alternating stresses, of quite small amplitude,

could cause failure in components, which were capable of safely carrying much
greater, steady loads. This phenomenon of small, alternating loads causing
failure was likened to a progressive weakening of the material, over a period of
time and hence the attribution of the term fatigue. Very few constructional
members are immune from it, and especially those operating in a dynamic
environment.
Experience in the aircraft industry has shown that the stress cycles, to which
aircraft are subjected, may be very complex, with occasional high peaks, due to
gust loading of aircraft wings. For satisfactory correlation with in-service
behaviour, full-size or large-scale mock-ups must be tested in conditions as close
as possible to those existing in service.
2.5.7 Fatigue Testing
An experiment, conducted in 1861, found that a wrought iron girder, which could
safely sustain a mass of 12 tons, broke when a mass of only 3 tons was raised
and lowered on the girder after three million cycles. It was also found that there
was some mass, below 3 tons, which could be raised and lowered on to the
beam, an infinite of times, without causing any problem.
From this work a German engineer, August Wohler developed a useful fatigue-
testing machine, which continues to be used in industry. The Wohler Tester
rotates the test piece in a chuck, with a force being applied at the free end, at
right angles to the axis of rotation (refer to Fig. 11). The rotation produces a
reversal of stress for every revolution of the test piece.

Test Piece
Test Piece made to
vibrate or oscillate
against load.
Load
Wohler Tester
Fig 11
Other types of fatigue testing are also used such as the cyclic-torsional and
tension-compression tests. Exhaustive fatigue testing, with various materials, has
resulted in a better understanding of the fatigue phenomenon and its implications
from an engineering viewpoint.
2.6 S-N CURVES
One of the most useful end-products, from fatigue testing, is an S-N curve, which
shows graphically, the relationship between the amount of stress (S), applied to a
material, and the number of stress cycles (N), which can be tolerated before
failure of the material.
Using a typical S-N curve, for a steel material (refer to Fig. 12), it can be seen
that, if the stress is reduced, the steel will endure a greater number of stress
cycles. The graph also shows that a point is eventually reached where the curve
becomes virtually horizontal, indicating that the material will endure an infinite
number of cycles at a particular stress level.
This limiting stress is called the Fatigue Limit and for steels, the fatigue limit is
generally in the region of 40% to 60% of the value of the static ultimate tensile
strength (UTS).

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Stress
(S) Failure occurs for Stress
Values above this line
40-60%
UTS
Fatigue Limit
Number of Cycles
(N)
Typical S-N Graph for Steel

Fig 12
Many non-ferrous metals show a different characteristic from steel (refer to Fig.
13). In this instance there is no fatigue limit as such and it can be seen that these
materials will fail if subjected to an appropriate number of stress reversals, even
at very small stresses. When materials have no fatigue limit an endurance limit
together with a corresponding number of cycles is quoted instead.
Stress
(S) Failure occurs for Stress
Values above this line
Endurance
Limit
Number of Cycles
(N)
Typical S-N Graph for Aluminium Alloy
Fig 13

It follows that components made from such materials must be designed with a
specific life in mind and removed from service at the appropriate time. The
service fatigue lives of complete airframes or airframe members are typical
examples of this philosophy.
Non-metallic materials are also liable to failure by fatigue. As is the case with
metals, the number of stress cycles, required to produce a fatigue failure, will
increase as the maximum stress in the loading cycle decreases. There is
generally no fatigue limit for these materials and some form of endurance limit
must be applied.
The importance of fatigue strength can be illustrated by the fact that, in a high-
cycle fatigue mode, a 10% improvement in fatigue strength can result in a 100-
times life improvement.
2.7 CAUSES OF FATIGUE FAILURE
As the fatigue characteristics of most materials are now known (or can be
ascertained), it would seem reasonable to suppose that fatigue failure, due to
lack of suitable allowances in design, should not occur.
Nevertheless, fatigue cracking occurs frequently, and even the most

sophisticated engineering product does not possess immunity from this mode of
failure. Such failures are often due to unforeseen factors in design, environmental
or operating conditions, material, and manufacturing processes.
Two essential requirements for fatigue development in a material are:
An applied stress fluctuation of sufficient magnitude (with or without an

applied steady stress).
A sufficient number of cycles of that fluctuating stress.
The stress fluctuations may be separated by considerable time intervals, as

experienced in aircraft cabin pressurisation, during each take-off or they may
have a relatively short time interval, such as encountered during the aerodynamic
buffeting/vibration of a wing panel. The former example would be considered to
be low-cycle fatigue and the latter to be high-cycle fatigue.
In practice, the level of the fluctuating stress, and the number of cycles to cause
cracking of a given material, are affected by many other variables, such as stress
concentration points (stress raisers), residual internal stresses, corrosion, surface
finish and material imperfections.

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2.8 VIBRATION
Vibration has already been quoted as being a cause of high-cycle fatigue and,
because most dynamic structures are subjected to vibration, this is undoubtedly
the most common origin of fatigue. All objects have their own natural frequency at
which they will freely vibrate (the resonant frequency). Large heavy and flexible
components vibrate at a low frequency, while small light and stiff components
vibrate at a high frequency.
Resonant frequencies are undesirable (and in some cases could be disastrous),

so it is important to ensure that, over their normal operating ranges, critical
components are not vibrated at their natural frequencies and so avoid creating
resonance.
The resonant frequency of a component, is governed by its mass and stiffness,

and on certain critical parts, it is often necessary to do full-scale fatigue tests to
confirm adequate fatigue life before putting the product into service.
2.9 FATIGUE METALLURGY
Under the action of fatigue stresses, small local plastic deformation on an atomic
scale, takes place along slip planes within the material grains. If the fatigue
stresses are continued, then micro cracks are formed within the grains in the area
of the highest local stress (usually at or near the surface of the material). The
micro cracks join together and propagate across the grain boundaries but not
along them.
A fatigue fracture generally develops in three stages (refer to Fig. 14) Initiation
(nucleation), Propagation (growth) and Fracture (which is usually rapid).
Initiation Propagation Fracture
The Three Stages of Fatigue Fracture

Fig. 14

The resultant fractured surface often has a characteristic appearance of:
An area, on which a series of curved, parallel, relatively smooth ridges are

present and are centred around the starting point of the crack. These ridges
are sometimes called conchoidal lines, beach marks or arrest lines.
A rougher typically crystalline section, which is the final rapid fracture when
the cross-section is no longer capable of carrying its normal steady load.
The arrest lines are normally formed when the loading is changed, or the loading
is intermittent. In addition to these characteristic and informative marks, there are
similar, but much finer lines called striations, which literally show the position of
the crack front after each cycle.
These striations are obviously of great importance to metallurgists and failure

investigators when attempting to estimate the crack initiation and/or propagation
life. The striations are often so fine and indistinct that electron beam microscopes
are required to count them.
In normal circumstances a great deal of energy is required to weaken the material

sufficiently to initiate a fatigue crack, and it is not surprising to find that the
nucleation phase takes a relatively long time.
Once the initial crack is formed, the extremely high stress concentrations, present
at the crack front, are sufficient to cause the crack to propagate relatively quickly.
The speed of propagation can accelerate quickly as the crack front not only
increases in size, but also reduces the component cross-sectional area.
A point is eventually reached known as the 'critical crack length at which the
remaining cross-section is sufficiently reduced to cause an extreme overloading
situation, and a sudden fracture finally occurs.
It is not unusual for the crack initiation phase to take 90% of the time to failure,
with the propagation phase only taking the remaining 10%. This is one of the
major reasons for operators of equipment being relatively unsuccessful in
detecting fatigue cracks in components before a failure occurs.
2.10 FATIGUE PROMOTERS
As fatigue cracks initiate at locations of highest stress and lowest local strength,
the nucleation site will be:
dictated largely by geometry and the general stress distribution

located at or near the surface or
centred on surface defects/imperfections, such as scratches, pits, inclusions
and dislocations

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2.10.1 Design
Apart from general stressing, the geometry of a component has a considerable

influence on its susceptibility to fatigue. A good designer will therefore minimise
stress concentrations by:
avoiding rapid changes in section

using generous blend radii or chamfers to eliminate sharp corners
2.10.2 Manufacture
While the designer may specify adequate blend radii, the actual product may still
be prone to fatigue failure if the manufacturing stage fails to achieve this
sometimes-seemingly unimportant drawing requirement.
Several other manufacturing-related causes of premature fatigue failure exist, the

most common of which are:
Inherent material faults - cold shuts, pipe, porosity and slag inclusions
Processing faults - bending, forging, grinding, shrinking and welding
Production faults - incorrect heat-treatment, inadequate surface protection,
poor drilling procedures and undue force used during assembly
In-service damage - dents, impact marks, scratches, scores or tooling marks
2.10.3 Environment
One of the most potent environmental promoters of fatigue occurs when the
component is operating in a corrosive medium.
Steel normally has a well-defined fatigue limit on the S-N curve, but if a fatigue
test is conducted in a corrosive environment, the general fatigue strength will
drop considerably. The curve also resembles the aluminium alloy curve with the
fatigue failure stress continuing to fall as the number of cycles increases.
Other environmental effects such as fretting and corrosion pitting, erosion or

elevated temperatures will also adversely affect fatigue strength.

2.11 FATIGUE PREVENTION
If a component is prone to fatigue failure in service, there are several methods of

improvement in quality, material and geometry that can be considered.
An improvement in quality by correcting and eliminating any failure-related

manufacturing or processing problems.
Selecting materials with significantly better fatigue strength, corrosion-resistance

or corrosion-protection.
Consideration should be given to a component shape and size to help reduce the
general stress levels and ensure the natural resonance is not achieved. If this
cannot be avoided a damping mechanism can be considered. The application of
a compressive stress in the material by shot peening or cold expansion may also
help.
2.11.1 Cold Expansion (Broaching)
Most fatigue failures occur whilst a material is subject to a tensile, alternating

stress. If the most fatigue-prone areas, such as spar fastener holes, have a
compression stress applied (refer to Fig. 15), they are significantly more resistant
to fatigue failure.
The fastener hole is normally reamed then checked for defects using an Eddy
Current NDT procedure. A tapered mandrel is then pulled through the hole,
resulting in a localised area of residual compressive stress which will provide a
neutral or, at least, a significantly reduced level of fatigue in the area around the
fastener hole.
Tapered Mandrel Area around hole
pulled through pre-stressed
Reamed Hole in compression
Broaching of Fastener Hole

Fig. 15

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2.12 STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING (SHM)
It is extremely important that the level of fatigue, imposed on an aircraft structure

and associated components can be monitored and recorded so that the
respective fatigue lives are not exceeded. Several methods have been developed
to assist in the vital tasks involved with SHM
2.12.1 Fatigue Meters
Fatigue meters are used to check overall stress levels on aircraft and to monitor
the fatigue history of the aircraft. Fatigue meters also allow a check to be made
on the moment in time when the aircraft exceeds the design limits imposed on it.
2.12.2 Strain Gauges
Strain gauges may be used to monitor stress levels on specific aircraft structures.
Strain gauges are thin-foil electrical resistor elements that have been bonded to
the aircraft structure during manufacture. Their resistance varies proportional to
the applied stress loading.
2.12.3 Fatigue Fuses
Fatigue fuses are metallic fuses, which are bonded to the structure and which fail
at different fatigue stresses. The electrical current flowing through the fuse, will
vary and so provide an indication of the stress level.
2.12.4 Intelligent Skins Development
Modern developments in aircraft structures will allow the structures to be

designed and built with a variety of sensors and systems embedded into the
structure and skin. This would mainly be restricted to structures manufactured
from composite materials. One major benefit of this is to allow the structure to
monitor it's own loads and fatigue life.
2.13 SMART STRUCTURES
The generic heading Smart Structures actually covers three areas of

development:
Smart Structures. These are structures, which have sensors, actuators,

signal-processing and adaptive control systems built in
Smart Skins. These have radar and communications antennae embedded in,
or beneath, the structural skin
Intelligent Skins. Skin embedded with fibre optic sensors

Smart Structures perceived benefits include:
Self-diagnostic in the monitoring of structural integrity

Reduced life cycle costs
Reduced inspection costs
Potential weight saving/performance improvements derived from increased
knowledge of composite material characteristics
From a military point of view an improvement in Stealth characteristics.
A fully monitored and self-diagnostic system could:
Assess structural integrity.

Pinpoint structural damage.
Process flight history.
Composite laminates, containing embedded fibre optic sensors can be used for
SHM, including fatigue monitoring and to highlight if the aircrafts flight envelope
has been exceeded. Their advantages include the following:
Cover a greater area of structure

Not prone to electrical interference
Less vulnerable to damage when embedded in the plies Increased knowledge
of structural loads aids designers

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3 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS

Any alloy containing iron as its main constituent is called a ferrous metal. The
most common ferrous metal, in aircraft construction is steel, which is an alloy of
iron with a controlled amount of carbon added.
3.1 IRON
Iron is a chemical element that is fairly soft, malleable and ductile in its pure form.
It is silvery-white in colour and quite heavy, having a density of 7870 kgm -3.
Unfortunately it combines well with oxygen, producing iron oxide, which is more
commonly known as rust. Iron usually has other materials added to improve its
properties.
The first smelt from the raw ore is poured into troughs (which are said to
resemble piglets suckling on a sow) and the iron is referred to as pig iron. The
pig iron is then re-melted to give cast irons.
3.1.1 Cast Iron
Cast Iron normally contains over two percent carbon and some silicon. It has few
aircraft applications, excepting where its hardness and porosity are required,
such as in piston rings and valve guides.
Nodular Cast Iron is a modern development and is sometimes known as

Spheroidal Graphite Iron. It is produced by adding magnesium and nickel (or
magnesium, copper and silicon) making a tough, strong, hard-wearing material. It
can be used in applications where only wrought materials were used in the past
such as piston engine crankshafts.
3.2 STEEL
Pig iron is also re-melted to make steel, in a special furnace, which passes super
heated air through the molten metal to burn off the excess carbon. When this is
done, a measured amount of carbon is introduced and the molten metal poured
into moulds, which on cooling, leaves the steel in the form of ingots. The ingots
are then heated to about 1200C (1473 K) and rolled into sheet or plate.
High quality steels are usually produced in an electric furnace, as alloying can be
controlled easier than in gas furnaces. The carbon electrodes produce an intense
arc and the steel, when molten, can have impurities removed and measured
amounts of alloying materials added.

3.2.1 Classification of Steels
The (American) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has classified steel alloys
with a four-digit numerical index system (refer Table 1). The first two digits
identify the steel type, while the last two digits denote the percentage of carbon in
the steel, so 1030 indicates a plain-carbon steel with 0.30% carbon. The British
Standards Institute (BSI) has a different classification system.
Table 1
Extract from the SAE Classification for Steel Alloys
1xxx Carbon Steels
10xx Plain Carbon Steels
2xxx Nickel Steels
3xxx Nickel Chromium Steels
40xx Molybdenum Steels
41xx Chromium Molybdenum Steels
5xxx Chromium Steels
6xxx Chromium Vanadium
3.3 ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEEL
Iron has few practical uses in its pure state, but adding small amounts of other
materials to molten iron dramatically changes its properties. Some of the more
common alloying elements include carbon, sulphur, silicon, phosphorus, nickel
and chromium (also referred to as chrome).
3.4 CARBON
Carbon is the most common alloying element found in steel. When mixed with
iron, compounds of iron carbide form and it is the carbon in steel that allows it to
be heat-treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength and toughness.
The greater the carbon content, then the more receptive the steel becomes to
heat-treatment and, while its strength and hardness increases, its malleability and
weldability decreases.
3.4.1 Low-Carbon Steel
Low-carbon steels contain between 0.1% and 0.3 % carbon and can be classified
as SAE 1010 or 1030 steels. They are used in such items as locking wire and
cable bushings and, in sheet form, they are used for low-load applications. Low-
carbon steels weld easily but do not accept heat-treatment very well.
3.4.2 Medium-Carbon Steel
These steels contain between 0.3% and 0.7 % carbon. The increased carbon
assists in heat-treatment while still retaining reasonable ductility. Medium-carbon
steels are used for machining or forging and where surface hardness is required.

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3.4.3 High-Carbon Steel
The carbon content of these steels, ranges between 0.5% and 1.5 % and this
makes them very hard. High-carbon steels are primarily used in springs, files and
in most cutting tools.
3.5 SULPHUR
Sulphur causes steel to be brittle when rolled or forged and so it must be

removed during the refining process. If it proves impossible to remove all of the
sulphur, then manganese is added to neutarlise its effect. This forms manganese
sulphide which is harmless to the steel.
3.6 SILICON
When silicon is alloyed with steel, it acts as a hardener and, used in small
quantities, it also improves ductility.
3.7 PHOSPHORUS
Phosphorus raises the yield strength of steel and improves a low-carbon steels
resistance to atmospheric corrosion. The steel tends to be brittle when cold, so
no more than 0.05 % phosphorus is normally used in steel production.
3.8 NICKEL
Nickel is used extensively for alloying with steel and the quantity is very
important. When using between 1% - 5% there is a marked improvement in
strength and hardness without lowering ductility. This high-strength, tough steel is
widely used for highly stressed parts. When approximately 25% nickel is added to
the steel it becomes highly corrosion-resistant, heat-resistant and non-magnetic.
At 36% nickel, a unique steel known Invar is created. This has the lowest
coefficient of expansion of any metal, at about 1/20th of normal carbon steel and
is excellent for manufacture of master gauges and instruments.
Due to the effect of large amounts of nickel on the expansion properties of steel,
a range of nickel-steels can be purpose-made, to trim the coefficient of expansion
to specific needs. These alloys are used in thermostats and spark plug
electrodes.
3.8.1 Nickel Alloys
When the amount of nickel present is predominant the material becomes known
as a Nickel Alloy, many of which are widely used in industry. One of the most
important nickel-based alloy groups is the Nimonics. These are a family of alloys,
containing 50% - 80% nickel, with the balance being mainly chromium with some
titanium and aluminium.

Nimonic alloys are used in hot air control ducting, for gas turbine engine
combustion chambers and turbine blades because of their extremely low
coefficient of expansion at elevated temperatures. Other ranges of nickel-based
alloys come under the trade names of Inconel and Hastelloy, which are also
temperature-resistant and corrosion-resistant.
Another common nickel alloy is Monel and consists of 68% nickel, 29% copper,
with iron, manganese, silicon and carbon. It has excellent resistance to both
corrosion and chemical attack is tough, ductile, reasonably strong (equivalent to
mild steel) and is non-magnetic.
It is used in many marine applications, for surgical apparatus and for aircraft
rivets. Normally Monel does not respond to heat treatment but, when alloyed with
a small amount of aluminium (2%-4%), it can be hardened to double its strength,
and is known as K-Monel.
Nickel adds strength and hardness to steel as well as increasing its yield
strength. By slowing the rate of hardening during heat-treatment, the depth of
hardening can be increased and the steels grain structure made finer. SAE 2330
steel, containing 3.0% nickel and 0.3% carbon, is used in the manufacture of
bolts, nuts, rod ends and pins.
3.9 CHROMIUM (CHROME)
When small amounts of chrome are added to steel, the strength and hardness
increases, but there is some loss of ductility.
1.5% chrome, in a high-carbon steel, results in a very hard material which is used
extensively for instrument pivots and in ball and roller bearings. Low chrome
(1.5% - 3%) steels are used for high tensile fasteners and are suitable for
nitriding. Chromium can also be electrolytically deposited onto metals, to provide
hard wearing surfaces, such as those required in cylinder bores.
3.9.1 Stainless Steels
Steels containing 12% or more chrome, are very corrosion-resistant. Stainless

(SS) Steels or Corrosion Resistant Steels (CRS) come into this category. One
particular stainless steel is designated 18/8 Stainless, which contains
approximately 18% chrome and 8% nickel.
These stainless steels are used extensively in engine parts, particularly for hot
applications and for exhaust areas where their corrosion resistance is vital.
3.9.2 Nickel-Chrome Steel and its Alloys
By adding both metals, in appropriate percentages, steel, which is suitable for

high-strength structural applications, is produced. Nickel-chromium steels are

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used for forged and machined parts requiring high strength, ductility, shock-
resistance and toughness.

A wide range of nickel-chrome steels exists, but the low nickel-chrome alloys are
suitable for through hardening or case hardening. The nickel content is around
3%-5% and the chrome ranges from 0.5%-1.5%. Crankshafts and connecting
rods are often made from this group.
High nickel-chrome alloys containing between 65%-85% nickel and 15%-20%

chrome have a high electrical resistance and are often used as heater elements.
3.10 COBALT
Cobalt is often included in High-Speed Steel (HSS) in addition to chrome,

vanadium, molybdenum and tungsten, to improve still further the ability to cut at
high working temperatures. It is a ferromagnetic material and is used in magnets
as it has high permeability. It is also used in some of the Nimonic alloys and can
be found in a range of temperature-resistant alloys called Stellite, that are used
to make piston engine valves and cutting tools.
3.11 VANADIUM
When added to steel, vanadium improves the strength without loss of ductility, but
also greatly improves its toughness and its resistance to fatigue. As it also
improves tensile and elastic properties, spring steels usually include vanadium.
Small amounts of vanadium are included in certain nickel-chrome steels and
good quality engineering tools.
Amounts of up to 0.2 % vanadium improve grain structure, ultimate tensile

strength and toughness. Ball bearings are also made from chrome-vanadium
steel.
3.12 MANGANESE
When small amounts of manganese are added to steel (up to 1.5%) the result is
a steel which is strong and hard (similar to nickel-chrome steel). It improves
forging by making the steel less brittle during the forming process, and is used for
shafts and axles.
Small amounts of manganese are used in steel production and in welding rods
since it acts as a purifying agent by reducing oxidation.
When between 11-14% manganese is added steel has a very unusual, but
extremely useful property. When this material is heated to approximately 1000C
and water-quenched, its structure becomes austenitic. Any attempt to cut or
abrade it, results in the local formation of hard martensite, which makes it ideal
for rock drills, stone crushers, and railway lines.

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3.13 MOLYBDENUM
One of the most widely used alloying elements for aircraft structural steel is
molybdenum. It reduces the grain size of steel, which increases its impact-
strength and elastic limit. Other advantages are an increase in wear-resistance
and high fatigue-resistance, which is the reason why molybdenum-steels are
found in structural members and engine parts.
3.13.1 Chrome and Molybdenum
Chrome-molybdenum steel is, probably, the most commonly used alloy steel in
the aircraft industry. Its SAE 4130 designation denotes an alloy of 1.0 %
molybdenum and 0.3 % carbon. It machines well and is easily welded by gas or
electric arc methods, as well as responding well to heat-treatment. Its use in
aircraft construction includes landing gear, engine mountings and many engine
components.
3.14 TUNGSTEN
Tungsten has an extremely high melting point and adds this characteristic to the
steel with which it is alloyed. Tungsten steel retains its hardness at elevated
temperatures, and is typically used as contacts in magnetos, and for high-speed
cutting tools.
3.15 MARAGING STEELS
Conventional very high tensile steels have a high carbon content and are, thus,
very hard and difficult to work and also tend to be somewhat brittle. To combat
these shortcomings, maraging steels were developed.
These steels are over 50% stronger than normal high tensile steels and yet are
very tough and easy to machine. These properties are achieved by the almost
total elimination of carbon and by alloying with nickel, cobalt and molybdenum in
such a way that it can be precipitation hardened. Another prerequisite is that the
steel must be cooled slowly in air, which is usually achieved by switching off the
furnace and leaving to cool inside the furnace.
Maraging steels can only be used for special, high-stressed applications (due to
cost, which is about three times that of conventional alloy steels). They are used
for some airframe and engine components and can be nitride hardened.

3.16 HEAT-TREATMENT OF CARBON STEELS
If a straight carbon steel is progressively heated from cold, a steady rise in

temperature occurs. However, at approximately 700C, there is a reduction in the
rate of temperature rise (a hesitation), even though the heating is continued
(refer to Fig. 1). This hesitation starts at 700C and finishes at up to 200C higher
(depending on the percentage of carbon present) and eventually, the temperature
rise speeds up and the rate of rise is similar to that which occurred before the
hesitation.
Temperature
C
Temperature
of Material
900
Rates of
700
Cooling
0
Time
Temperature/Time Graph for Steel Heat-Treatments

Fig. 1
The start of the hesitation is known as the Lower Critical Point (LCP) and the end
is called the Upper Critical Point (UCP) and the phenomenon of the temperature
response is due to a change in the crystalline structure of the steel in between the
two critical points.
If carbon steel is heated to just above its UCP, the structure is called Austenitic.
This structure is a solid solution of carbon in iron such that all the carbon is
uniformly distributed throughout the iron.
If steel containing more than 0.3% carbon is quenched (rapidly cooled) from
above the UCP, it becomes hardened. The more carbon present, the harder the
steel will be after the quenching process.

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This rapid cooling causes a change in the metallurgical structure and is called
Martensite. Martensite is extremely hard but is not suitable for most engineering
purposes due to it being very brittle. For most applications it is necessary to carry
out a further heat-treatment to reduce the brittleness of the steel, and this is
called Tempering.
To temper harden carbon steel it is necessary to heat it to a suitable temperature

below its LCP followed by a cooling process which is usually quenching.
The effect of this heat-treatment is to slightly reduce the hardness whilst at the
same time greatly increasing the toughness. The actual tempering temperature
used depends on the requirements of strength, hardness and toughness.
The higher the tempering temperature, the lower will be strength and hardness,
but the toughness will be greater. The maximum tensile strength of hardened
carbon steel is achievable when 0.83% carbon is present. If an even greater
amount of carbon is present, the hardness continues to increase but strength will
decrease.
3.16.1 Hardening Process Quenching Mediums
The effective hardening of carbon steels depends not only on the amount of
carbon present but also on very rapid cooling from high temperature. The cooling
rate mainly depends on the cooling medium, the size of tank and the mass of the
object to be cooled.
Agitation in the cooling bath can also speed up the cooling rate and, in terms of
cooling severity, brine is more effective than water, followed by oil and finally air.
Carbon steels require an extremely rapid cooling phase, so brine or water is

normally used, whereas oil or air-cooling is used on certain alloy steels. The rapid
cooling rates, involved in the hardening of carbon steel, cause enormous thermal
stresses in the component and distortion is commonplace. Cracking may also
occur in some cases.
To achieve relatively uniform cooling it is sometimes necessary to immerse the

object in a specific way because of its shape and mass.
3.17 TEMPERING
Tempering is carried out to improve the toughness of hardened steel whilst

suffering only a modest drop in strength. Accurate temperature measuring
equipment, in addition to well equipped facilities, are required to do these
procedures on aerospace metals.

3.17.1 Annealing
Annealing is normally achieved on carbon steel by heating to just above the UCP
followed by very slow cooling. In practice the slow cooling rates are achieved by
cooling in the furnace or by immersing in a poor thermal conductor such as
ashes. The end result is a stress-free, fully softened material, suitable for major
forming operations such as deep pressing, drawing and extruding.

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The annealing of steel may be for one of the following purposes:
To soften the steel for forming or to improve machinability

To relieve internal stresses induced by a working process
To remove coarseness of grain.
3.17.2 Normalising
This process is similar to annealing, except that the cooling is done in still air. The
end result is a stress-free, soft material with uniform fine grain structure.
Normalising is commonly used on actual components after heavy machining
operations (or welding), prior to the final hardening and tempering processes.
3.18 SURFACE HARDENING OF STEELS
Unlike conventional through-hardening of steel, it is sometimes desirable to retain

a relatively tough (relatively less brittle) inner core, coupled with a very hard
surface. This would typically be required of a component, which is subjected to
high dynamic stresses, yet also has to resist surface wear and would include:
gears (where the teeth need to be hardened)

camshafts and crankshafts (bearing surfaces)
cylinder barrels of piston engines (or landing gear legs)
Some materials can be case-hardened to achieve this aim. Several methods are
used, depending on the parent material and the particular application.
3.18.1 Carburising
This is the most common method of case-hardening low-carbon steels, and

consists of heating the metal to approximately 900C, while the component is in
contact with a carbon-rich medium followed by a suitable heat-treatment.
Carbon is generally absorbed into the surface of the heated steel and the rate of
penetration is approximately 1mm in 5-6 hours. Low-carbon steels are particularly
suited to this type of treatment, as it increases the carbon content and hence the
hardness locally. Various methods of carburising are used, the most common
ones being:
Pack Carburising. The object is sealed in a box containing a charcoal based

carbon-rich powder and heated in a furnace. The metal is then quenched in
oil (but not water, as this would cause the hard case to peel off). The depth
of the hard skin depends on the length of time that the metal is heated.
Gas Carburising. The object is placed in a basket in a furnace, through

which is passed a suitable, carbon-rich gas such as methane or propane.

Liquid Carburising. The object is heated to a suitable temperature and then

immersed in a hot, salt bath at 900C. The salts are usually sodium cyanide
and the process is often called cyanide hardening. The metal is quenched
in water, as oil quenching would react unfavourably with the salts.
3.18.2 Nitriding
This process involves the absorption of nitrogen (instead of carbon) into the
surface of the steel. Suitable Nitralloy steels are necessary for this process and
they usually contain 1% Aluminium, 1.5% Chromium and 0.2% Molybdenum.
A special furnace is used and ammonia gas is circulated through it. The furnace
temperature of 500C converts the ammonia into a nitrogen-rich gas and forms
hard iron nitride in the surface of the steel.
The case depth achievable by this process, is less than that by pack carburising,
but the major advantage of nitriding is that no hardening or tempering is
necessary to achieve the final hardness, and no finish machining is required after
nitriding.
This relatively low-temperature process, results in negligible distortion and is

much cleaner than the carbon methods. Aircraft piston engine cylinder barrels are
particularly suitable for nitriding, as are some crankshaft bearing surfaces and the
stems of some aero-engine induction and exhaust valves. Nitrided surfaces must
be protected against pitting corrosion, usually by keeping the surface oiled.
If certain surfaces of a component are not to be case-hardened, it is necessary to

protect them during the carburising or nitriding process. Copper plating, nickel
plating or a proprietary paste are generally used in such areas, to prevent the
hardening agent from being absorbed in that area.
3.18.3 Flame/Induction Hardening
Unlike carburising and nitriding, flame and induction hardening do not add a
hardening agent into the surface of a basically softer material. Instead they are
merely techniques for hardening the surface of material by a `local heat-
treatment'.
Steels suitable for these processes already contain sufficient carbon (or other
elements) to attain a high degree of hardness if heated and quenched. Only the
surface is locally heated (by a flame or electrical induction coil) and the heated
surface is then immediately quenched by water jets. The flame or induction coil is
positioned so that it only heats the area that require hardening.
3.18.4 Other Surface Hardening Techniques

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In addition to case-hardening, there are other methods of producing hard

surfaces on metals, such as by electro-plating, welding, bonding and metal
spraying. All usually involve adding a harder surface metal to the parent material.

4 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - NON-FERROUS

A metal in which there is little or no iron is said to be non-ferrous. The list of non-
ferrous metals is quite impressive and their uses make very interesting reading, if
it is intended to follow a career in metallurgy. For the purposes of this course, the
topics must be confined to the more common non-ferrous metals, their qualities
and their uses in aerospace engineering.
4.1 PURE METALS
Certain non-ferrous metals, such as aluminium, copper and lead, are used in the
commercially pure state for engineering purposes usually in the form of sheets,
tubes, wires or as thin coatings on other metals.
Cadmium, chromium, nickel, tin and zinc are also often used to provide protective
coatings on other metals in order to retard the effects of corrosion.
Precious metals, such as gold, platinum and silver have been used for special
work in high-grade electrical instruments, aircraft windshields and space vehicles.
Mercury (quicksilver) the only metal to remain liquid at room temperature may
be found in certain types of barometers, discharge lamps, small, electrical circuit
breakers, pressure gauges and vacuum pumps (it can also be found in the
detonators of some explosive devices).
In a similar manner to steels, it has been discovered that tremendous advantages

are to be gained by alloying non-ferrous metals with each other and, indeed, with
other (ferrous) metals and elements.
Aluminium, copper, magnesium and titanium alloys are among the more common
non-ferrous metals that are used in aircraft construction and repair.
4.1.1 Pure Aluminium
Pure aluminium is extracted from the mineral rock bauxite (named after the town
of Les Baux, in France, where it was first found). It is a soft, weak, ductile and
malleable metal. Aluminium is approximately one third the weight of steel and has
approximately one third the stiffness of steel.
While its strength may be improved by cold working, it remains a low-strength

material. Aluminium is highly corrosion-resistant, due to the rapid formation of a
thin, but very dense oxide surface film, which limits further corrosion and it is an
excellent conductor of electricity (and heat).

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4.1.2 Pure Copper
Copper also has the ability to retard the progress of corrosion, by developing a
patina of green copper carbonate (also called verdigris or aerugo) on its surface.
With a conductivity (of electricity and heat) second only to silver, and having the
ability to be beaten, cast, drawn, forged, pressed, rolled or spun into many
different (and often complicated) shapes, copper is a very versatile metal.
Despite a relative density of 8.96, coppers ductility and malleability allow it to be

used in electrical systems (in bus bars, bonding, electrical motors, wiring etc.),
though neither copper, nor its alloys, find much use as structural materials in the
construction of aircraft.
4.1.3 Pure Magnesium
Two thirds the weight of aluminium (with a relative density of 1.74), no metal can
be cut, drilled, filed or shaped so easily as magnesium provided that certain
precautions are taken to prevent it over-heating.
Magnesium burns readily, especially in small particles and dust. Great care must
be taken when filing and grinding this metal and, if a fire should occur, it must be
extinguished with dry sand or an appropriate powder extinguisher.
Magnesium is obtained primarily from electrolysis of seawater or brine from deep

wells. In its pure state it lacks sufficient strength and characteristics for use as a
structural metal. It can, however, be alloyed with a range of other elements to
greatly improve its strength. These elements include aluminium, manganese,
thorium, zirconium, and zinc.
4.1.4 Pure Titanium
Pure titanium at approximately 56% the weight of stainless steel, has almost the
same strength as iron. It is highly resistance to corrosion, non-magnetic and is
readily shaped by all of the methods, which relate to steel. Titanium is also soft
and ductile.
Care should be taken when working with titanium. Titanium fires usually start
through high-speed rubbing. The low thermal conductivity of titanium prevents the
rapid dissipation of heat, which progressively builds up locally, until ignition finally
occurs. Accumulations of small particles of swarf and dust are a possible fire risk
and all such accumulations should be avoided.

4.2 ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Because pure aluminium lacks sufficient strength to be used for aircraft

construction and, to achieve medium/high-strength properties, aluminium must be
alloyed with other elements. The most common alloying elements in the wrought
aluminium alloys are copper, manganese, magnesium and zinc. A common
element used when casting aluminium is silicon.
Aluminium alloys may be designated as being either heat-treatable or as non-

heat-treatable, though both types can be strengthened and hardened through
work-hardening (or strain-hardening). This process requires mechanically working
an alloy at a temperature below its critical range and can be achieved by rolling,
drawing or pressing
Alloys, which have aluminium or magnesium as their base elements, are referred
to as Light Alloys, while the remainder are termed Heavy Alloys.
4.3 IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS IN ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Various national Standards Institutions have evolved their individual systems for
identifying the many variants of aluminium alloys (in a similar manner to that
shown with SAE Steels).
While it would be impossible (and unsafe) to attempt to memorise them all, these
notes provide examples of the American system of identifying aluminium (or
aluminium) alloys.
American aluminium alloys are classified by a code, which refers to the element
that makes up the major percentage of the alloy. As previously stated, the
elements most commonly used for alloying with aluminium are copper,
manganese, silicon, magnesium, and zinc.
Table 1 shows a four-digit number, which identifies aluminium, either in its

commercially pure, or in its alloyed state. The first digit of the designating code
represents the major alloying element, while the second digit of the code
indicates a specific alloy modification, such as controls over impurities.
The last two numbers of the 1xxx group indicate the hundredths of 1% above the
99% of pure aluminium. For example, if 75 were the last two digits, the metal
would be 99.75%pure.
The 2xxx to 8xxx groups use the last two digits to identify the different alloys in
the group.

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Table 1
American System of Identifying Alloying Elements with Aluminium
Code Major Alloying Element
1xxx Aluminium
2xxx Copper
3xxx Manganese
4xxx Silicon
5xxx Magnesium
6xxx Magnesium and Silicon
7xxx Zinc
8xxx Other elements
In the 1xxx group, commercially pure aluminium (over 99% pure) is good for
corrosion resistance, has good electrical and thermal conduction properties, is
easy to work but is not very strong.
The 2xxx group uses copper as its major alloying element. The major benefit of
copper is a large increase in strength, although if the alloy is not correctly heat-
treated, intergranular corrosion can occur between the aluminium and copper
grains within the metal. These are probably the commonest aluminium alloys
used in aircraft construction.
The 3xxx group has manganese as its major alloying agent and it is not possible
to heat-treat.
The 4xxx series utilises silicon as its major element. This lowers its melting point
and improves its welding and brazing capabilities.
The 5xxx group has magnesium as the main alloying element. This is good for
welding and corrosion resistance although, if exposed to high temperature or cold
working, it can corrode quite badly.
The 6xxx group has silicon and magnesium added to the aluminium. This makes
the alloy heat-treatable and with good forming and corrosion resistance
properties.
The 7xxx alloys are made harder and stronger by the addition of zinc. These are
difficult to bend and are more often used where flat plates are required.

4.4 CLAD MATERIALS
Though strong, aluminium alloys are not as resistant to corrosion as pure

aluminium and, for external use such as skins, the high-strength sheet has a thin
layer of pure aluminium hot-rolled onto the surfaces. These are then known as
clad materials with commercial names such as Alclad, and Pureclad.
Alclad is a pure aluminium coating that is rolled onto the surface of an aluminium
alloy, which may, then, be heat-treated. The thickness of the coating is
approximately 5% of the material thickness on each side. For example, if an
alclad sheet of aluminium alloy has a thickness of 1.2 mm (0.047), then 0.06 mm
(0.0024) of pure aluminium is applied to each side.
This clad surface greatly increases the corrosion resistance of an aluminium

alloy. If, however, the cladding is penetrated, corrosive agents can attack the
alloy under the cladding. For this reason, sheet metal should be protected from
scratches and abrasions. In addition to providing a starting point for corrosion,
abrasions can create potential stress raisers (points from which cracking can
initiate).
4.5 HEAT-TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Heat-treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and subsequent

cooling of alloys in their solid state. Its purpose is to make the metal harder,
stronger and more resistant to impact but it can also make the metal softer and
more ductile for working into a required shape (bending etc.). One treatment
cannot give all of these properties. Some treatments are achieved at the expense
of others when, for example, a hardened material usually becomes more brittle.
The heating and cooling cycles occur in most treatments and it is only the time
and temperatures which differ. Aluminium alloys have two main heat-treatments,
which are referred to as solution heat-treatment and precipitation heat-treatment.
The procedures for heat-treating aluminium alloys are critical if correct properties
are to be obtained. Uniform heating is absolutely essential and two methods are
used a muffle furnace or a salt bath.
The muffle furnace uses hot air, which circulates around an inner chamber in
which the aluminium alloy is placed.
The salt bath employs molten mineral salts (water would evaporate long before
the required temperatures were reached. The salts (usually nitrate of soda or
similar) are solid at room temperature, but become liquid when they are
electrically heated. Gradual heating of the bath is necessary to avoid spattering or
spitting. The aluminium alloy (pre-dried, also to avoid spattering) can then be
submerged within the heated liquid. Another precaution when using a salt bath is
to avoid any adjacent flames or sparks, because the salts are inflammable.

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Accurate thermostatic control is vital, as narrow tolerances on temperatures are

specified (typically plus or minus 5C).
Quench tanks must be sited nearby the furnace or salt bath, to avoid delay
between removing from the heating source and quenching. Most quench tanks
contain cold water but hot water is sometimes specified (especially for heavy
sections e.g. large forgings).
Limits are also stipulated for the permissible period between heating and
quenching which is known as the lag-time (typically 10 seconds max.). If these
lag-times are exceeded, material properties or corrosion resistance may be
adversely affected. If the cooling rate, during quenching, is too slow this may also
affect the corrosion resistance.
Thorough washing of the material is essential after salt bath heat-treatment to

remove any salt residue. There is no limit to the number of times that heat-
treatment may be carried out on normal aluminium/copper alloys but, if the
material is clad with pure aluminium, for corrosion resistance (Alclad), then a
maximum of three treatments is imposed.
This is to limit the migration of copper, from the alloyed material, into the pure
aluminium cladding, which would significantly reduce its corrosion resistance.
4.5.1 Solution Treatment
Solution treatment is sometimes called re-crystallisation H.T. This operation

serves to distribute the copper uniformly throughout the aluminium to create a
solid solution. The heating may be achieved (as previously stated) in an oven or,
more commonly (to obtain better overall heating), in a bath of special, molten
salts.
However, although the aluminium can accommodate 5% or so of copper in solid

solution at high temperature, this condition is unstable at lower temperatures and,
after the alloy has cooled to room temperature, most of the copper slowly comes
out of solution and separates into local `islands' of copper aluminide.
By cooling the alloyed metals very quickly (quenching), the copper becomes
trapped 'in solution', making the aluminium very strong.
4.5.2 Age-Hardening
The gradual formation of the copper alumide islands (also referred to as slip),
causes an increase in hardness and strength and these properties reach
maximum values after several days (or weeks in some instances). Because of the
time lapse involved, this gradual hardening is termed age-hardening. Although
copper may be the major alloying element (in the 2000 series alloys) other
elements, including magnesium and manganese can also be present.

Although the aluminium/copper alloys are the most common age-hardened, high-
strength metals, they are not unique. Aluminium, when alloyed with 5%-7% Zinc,
is also able to be age-hardened. This is a more modern alloy than the aluminium/
copper type and is the highest-strength aluminium alloy in general use. This alloy
is used in heavy loaded applications such as Main Spars, Landing Gear and
Mainplane Attachment brackets.
4.5.3 Annealing
Annealing, as with steel, serves to soften the aluminium alloy, to enable it to be

worked without cracking. Even in this condition, ageing will gradually occur and
24 hours is the normal limit for working after annealing, although this can be
extended if the material is stored under refrigerated conditions to slow the ageing
process. A temperature of -5C will provide approximately 2 days delay while one
of -20C will provide approximately 1 weeks delay in the age-hardening process
The maximum for refrigeration is approximately 150 hours at -20C.
Typical annealing procedure may be achieved by raising the temperature of the

alloy to between 340C and 410C. The alloy is then cooled slowly at about 10C
per hour (rates will differ with each particular alloy), until it reaches a pre-
determined temperature. At this point it is allowed to cool naturally.
These heat-treatable type, alloys must never be installed in an aircraft structure

while in the annealed state, since material properties and corrosion resistance will
be severely affected, as alloys, in the annealed state, are very prone to corrosion.
4.5.4 Precipitation Treatment
Solution-treated aluminium alloys are comparatively soft, immediately following

quenching although, with time, the metal gradually becomes harder and gains
strength.
When the alloys are left at room temperature, after quenching, the hardening
process (natural ageing), and can take from several hours to several weeks. An
aluminium/copper alloy, for example, is only at 90% strength within 30 minutes of
quench, but is at maximum strength after four or five days.
We have already discussed how the natural ageing process can be drastically
retarded (allowing the metal to be kept in a soft condition until required for use),
by storing the alloys at sub-zero temperatures (refrigeration) for prescribed
periods of time.
Alternatively, following quenching, by re-heating the metal to a lower temperature

than that employed for the solution treatment and allowing it to soak at that heat
for a period of time, the ageing process (and, thus, the hardening of the alloy) can
be accelerated. This process is referred to as artificial ageing or precipitation
treatment.

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4.6 IDENTIFICATION OF HEAT-TREATED ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Aluminium alloys that have been subjected to heat-treatment are usually

identified by markings that indicate the heat-treatments involved. Three typical
identification systems are those of the British Standards Institute (BS), the
Ministry of Supply (MoS), and the American systems as can be seen in Table 2.
Table 2
Identification Markings of Heat Treated Aluminium Alloys
BS System Meaning
M As manufactured state
O Annealed state
OD Annealed and lightly drawn
T Solution-treated, no precipitation required
W Solution-treated, can be precipitated
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated
MoS System Meaning

A Annealed state
N Solution-treated, no precipitation required
W Solution-treated, and requires precipitation
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated
American System Meaning

T3 Solution-treated and cold worked
T4 Solution-treated only (naturally aged)
T6 Solution-treated and artificially aged
T8 Solution-treated, cold worked and artificially aged
T9 Solution-treated, artificially aged and cold worked
An example of one of these marking systems would be an alloy with the

designation 2024-T4, which indicates an aluminium/copper alloy that has been
solution-treated only, and then naturally aged
Apart from these systems, many other exist world-wide, but the British systems
are broadly confined to the following for light alloys.
British Standards for general engineering use BS 1470 -1475. In this series
the prefix N is used to denote non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys and prefix
H for the heat-treatable alloys.
British Standards for aerospace use the L series such as BS 3 L72, which
indicates the 3rd amendment to the basic L 72 specification whilst LM
indicates a cast material. The wrought materials are commonly abbreviated to
L71, L72 and L 73 et al.

Examples of some of these aircraft BS codes are:
159 Dural Solution-Treated and Artificially aged

L163 Alclad Solution-Treated and Naturally aged
Dural is a Trade name for an 2017 Al/Cu/Mg/Si/Mn alloy, originally manufactured

by the Duren Aluminium Company (Germany) for the Zeppelin Airships. It is often
used as a generic name for similar alloys, regardless of source of manufacture.
DTD Specifications are material identification numbers issued by the Directorate

of Technical Development (a Ministry Department) for specialised applications,
when widespread use is not anticipated. If such a material finally becomes
commonly used, a British Standards specification is compiled and issued.
4.7 MARKING OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY SHEETS
Sheet material, for aerospace use, is marked all over with the specification
identification, in regular lines, usually in a blue (or green) ink e.g. 7075 - T6,
along with a batch number and its thickness, to avoid confusion with similar
looking metals.
Some sheets may also have alternate lines of red numbers/letters, which indicate
that heat-treatment is needed before assembly. These red numbers/letters then
disappear when the necessary heat-treatment is done.
It is imperative that only the correct specifications and thicknesses of materials

are used in the construction of aircraft structures.
4.8 CAST ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
These are not used extensively on airframes mainly due to their lack of strength,
poor fatigue characteristics and lack of elasticity when compared to the wrought
aluminium alloys.
The lack of elasticity is particularly relevant, as the very nature of an airframe

structure requires the ability to flex considerably without cracking.
Although their use is obviously limited on airframes, cast aluminium alloys are
used extensively on engines, where there is a need to produce complex cored
shapes such as crankcases, drive casings and cylinder heads. No other method
than casting would be viable for such items. The stresses can be kept to a
modest level on these parts by producing robust castings of adequate stiffness.

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Very few non-heat-treatable cast alloys are used in aerospace applications and,
for high-duty engine casings and pistons, some very strong, temperature-
resistant alloys exist. One of the most common in the category is RR 58
(sometimes known as Y Alloy), which is an age-hardening material containing
approximately 2% copper, 1% magnesium, 1% nickel, and 1% iron. A
derivative of this material was also used (in wrought form) for the skin of the
supersonic Concorde aircraft, due to the high metal temperatures encountered.
Cast aluminium alloys often contain silicon, which creates high fluidity and, thus,
is good for producing complex shapes. It also reduces the coefficient of linear
expansion, so is often included in piston castings.
4.9 MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
Magnesium alloys are used for castings and, in their wrought form, are available
as sheet, bar, tubing and extrusions. They are among the lightest metals having
sufficient strength and suitable working characteristics for use in aircraft
structures.
There are some serious disadvantages to using magnesium alloys in aircraft

construction. These include a high susceptibility to corrosion and cracking. The
corrosion problem is minimised by treating the surface of the metal with
chemicals, which form an oxide film, to prevent oxygen reaching the metal.
Another way of minimising corrosion is to use hardware such as rivets, nuts, bolts
and screws that are made from compatible materials. The cracking problem
contributes to the difficulty in shaping magnesium alloys and, thus, limits its use.
One method used to overcome the tendency for cracking is to form the metal
whilst it is hot.
Magnesium alloys can also be solution heat-treated, which will improve their
tensile strength, ductility and resistance to shock. To improve their hardness and
yield strength they can also be precipitation heat-treated after the solution heat-
treatment.
4.10 COPPER ALLOYS
Of those (Heavy) alloys that use copper as a base; brasses, and various bronzes
are the primary types used on aircraft.
Brasses may contain zinc and small amounts of aluminium, iron, lead and other
elements such as manganese, nickel and even very small amounts of tin.
Depending on the percentage content of zinc, brass can be made ductile (30%-
35% Zn) or strong (45% Zn).

Bronze is a copper alloy that contains comparatively higher percentages of tin

and is usually found in the form of castings. A true bronze contains up to 25% tin,
and bronze, along with brass, is used in bushings, bearings, valves and valve
seats. Bronzes with less than 11% tin are normally used for tubes and pipes.
There are other copper alloys that contain practically no tin and yet are still
referred to as bronzes. High-Tensile Brass, for instance, because of its
manganese content is called Manganese Bronze, while Phosphor and Silicon
bronzes also contain practically no tin. Wrought aluminium bronzes are almost as
strong as medium-carbon steel while cast aluminium bronzes are found in
bearings and pump parts.
Probably, the most common of these is Beryllium Bronze. This contains 97%
copper, 2% beryllium and small amounts of nickel to increase its strength. Once it
has been heat-treated, beryllium bronze is very strong (300-400 Brinell) and is
used for diaphragms, precision bearings and bushings, ball bearing cages and
spring washers.
Leaded Bronze is found in the bearings of some aero engines. The very high
pressures (and speeds) tend to squeeze the lubricant out of normal journal
bearings, so the addition of lead acts as a sort of lubricant in the event of the oil
film breaking down.
Solder is a general term frequently used for joining metals together. The principal
types are soft solder (which is a mainly lead-tin alloy), and hard solder which is
an alloy of copper, silver and zinc.
4.11 TITANIUM ALLOYS
Titanium alloys, apart from being light and strong, also have excellent corrosion
resistance, particularly in a salt-laden atmosphere. To prevent reaction with
oxygen and nitrogen, in its pure form, titanium is treated with chlorine gas and a
reducing agent, to produce a coating of titanium dioxide.
There are three types of titanium, which are called alpha, alpha-beta and beta.
They have different strength and forming properties, depending on their heat-
treatments. Commercially pure titanium is non-heat-treatable (It can be
annealed, but its strength/hardness cannot be improved by heat-treatment.).
When suitably alloyed, titanium based materials are heat-treatable. The

strengthening is immediate i.e. it is not an age-hardening material.
Titanium alloys are used extensively in aerospace gas turbines, but their use is
limited on subsonic civil airframes to fasteners, and high temperature areas such
as engine bays, heat shields, hot zone bulkheads and air ducts.

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In appearances titanium is similar to 18/8 stainless steel. Two practical methods

of identification apart from weight are:
spark test - a light touch of a grinding wheel will produce a brilliant white
trace, ending in a brilliant white burst.
moisten the titanium and draw a line on a piece of glass - this will leave a
dark line similar to a pencil mark.
4.12 WORKING WITH TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS
Titanium materials are generally not susceptible to normal corrosion attack, but it
has been established that stress corrosion cracking can take place in some
welded structures which are exposed to trichloroethylene and other chlorinated
hydro-carbons (the alloys most affected in practise being the titanium-aluminium-
tin family).
Titanium may also show evidence of deterioration in the presence of salt deposits
or metal impurities, especially at high temperatures. It is, therefore prohibited to
use steel wool, iron scrapers or steel brushes for the cleaning of, or for the
removal of corrosion from, titanium components.
If titanium surfaces need cleaning, then hand-polishing, or the use of soft bristle
fibre brushes, with aluminium oxide compound or a mild abrasive may be
permissible. Use only the recommended procedures outlined in the relevant
Maintenance or Overhaul Manual
When it is necessary to machine a welded titanium structure, or doubt exists

regarding the use of cutting fluids with a particular titanium alloy, the material
manufacturer should be consulted.
Thin walled titanium structures are susceptible to local hardening if undue force is
applied in a local area. Hydrogen embrittlement is another major problem with
titanium alloys, for which there is no repair procedure. This can be caused by
using an incorrect cleaning agent, or if phosphate ester based hydraulic oils, such
as Skydrol, come into contact with the material at temperatures above 132C.
4.12.1 Drilling Titanium
Rigidity is essential when drilling titanium and titanium alloys so that thin-wall
structures must always have a backing support.
Centre drilling should always be used, instead of centre punching, as the local
work-hardening caused by centre punching will cause difficulty in starting the drill
and will also tend to make the drill wander as well as blunt the drill point.

A High-Speed Steel (HSS) drill, having a point angle of 105 to 120, with a helix
angle of 38 and a thickened web is recommended. It is important that a short drill
should be used.
For holes of more than 6 mm ( inch) diameter, a 90 or double-angled point is

better. Drills must be precision ground and special care must be taken to ensure
that the drill tip is completely central, as any off-set of the tip will cause work
hardening as a result of friction of the non-cutting edge.
Flood lubrication with a cutting fluid of low viscosity helps to reduce frictional
troubles. High quality soluble oils, used in the diluted form recommended by the
manufacturers, or chlorinated or sulphured oils, should be used in generous
quantities for all machining operations. Chlorinated solvents should be removed,
after machining.
For satisfactory drill life, drill surface speeds within 3 to 13 metres (10 to 40 feet)
per minute are used, otherwise work hardening is likely to result.
A continuous feed of 0.05 to 0.1mm (0.002 to 0.005 inch) per revolution for holes
below 6 mm.(0.25 inch) diameter, and of 0.1 to 0.2 mm (0.005 to 0.010 inch) per
revolution for larger holes is recommended. Positive power feed must be
employed whenever possible.

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5 METHODS USED IN SHAPING METALS

There are four basic methods of converting raw material into the required
manufactured shape whilst also achieving the desired material structure. They
are casting, deformation, machining, and various forms of fabrication (i.e. the
joining together of smaller pieces or particles of material to form a larger object).
Welding, adhesive bonding, mechanical fasteners or even powder metallurgy
come under this latter heading.
Casting exploits the fluidity of a liquid as it takes shape and solidifies in a mould.
Deformation exploits the remarkable property of materials (mostly metals) to flow
plastically in the solid state without deterioration of their properties. Processes
such as these, result in a minimum of material waste.
Machining processes provide excellent precision, but the process generates a

large amount of waste material. Fabrication techniques enable complex shapes
to be constructed from simpler particles or units.
5.1 CASTING
This involves the pouring of molten material into a shaped mould and allowing it
to solidify to that shape. It is an ancient process, which enables complex shapes
to be produced in a wide range of materials in a single-step operation. Cast
components can range in size from the small teeth of a zip, to large casings of
several metres in diameter. Ocean-going ships propellers, up to 10 metres in
diameter, are produced this way. Modern casting techniques have resulted in:
high quality (i.e. minimum porosity and reasonably defect-free products)

high production rates
good surface finish
small dimensional tolerances
the ability to cast a very wide range of materials.
Moulds are made in a variety of materials including plaster and ceramics but, by
far, the most widely used are those of sand and metal.
5.1.1 Sand-Casting
The two basic types of sand-casting are:
Removable/re-usable pattern (usually wood or metal)

Disposable pattern (e.g. polystyrene patterns, which vaporise when the
metal is poured).

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Although sand-casting is simple in principle, there are many vital aspects of the
technique, which are necessary to produce good castings.
The sand must have adequate binding qualities and to achieve this, a small
percentage of clay is added. It must also have suitable porosity characteristics to
permit the escape of gas or steam, formed in the mould. There are different
requirements for steel and aluminium.
The sand is graded by a sieve which ensure it is the correct size. Its strength is
controlled by the amount of bonding agent present. It must be able to resist the
molten metal temperatures without fusing or melting and have an adequate
hardness.
The moisture content should be between 2% and 8% and is checked by weighing

the sand before and after drying.
While the characteristics of the sand are important, the design of the mould must
also meet certain standards, some of which are:
The top and bottom halves of the mould (cope and drag respectively), must
incorporate positive alignment features.
The pattern must be shaped such that withdrawal from the sand leaves a
perfect impression. Tapered faces are, therefore, better than perpendicular
faces.
Suitable feed channels must be provided for the molten metal to enter the
mould. These channels are called the sprue and the runners.
Strategically placed reservoirs (called `risers') must be incorporated to ensure

proper filling of the mould as the metal shrinks and begins to solidify. Typical
steel shrinkage is around 3%-4% and aluminium shrinkage, 6%-7%.
The incorporation of vents, where necessary, to permit the escape of gas and
steam when the molten metal contacts the sand.
Local chills are sometimes included in the mould, to encourage more rapid,
local solidification of the metal.

5.1.2 Advantages/Disadvantages of Sand-Casting
The advantages of sand-casting are that it is a simple process, which does not
require elaborate equipment and is economical for small batches. It is also
suitable for most metals. The major shortcomings are that the process is not very
rapid, it is not particularly accurate (due to lack of sand rigidity) and it is not
suitable for thin-wall sections.
5.1.3 Typical Casting Defects
Casting defects vary to some extent, depending on the casting process used, but
the most common ones are:
Inclusions (e.g. sand or mould lining material sticking to the surface)

Porosity (usually caused by gas/vapour, which is unable to escape before
solidification)
Cold Shuts (when local areas of metal are not molecularly joined, due to
solidification occurring too rapidly).
Hot Tears (where the material is cracked by excessive tensile stresses,
resulting from thermal contraction).
5.1.4 Shell-Moulding
Shell-moulding is a process in which a thin shell is produced, by bringing a

mixture of sand and a thermosetting resin into contact with a heated pattern.
When a sufficiently thick shell has been produced, the shell is finally cured
(backed up by sand or steel shot in a moulding box). The subsequent casting
process is then the same as for normal sand-casting. The advantages of shell-
moulding over conventional sand-casting are:
it can be semi-automated, which reduces cost

finer sand can be used, which results in a smoother surface finish.
5.1.5 Centrifugal-Casting
This technique involves the molten metal being poured into a rotating mould. The
process is used for the manufacture of hollow cylinders, bronze or white metal
bearings. The rotation can result in acceleration forces of up to 60g and this
produces high-quality, dense castings, since all of the slag migrates to the bore
(due to it being of lower density than the metal) and it can then be machined out.

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5.1.6 Die-Casting
This process uses a permanent metal mould, which results in more accurate, and
better finished, castings than those produced in sand. Die-casting, can be sub-
divided into gravity or pressure processes, depending on how the metal is fed
into the mould.
Gravity Die-Casting - sometimes known as Permanent-Mould Casting. This

casting process is virtually identical to sand-casting except that the mould
(die) is metal. A wide range of metals can be cast and hollow castings are
possible if a sand core is used. Fine grain structures are produced, due to the
more rapid rate of cooling, compared to that achieved in sand-casting.
Pressure Die-Casting - as implied, molten metal is fed under high pressure

(thousands of psi) and held during solidification. Most die-castings are in non-
ferrous materials (aluminium, magnesium, zinc, copper and their alloys),
because steels have too-high a melting temperature for the metal dies to
accommodate. The dies are, usually, made from hard, tool-steels and are
water cooled. This process can achieve excellent detail, super finish, low
porosity, and thin sections. Expensive equipment is necessary, but very high
production rates are possible. Automatic ejection occurs and, on small
components, 100 units per minute is not uncommon. Hollow castings cannot
be made by die-casting.
5.1.7 Investment-Casting (Lost Wax)
This is a very old method of casting (which was used by the ancient Chinese), but
it only became of great industrial importance in the 1950's, when gas turbine
manufacturing began to increase. The process was ideally suited to the
production of complex-shaped nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades which,
often, contained tortuous inner passages, very thin sections and had to be cast in
exotic materials. The basic process is as follows:
1. A master die is made first from an easily worked metal such as brass.
2. Hot wax is then injected into the die, under pressure, to produce a wax
pattern.
3. The wax pattern is then removed from the die and coated with a layer of
investment material (a ceramic slurry or paste), usually by dipping a number
of times.
4. When the investment coating is set, it is then heated to allow the wax to run
out, and molten metal is then poured into the investment mould.
5. When cool the investment coating is then broken away from the cast, metallic
component.

For obvious, reasons this investment-casting process is often referred to as the

Lost Wax process. It is a technique, which is capable of producing precision
castings with a dimensional accuracy of less than 0.1 mm. Surface finish is also
excellent, but the major advantage, that the process offers, is the ability to
produce accurate, complex shapes which would be impossible by machining.
5.2 FORGING
This is a squeezing/hammering technique, which is intended to achieve large

deformation/shaping of the material. The process is usually carried out hot (i.e.
above the re-crystallisation temperature), so that these large deformations can be
attained without being accompanied by any massive, residual stresses.
Sometimes a cold forging operation may be necessary but, in this instance, the
material will be harder, stronger and pre-stressed (i.e. still containing unrelieved
internal stresses).
Forging ranges from the simplest form of the hand operations, conducted by the
blacksmith, to the massive, mechanical, powered rams, used for very large
forgings. The forging hammer will often have a relatively low strike rate, but
sometimes high-speed, pneumatic hammers are used for High-Energy-Rate
Forming.
Forging not only shapes the metal, but also reduces grain size and produces a
directional control of grain flow. Both of these are desirable features for many
engineering applications, particularly for highly-stressed components, such as
crankshafts and especially if they are subject to a mechanical fatigue
environment.
5.2.1 Drop-Stamping
Drop-stamping, or drop-forging (refer to Fig. 1), involves the use of shaped dies
and a heavy drop-hammer, which usually falls under gravity. The piece of
material to be forged, is placed between the top and bottom dies and the drop-
hammer is allowed to fall the necessary number of times for the contact faces of
the dies to come together. Flash gutters are provided, to accommodate the
excess metal (flash), which squeezes out between the top and bottom dies.
5.2.2 Hot-Pressing
Hot-pressing is similar, in principle, to drop-forging, but is actuated by one, long,

steady, squeezing operation, as compared to a number of blows. This process
tends to affect the whole structure of the component, whereas some forging
processes, using multi- (but light) blows will, mainly, affect the material closest to
the surface.

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Upper
Die
Lower
Die
Blank in Dies close to Forged Flash Finished

Die forge shape Article Trimmed Item
The Drop-Forging Process

Fig. 1
5.2.3 Upsetting
Upsetting is, sometimes, called Heading and usually involves locally heating of
the end or ends of the material, immediately prior to forging. Poppet valves are
formed in this way, as well as forged bolts. Sometimes this process is done cold
(in which case it is referred to as Cold Heading), and some rivet heads are
formed in this way.
5.3 ROLLING
When done hot, rolling is capable of achieving major re-forming/re-shaping, and

slabs can be reduced to plate or sheet while bars of circular or rectangular cross
section can also be produced. Hot rolling can also produce structural shapes
such as H or I section beams.
If the rolling is done cold, it is aimed at improved surface quality, better accuracy,
and increased hardness/strength. Hot, dilute, sulphuric acid is used to remove the
hot scale from steel prior to cold rolling. The rolling process would also be used to
produce the clad (and unclad) sheets of aluminium alloys.
5.4 DRAWING
Drawing is a purely, tensile operation, usually carried out hot. Wire, rod and
tubing, can be produced by this process, where the material is pulled through a
shaped, hardened die. A ductile material is essential.

5.5 DEEP DRAWING/PRESSING
This process uses a ram, to deform a piece of sheet metal into a recessed die
and is usually done hot.
5.6 PRESSING
Pressing involves the use of male and female formers for shaping sheet material.
The sheet is placed between the formers, which are then forced together by a
powered ram. Pressing is usually done hot (except for the soft, ductile materials).
5.7 STRETCH-FORMING
This is a technique used for shaping sheet metal over a stretch-block or former.
The sheet metal is firmly gripped by clamps and the sheet is then stretched over
the former (by moving the clamps or the former) and the material is stretched
beyond its elastic limit so that permanent deformation occurs.
This process is convenient for small batches of material (and is particularly

financially attractive since only one former is needed) but, local changes of form
(concave/convex or vice versa) cannot be produced by this process.
5.8 RUBBER-PAD FORMING
In principle this process uses a flexible, rubber-pad, attached to a hydraulic ram,

which forces a piece of sheet metal to conform to the shape of a forming block.
Like stretch-forming, the process only uses one former, so it eliminates critical
matching and alignment problems of conventional pressing, When used for small
batches (e.g. aircraft production), low-cost, easy to machine, materials can be
used for the forming block.
Rubber-Bag forming (Hydro-forming) uses the same principle, but incorporates a

flexible diaphragm and hydraulic pressure in place of the rubber pad.
5.9 EXTRUDING
The extrusion process, forces hot metal through a shaped die, to produce
circular, rectangular, tubular, angular, and half-round sections.
The process is similar to drawing, but extruding forces metal from a heated billet,
through hardened dies by compression, whereas in drawing, it is achieved by
tension. Malleability is an essential material property for the extrusion process.
Extruding is normally restricted to aluminium alloys and copper alloys, where

extrusion temperatures of 400C-500C and 650-1000C respectively are used.
Steel is extremely difficult to extrude, due to the excessive pressures required.

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5.9.1 Impact-Extrusion
This process is, usually, a cold-forming operation, which is suitable to very soft
and malleable materials (e.g. aluminium). The shaped component is formed, by
forcing a punch onto a blank of material within a shallow recess. The extruded
shape results from the metal being forced to escape through the small gap,
between the punch and the recess.
5.10 SINTERING
Sintering; involves metal, in powder form, which is heated to approximately 70%-

80% of its melting temperature and then squeezed to shape in a die.
The process is often used to form components made from materials with a very
high melting temperature (e.g. tungsten). It also allows non-metallic materials,
such as graphite and carbon, to be incorporated into the mixture.
The operation is usually conducted in a controlled atmosphere (typically argon or

nitrogen) to prevent oxidation. Under the high pressures used, a metallurgical
bond occurs (diffusion bonding), between the particles of powder. The sintered
end-product is, typically, around 10%-20% porous and can then be impregnated
with graphite (or high melting-point grease), to provide excellent, self-lubricating
properties for plain bearings, bushes etc.
Sintering can be used where the combined properties of materials are required,
as when copper and graphite are used for electrical brushes (i.e. copper to carry
the current and graphite to act as a low-friction contact)
Tungsten carbide cutting tools can also be produced in this way, by incorporating
tungsten carbide particles within a cobalt matrix.
Hot Isostatic-Pressing uses a similar technique to sintering, but uses higher

temperature and very much higher pressures to produce zero porosity. The
technique is sometimes used to heal micro-porosity in super-critical castings.
5.11 SPINNING
Spinning is an old process, in which a piece of sheet metal may be formed, to

shape, around a rotating former, which is mounted on the spindle of a lathe. The
necessary force to deform the sheet metal is generated by a long tool, which is
levered about a suitably positioned fulcrum.
For thin gauge, soft metals, the tool can be manipulated by hand, while, for
thicker gauge materials, a hydraulic actuator is used on a purpose-built machine.
Cones, flares, bowls and bell-mouth shapes, are produced by spinning.

5.12 CHEMICAL MILLING
Chemical milling is, sometimes, referred to as chemical etching. It is a purely

chemical process, not electro-chemical.
Although simple in principle, chemical milling offers a method of producing

complex patterns and lightweight parts and is used for incorporating integral ribs
and stiffeners in sheet metal. Tapered sections can also be easily formed with the
unwanted material being eaten away by a suitable chemical.
The process is ideally suited to aluminium alloys. The chemical, in this instance,
is a hot alkaline solution (usually caustic soda) and, while it is a relatively slow
process, its unique advantages make it very attractive for airframe components.
The areas, which must not be eaten away by the fluid, are simply protected by a
thin layer of plastic, which can be brushed or sprayed on.
Although the chemically etched surface is not very rough, a drop in fatigue
strength does result and, in critical applications, restoration of fatigue strength is
desirable. A light peening operation, using glass beads or steel shot achieves
this.
5.13 ELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING
Using electrolysis and, by making the workpiece the anode of the dc electrical
circuit, an electrolyte is pumped rapidly (under pressure) through the gap
between the shaped cathode (also referred to as the tool) and the workpiece.
The tool is moved slowly towards the workpiece, by a ram, so that metal is
progressively removed from the workpiece, until the desired shape is achieved
The process is ideal for metals, which are difficult to machine by conventional
methods, and the finish achieved is good. High electric current is required, and
other, essential, requirements for the process are that the tool needs to be a good
conductor (copper or brass) and it must resist corrosion, because the electrolyte
is often a salt solution.
5.14 ELECTRO-DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)
This process is sometimes called spark machining (or spark erosion), because
rather than using electrolysis, the technique involves the removal of metal by the
energy (and heat) of electrical sparks. The energy travels from the electrically
negative tool electrode, through a dielectric fluid and explosively strikes the
electrically positive work-piece.

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The intense heat of the strike, causes local particles of metal to instantaneously
vaporise, without a molten metal phase (a process known as sublimation),
though, away from the actual centre of the explosion, molten fragments of metal
are washed away, with the vapour, by the dielectric fluid.
A suitable fluid (usually kerosene) is fed under pressure, between the electrode
and the work-piece, to maintain a uniform electrical resistance. The spark rate is
around 10,000 per second and the gap between the tool and the workpiece is
critical and must be maintained, throughout the operation, at approximately
0.025 mm - 0.075 mm (0.001 in - 0.003 in).
The real advantage of EDM is that, not only is it suitable on materials which are
difficult to machine conventionally, but it also excels in its ability to produce high-
aspect ratio, very small holes of any cross-sectional, in very hard metals.
Typical holes achievable, by this method, are in the regions of 0.025 mm

diameter x 750 mm deep (0.010 in x 3 in).
A novel variation of EDM is a technique sometimes referred to as wire-cutting,

which uses a moving, fine piece of copper or nickel wire as the electrode. The
wire, 0.05 mm - 0.25 mm in diameter (0.002 in - 0.010 in), is positioned by, and
fed over, two pulleys and resembles a simple band-saw operation.
The work-piece is mounted on a table, which can be moved in two axes and,
when the table is computer controlled, the wire-cutting process can cut accurate,
complex shapes in metals (e.g. dovetails, fir-trees etc.) which are difficult to
machine with conventional tools.
5.15 CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
Conventional machining is done, using seven basic techniques, which are:
1. Drilling/reaming
2. Turning
3. Milling
4. Sawing
5. Shaping/planing/slotting
6. Broaching
7. Abrasive machining (i.e. grinding)
These techniques have been well established for many years, and most of the
advances, until relatively recently, have been confined to tooling improvements
which have permitted higher material removal rates. The early, high-carbon steel
tools, have been superseded by high-speed steels (tungsten/cobalt alloy steels),
cemented carbides and ceramics.

So-called Machining Centres have also been developed, which are capable of
automatic tool changes and of doing difficult types of machining without the need
for transferring work to a different machine and re-setting up. In this way a much
more versatile machine tool has evolved. However, the biggest single machining
advance in modern times (especially with regard to aircraft manufacture) has
been the introduction of Numerically Controlled (NC) machines. NC milling, in
particular, has revolutionised airframe manufacture.
NC machines are machines in which motion is controlled by a series of numbers,

either via punched tape or magnetic tape. Instructions, on the tape, are based on
the Binary System (or a variant) which is common to most electronic computing
devices.
The primary advantage of NC machining is the ability to accurately control the

spindle, the tool or the work-piece movements in three directions (x, y and z
axes) independently or simultaneously. NC machines are capable of producing
compound shapes and contours, and are especially suited to the task of
generating integral spars, ribs, and stiffeners in slabs or forgings.
NC machines usually incorporate a feed-back system, which tells the control unit
how much actual movement is made, analysis is then done and final
compensation eliminates any error (i.e. the motion ceases when the input and
feed-back signals agree). Electrical control of the machine servo-motors can
control movements as small as 0.0005 mm (0.00002 in).
CNC Machines (Computer Numerically Control) differ from NC machines only in

that the electronic control unit on the CNC machine is more sophisticated in that it
is adaptable to a wide variety of software and can accommodate a diverse range
of programs. Although the capital cost of NC/CNC machines is high, the following
advantages make such machines technically desirable and economically viable,
where super-light, complex, high-tech, manufacture is concerned:
Complex shapes with integral features are possible

The number of jigs and fixtures is reduced
A reduction in manufacturing time
Adaptable to short runs
Greater accuracy and consistency
Program can be changed to accommodate modifications

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5.16 SUPERPLASTIC FORMING
Some Titanium alloys when heated, become extremely ductile and can plastically
deformed without necking occurring This superplasticity can be exploited in the
forming process (refer to Fig. 2), when an inert gas is used to blow the material
into the required shape.
Sheet to be Formed
Mould
Air Pressure
Superplastic Forming
Fig. 2

6 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC

A composite is something, which is made up from many parts, and this term
could be applied to a wide range of engineering materials. These would include
not only the metallic alloys, but also the most earliest of all composite materials
used by man; wood (the tough, fibrous, xylem, or water-conducting tissue, of
shrubs and trees, which contains lignin and cellulose). Brick, concrete, and glass
are among the many other materials, which could be considered as composites.
In the aerospace industry, the term composite is used when referring to

materials, which in turn, are a combination of fibrous and synthetic resin materials
that provide many advantages by their great strength-to-weight ratios.
This topic covers a number of different materials, including plastics, resins,

natural and synthetic rubbers, adhesives and sealants. Most of these materials
will be found in use on modern aircraft.
6.1 PLASTICS
The word plastic comes from the Greek plastikos to mould, and plasticity is the
ability to retain a deformation after the load, producing it, has been removed.
Plastics are particularly useful for applications, which involve relatively low-stress
levels, where lightness is important, and where low electrical or thermal
conductivity is required.
The earliest plastic materials (before the synthetics) were those made from the
sap, or latex, of certain trees (gutta-percha), the secretions of tiny, scaly insects
(shellac) and the softened, moulded parts of the horns of animals.
The American inventor, John Wesley Hyatt (in 1869), produced the first synthetic
plastic material (used as an inexpensive substitute for ivory), from the cellulose of
plants (and called it Celluloid), while the chemist, L H Baekeland (in 1909)
developed the first entirely synthetic plastic material (Bakelite), from phenol-
formaldehyde. Bakelite is hard and fairly brittle. It is often used with a suitable
filler material (mica, or wood flour) and is widely used for various electrical
mouldings and low-stressed handles.
Plastics, however, is now the generic name, used to identify various materials
(natural and synthetic), based on long-chain molecules (polymers) of carbon, that
can be cast, extruded or moulded into various shapes or drawn out into filaments
to be used as fibres.
While the two major groups of plastics are the Thermoplastic and Thermosetting
compositions, the manufacture of synthetic rubbers (called Elastomers) is also
considered to be part of the plastics industry.

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6.1.1 Thermoplastic Materials
Thermoplastic materials, in their normal state, are hard but become soft and
pliable when heated (the Greek word thermo heat). When softened,
thermoplastic materials can be moulded and shaped, and they retain their new
shape when cooled. Unless their heat limit is exceeded, this process can be
repeated many times without damaging the material.
Two types of transparent thermoplastic materials are used for aircraft windshields
and side windows, and are usually referred to as cellulose acetate and acrylic.
Older aircraft used cellulose acetate plastic because of its transparency and light-
weight. A disadvantage of cellulose acetate is its tendency to shrink and discolour
with time, which has led to it being phased out almost completely.
Cellulose acetate can be identified by its slight yellowish tint (especially when
aged), and by the fact that a scrap of it will burn with a sputtering flame and give
off black smoke. It will also react, and soften, upon contact with some materials,
such as acetone.
Acrylic plastics are identified by such trade names as Perspex (UK) and
Plexiglass (USA). It is stiffer than cellulose acetate, more transparent and
practically colourless. Acrylic burns with a clear flame and gives off a fairly
pleasant odour. Acetone, if applied, will cause white marks but will leave the
material as hard as it previously was.
6.1.2 Use of Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are normally used where there are no unusual temperature

changes and the majority of all plastics production is thermoplastics, which
include:
Acetate - widely used for tool handles, and electrical goods.
Polyethylene - commonly known as polythene. Its uses include flexible tubing,

cable insulation and packaging.
Polypropylene - stronger, harder and more rigid than polythene. Used for such
items as high-pressure air piping.
Polyvinylchloride - commonly known as PVC. Varying degrees of rigidity/flexibility

are achievable by varying the amount of plasticiser used. Rigid, moulded sections
or piping can be produced and also flexible electric cable insulation
Polystyrene - can be produced in rigid form, but is more familiar in the expanded
form, when it is useful for thermal insulation, buoyancy or shock-resistant
packaging.

Acrylics - these are particularly useful where light transmission is necessary.

Perspex and Plexiglas belong to this family. They have excellent light
transmission properties and are also resistant to splintering. There is a tendency
for some fine craze-cracking to develop if exposed for long periods to ultra violet
light.
These transparent plastics may be solid or laminated. When laminated two or

more layers are bonded together with a clear adhesive and, in this form, they are
more shatter-resistant and are ideally suited to pressurised aircraft windows.
An even stronger and more shatterproof transparent plastic can be achieved by

stretching the acrylic in both directions before final shaping. These improved
properties, result from the stretching operation causing a preferential alignment of
the long-chain molecules.
Extreme care should be taken when handling acrylics, as they are easily
scratched. The acrylics are supplied with a paper or rubberised film, which should
not be removed, until required for use. If dirty, they should be cleaned with cold
water or soapy water.
Care should also be taken when using solvents in the vicinity of acrylics. Some
solvents, or their vapours, may cause crazing of the material. Reference to the
appropriate Manuals or manufacturers specification sheets are essential.
Polycarbonates have similar uses to acrylics (Perspex) but are more

temperature-resistant, have superior impact strength and are more expensive.
Nylon belongs to the polyamide family and is an extremely useful and versatile
material. It is strong, tough and also has low friction properties. It can be used as
a fibre or produced as a moulding. Popular uses include textiles, furnishings,
ropes, tyre reinforcement, bushes, pulleys, gears, and lightweight mouldings such
as brackets, handles etc.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is similar to nylon in appearance but is denser,

whiter and much more expensive. It has a wax-like surface and this characteristic
results in very low friction properties, which make it suitable for bushes and
gears. It also has a high temperature capability (over 300C) and is extensively
used as a non-stick coating such as Teflon. PTFE tape is often used as a thread
sealant for oxygen pipe threads, and as backing rings for hydraulic seals.

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6.1.3 Thermosetting Materials
Thermosetting materials (also called Thermosets) will, initially, soften when

heated, but will remain soft for only a short time and will set (and harden) if the
heat continues to be applied. The process of Thermosets becoming hard, when
heated, is called curing and curing can also be achieved by chemical
(exothermic) reactions.
During the curing process, the long-chain molecules of the material cross-link
(link together between chains) and, once the cross-links are formed, the plastic
becomes hard and cannot be re-softened by heating.
Thermosets are chosen where a plastic component will be exposed to relatively

high temperatures, as some of them can tolerate temperatures in excess of
250C before beginning to char. Thermosetting materials are generally stronger,
have a lower ductility and lower impact properties than the Thermoplastics.
6.1.4 Resins
Natural resins are obtained from the exudations from certain trees and other
plants and as clear, translucent, yellow (amber), brown, solid, or semisolid
agents, they are used in inks, lacquers, linoleum, varnishes and plastics.
While the words plastics and resins are often used synonymously, they are quite
different, in that plastics refers to the material in the finished items while resins
are the raw materials which may be found in the form of powder or syrup.
Resins may be used alone to form plastics but, usually additives are employed
with them, to assist in the moulding characteristics, or to enhance the properties
of the finished product. The resin may be thickened and given more body by the
addition of inert fillers, which may be used to fill gaps and voids in the structure.
Typical fillers are micro-balloons, cotton and glass flock and aerosil (fumed silica).
Reinforcing agents, plasticisers, stabilisers, colorants, flame-retardants, smoke

suppressants and processing aids, such as lubricants and coupling agents, are
among the other additives used with resins.
Resins have little strength in themselves and are generally used to impregnate
linen, paper, and cloths made up from various synthetic fibres. For many years,
aircraft control cable pulleys have been made from thermosetting resins,
reinforced with layers of linen cloth. These pulleys are cured in a mould, at high
temperature, and have high strength without causing wear to the control cables.
When layers of paper are impregnated with a thermosetting resin such as phenol-
formaldehyde or urea-formaldehyde, they can be moulded into flat sheets or
other shapes. Once hardened, the material makes an exceptional electrical
insulator and can be found in use as terminal strips and printed circuit boards.

6.1.5 Polyester Resin
Polyester resin can be extruded into fine filaments and woven into fabric (like
nylon) or cast into shape and it is also useful as a heat-resistant lacquer.
Glass fibres and mat, for example, have great strength for their weight, but lack
rigidity so, to convert glass fibre into a useful structural material, it is impregnated
with polyester resin and moulded into a desired form.
Polyesters cure by chemical action, and, so, differ from materials, which cure by
the evaporation of an oil or solvent. As polyester is thick and unmanageable, a
styrene monomer is added to make it thinner and easier to work.
If left alone, the mixture of polyester and styrene will, eventually, cure into a solid
mass, so inhibitors are added to delay this curing process and to improve shelf
life.
A catalyst then has to be used, when the inhibitors are no longer wanted and the
curing process is to be started and an accelerator will appreciably shorten the
curing time of the resin, depending on the temperature and mass of the resin.
The actual cure of polyester resin occurs when a chemical reaction between the
catalyst and accelerator generates heat within the resin. This exothermic reaction
can be seen when a thick layer cures more rapidly than a thin layer.
6.1.6 Thixotropic Agents
The heat, generated by the chemical reaction, can make the material less viscous
and cause it to run (particularly if it is on a vertical surface). To overcome this
problem, a thixotropic agent is added to the resin after mixing, to increase its
viscosity. The increased viscosity allows the resin to remain in place no matter
where it may be used.
6.1.7 Epoxy Resin
Another type of resin that can be used in place of polyester in laminated

structures is epoxy resin. Epoxy resin has a low percentage of shrinkage, high
strength for its weight and the ability to adhere to a wide range of materials
Unlike polyester resins, that require a catalyst, epoxy resins require a hardener or
curing agent without recourse to heating.
There is also a difference in the mixing ratios between polyester and epoxy
resins. For polyester resin, the ratio is 64:1, resin to catalyst whilst, for epoxy
resin, the ratio is 4:1, resin to hardener.

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6.1.8 Elastomers
From the Greek word elastos elastic, elastomers may be natural or synthetic
materials (polymers) which have considerable elastic properties. Because they
may also be moulded into shapes, which they retain, they qualify to be included in
the category of plastics.
Elastomers will tolerate repeated elongation and return to their original size and
shape, in a similar way to natural rubber. Some of the more common elastomers,
to be found in the aerospace industry include:
Buna N - also known as Nitrile. A synthetic rubber, made (initially in Germany)

by the polymerisation of butadeine and sodium (hence BuNa), it has excellent
resistance to fuels and oils, and is used for oil and fuel hoses, gaskets, and seals.
This material also has low stiction properties, when in contact with metal, and is,
therefore, particularly suited to moving-seal applications.
Buna - S relatively cheap material, also with a performance similar to natural

rubber. It is often used for tyres and tubes, but its poor resistance to
fuels/oils/cleaning fluids makes it unsuitable for seals.
Fluoro-Elastomers - these have exceptional high-temperature properties and can

be used at 250C. They are also solvent-resistant and are mainly used for high-
temperature seals. A common name for these materials is Viton are they are
expensive.
Neoprene - has very good tensile properties and excellent elastic recovery
qualities. It is also solvent-resistant and, therefore, has a wide range of
applications as fuel and hydraulic seals and gaskets. However, because of its
special elastic recovery properties, it is also ideally suited to diaphragms and
hydraulic seals.
Poly-Sulphide Rubber - although it possesses relatively poor physical properties,

it has exceptionally high resistance to fuels and oils and is widely used for lining
or sealing fuel tanks. It is also used for lightly stressed seals and hoses, which
come into contact with fuels or oils. This compound is commonly known under the
trade names of PRC or Thiokol.
Silicone Rubber - has very good high- and low-temperature properties (-80C to +
200C). It is often used for seals, but is also used for the potting of electrical
circuits, because of its ability to retain its rubbery state, even at low temperatures.

6.2 PRIMARY ADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS
Plastics are being used on an ever-increasing scale and are frequently replacing
some of the more conventional materials such as metals, wood and natural
rubbers. Plastics have properties, which make them a popular choice over
conventional aircraft materials. Some of the more important characteristics of
plastics, which help to explain their popularity, are:
Lightness - most plastics have a relative density of 1.1 to 1.6 whereas the
more common engineering materials, such as aluminium and steel, have
values of 2.7 and 7.8 respectively.
Corrosion Resistance - plastics will tolerate hostile corrosion environments
and many of them resist acid attack.
Low Thermal Conductivity - this property makes many plastics ideal for
thermal insulators.
Electrical Resistance - plastics are used in enormous quantities for electrical
insulation applications.
Formability - many plastics are easily formed into the finished product, by
casting moulding or extrusion, often in a single operation.
Surface Finish - excellent surface finishes can be achieved in the basic
forming operation, so finishing operations are not necessary.
Relatively Low Cost because, although some of the materials may not be
particularly cheap, the lack of machining necessary and the high production
rates possible, keeps the costs down.
Light Transmission - some plastics are naturally clear, whilst other are
opaque. These characteristics, consequently, provide the possibility for a
range of light-transmission properties. Optical properties can also be achieved
with some plastics.
Vibration Damping - many plastics are naturally resistant to fatigue and,
because of the high value of internal damping present, resonances will tend to
be of relatively low amplitude.
6.3 PRIMARY DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS
Although plastics are extremely useful materials, some shortcomings inevitably

exist, particularly when compared to some metals. Plastics major deficiencies
are:
Lack of Strength - most plastics are much weaker than metals and mild steel
has approximately six times the strength of nylon. Mild steel, however, is six
times the weight of nylon so, on a strength/weight ratio, they are comparable.
Low Stiffness - plastics have a very inferior value of Youngs Modulus
compared with the common metals.
Low Impact Strength - many plastics have poor impact strength, but there are
a few exceptions, such as with certain polycarbonates.

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Poor Dimensional Stability - mainly due to high values of thermal coefficient of

expansion.
Poor High-Temperature Capability - metals are generally capable of retaining
reasonable strength at much higher temperatures than the plastics. The long-
term maximum operating temperature, for the better plastics, is not usually
above 250C. High-temperature metals can operate for long periods well in
excess of 800C.
Moisture Absorption - many types of plastic absorb moisture, which can result
in a significant loss of strength in a humid environment.
Ultra Violet Light - some plastics deteriorate when exposed to UV light for long
periods. Increased brittleness and loss of strength can occur.
6.4 PLASTIC MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
The most common manufacturing methods are:
Casting - the molten material is simply poured into a mould and allowed to set
Moulding - powder, liquid or paste is forced into a set of shaped dies
Extrusion - plastic is forced through a suitably shaped die to produce rod,
sheet, tube, and angle sections
Compression Moulding the material is put into a heated, hardened, polished
steel container (the die) and forced into shape, by a plunger
Vacuum Forming uses similar tooling to compression moulding, but the plastic
is sucked into contact with the shaped die. This method is often used to
manufacture aircraft interior trim.

6.5 COMPOSITE MATERIALS
As previously stated with Plastics, the main reason for utilising composite
materials, in aerospace structures, is to reduce weight, which has a direct benefit
in lowering operating costs. Composites also provide further benefits in their
ability to be easily formed, comparatively lower production costs, resistance to
corrosion and reduced maintenance costs.
The principal types of composite materials are those involving fibrous elements
which may be used as strands, or be woven into fine tapes and cloths (or
coarser mats), held in a suitable resin matrix and formed into the required
shapes.
6.5.1 Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic (GFRP)
The first man-made fibre, glass can be spun into cloth and used for fire-proof
curtains or (when extremely pure glass is used), made into fibres which are able
to transmit light over long distances.
The ultimate tensile strength of undamaged, very small diameter glass fibres is
extremely high, although the strength is reduced significantly if the fibres are
slightly damaged.
In its structural use it is often merely referred to as glass fibre or fibreglass, when
glass fibres (in various forms) are bonded together by appropriate resins.
When moulded with resin, the resulting composite has a low strength, but
nevertheless good GFRP structures are stronger than mild steel. On a simple
strength-for-weight basis, GFRP can be comparable to high tensile steel if the
fibre form and lay-up is near optimum, however it is considerably less stiff than
steel or even aluminium.
A graphic example of GFRP flexibility is the enormous deflection, which takes

place in the pole during a pole vault. As the glass fibres are about a hundred
times stronger than the resin, it is obviously necessary to get as much fibre
packed into the moulding as possible.
Non-structural items may be made from or include, a percentage of chopped

strand mat, (glass fibres in a random non-woven state) but where considerable
strength is required, uni-directional glass cloth is used.
To provide all round strength, sheets of uni-directional cloth can be laid up at 90

to each other, in a similar manner to the grain in plywood. Sometimes such
sheets are used as facings for an internal honeycomb of plastic-impregnated
paper, to give a very efficient structure in terms of strength, stiffness and weight.

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The glass fibre sheet material can be supplied with cloth already impregnated
with resin and partially cured (Pre-preg), in which case it is necessary to keep
the material in refrigerated storage. Resin curing is usually done at elevated
temperatures (120C - 170C), with the GRP component in its mould and often
under pressure, in an autoclave.
The main reasons for using GFRP are:
in instances where metal cannot be used (e.g. for radar domes or other non-
electrical conducting applications)
the ease and low cost of producing very complex shapes
to provide good strength/weight ratio
its ability to produce selected directional strength.
The main disadvantage of glass fibre is that it lacks stiffness and, as such, is not
suitable for applications subject to high structural loading.
6.5.2 Ceramic Fibres
Made by firing clay or other non-metallic materials, ceramic fibres are a form of
glass fibre, used in high-temperature applications. They can be used at
temperatures up to 1650C and are suited for use around engine and exhaust
systems. Ceramic fibres are heavy (and expensive) and are only used where no
other materials are suitable.
6.5.3 Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP)
CFRP (also referred to as Graphite) is a composite material, which was primarily

developed to retain (or improve upon) the high strength-to-weight ratio
characteristics exhibited by GFRP, but with very much greater stiffness values.
Carbon fibres are very stiff and, when formed into a composite, the Young's
Modulus (E) value can be higher than steel. CFRP is not only six times stiffer
than GFRP but is also over 50% stronger. It also has twice the strength of high-
strength aluminium alloy and three times the stiffness.
Carbon fibres are typically less than 0.01 mm (0.0004 in) in diameter and are
produced by subjecting a fine thread of a suitable nylon-type plastic to a very high
temperature (to decompose the polymer), and driving off all of the elements with
the exception of carbon. The carbon thread is then stretched, at white heat
(2000C-3000C), to develop strength. Unfortunately, the process is complex and
very costly.

Nevertheless, where the high cost can be justified, CFRP can offer considerable
weight savings over conventional materials. CFRP components are generally
made from Pre-preg sheet (fibres impregnated with resin and a hardener, which
only require heat and pressure to cure).
Some specialist items are made by a laborious, but ideal, process called
Filament Winding, in which a carbon fibre string is wound over a former in the
shape of the work piece whilst bonded with resin.
Because of CFRP's high stiffness modulus, it is also used extensively to stiffen

GFRP or aluminium alloy structures.
A material known as Carbon-Carbon (where the resin is also graphitised), is used

for the rotors and stators on brake units. It offers a significant weight saving, as
well as high efficiency, due to the fact that it dissipates the heat generated very
quickly.
Replacing 40% of an aluminium alloy structure by CFRP would result in a 40%

saving in total structural weight and CFRP is used on such items as the wings,
horizontal (and vertical) stabilisers, forward fuselages and spoilers of many
aircraft.
The use of composites, in the manufacture of propeller blades, has led to

significant increases in their life and, in some cases, they may have an unlimited
life span (subject to damage). The modern propeller is highly complex and may
be comprised of CFRP, GFRP, stainless steel, a honeycomb core and a foam
filling.
6.5.4 Aramid Fibre Reinforced Plastic (AFRP)
The aramid fibres are closely related to the nylon-type of synthetic fibres and are
well known for their superior toughness, strength-to-weight characteristics and
heat-resistance. Tyres reinforced with aramid fibres are comparable to those
reinforced with steel cords.
Better known under its trade name of Kevlar in cloth form, it is a soft, yellow,
organic fibre that is extremely light, strong and tough. Its great impact-resistance
makes it useful in areas, which are liable to be struck by debris, as experienced in
areas around engine reverse-thrust buckets. Kevlar is used to manufacture bullet-
proof jackets, and also as a reinforcement in aircraft fuel tanks.
6.5.5 General Information

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A sheet of fibre reinforced material is anisotropic, - which means its properties

depend on the direction of the fibres. Random direction fibres would result in a
much lower strength than uni-directional fibres, laying parallel to the applied load.
However, the strength (and stiffness) of a uni-directional lay-up would be very
low, with the applied load at 90 to the fibres, as this is primarily a test of the resin
(hence the usual practice of placing alternate layers at 90 to each other).

Due to small variations in the size of the individual fibres, and the final quality of
the finished component (which can be affected by careless handling, variations in
cleanliness or lay-up, voids, pressures, temperatures, etc), there can be a greater
scatter on final strength than on a conventional, metallic component. Due
allowance on stress reserve factors is essential.
It has already been stated that composites usually have good internal damping
characteristics and are less prone to vibration resonances. Where high strength,
combined with stiffness is required, then a CFRP is used but, when lesser levels
of stiffness are necessary, then GFRP or AFRP are used.
Composites have very low elongation properties and toughness. Aluminium alloy
has a typical elongation-to-fracture value of 11%, whereas composites range
from 3% for GFRP to 0.5% for CFRP.
The maximum operating temperatures, for GFRP, CFRP and Kevlar composites,
depend, to some extent, on the actual adhesives used, but are, generally, in the
range 220C-250C.
Some composites, such as carbon fibre in a carbon matrix, have very high
permissible operating temperatures (around 3000C), and are used for high-
energy braking applications and as thermal barriers for space vehicles).
Boron, Tungsten, Silicon Carbide and Quartz may also be used to provide fibres
for high-temperature composites
6.5.6 Laminated, Sandwich and Monolithic Structures
Laminated plastics consist of layers of synthetic resin-impregnated fibres (or

other, coated, fillers), which are bonded together (usually heated and under
pressure), to form a single laminate or sheet of composite material. Plastic
laminates are used to face other structural materials, in order to:
provide a more durable surface to a softer (less expensive) material

enhance the surface appearance (colour, porosity, smoothness etc.)
increase the strength and rigidity of many non-metallic structures
produce other desirable surface characteristics such as when acid- or
corrosion- resistance, non-conductivity, non-magnetisability or the ease of
keeping a surface clean is required
To provide a light-weight structure, which possesses strength and rigidity, one of

several structural materials, is sandwiched between two laminated composites.
The sandwiched material (the core) may be made of a solid material, such as
wood, or a series of thin corrugations of a material, which are joined and placed
end-on (in the form of the cells of a honeycomb), within the laminates.

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Where wood is used, as the core material, it usually consists of low-density balsa
wood, which has been cut across the grain and sandwiched between two layers
of reinforced resin (or a metal). This construction makes an extremely light, yet
strong material, which can be used as floor panels, wall panels and, occasionally,
aircraft skins.
The cellular core, used for laminated honeycomb material, may be made from
resin-impregnated paper, or from one of the many fibre cloths. The core is formed
or shaped and then bonded between two face sheets of resin-impregnated cloth.
The finished sandwich structure is very rigid, has a high strength-to-weight ratio,
and is transparent to electromagnetic (radar/radio) waves, making it ideal for
radomes of all kinds.
Metal honeycomb cores (made from light alloy or stainless steel), are also
sandwiched between two face sheets of fibre-reinforced resins. On other
occasions the metal honeycombs may be found sandwiched between sheets of
light alloy, stainless steel or titanium. This type of core is referred to as metal-
faced honeycomb and is used where abrasion- and heat-resistance is important
or when sound-absorption qualities are desired.
In monolithic structures, angle sections (Top Hat, U, I and Z), frames ribs and
stringers are fashioned from similar materials to the outer layers of the sandwich
structure, then covered with the appropriate surface skin, before the stronger,
metallic spars and hinges are attached. Such a structure can reduce the weight of
the flying control surfaces of a large aircraft.
6.6 NON-METALLIC COMPONENTS
In addition to the non-metallic materials, used in the aircraft structure, non-

metallic materials are used in many aircraft components and systems. Many of
these materials require specialist knowledge and understanding, during aircraft
maintenance.
6.6.1 Seals
Seals or packing rings (refer to Fig. 1) serve to retain fluids and gases, within
their respective systems, as well as to exclude air, moisture and contaminants.
They also have to withstand a wide range of temperatures and pressures and,
because of this, they have to be manufactured in a variety of shapes and
materials.

The most common materials, from which seals are manufactured, are natural
rubber, synthetic rubber and Teflon (PTFE). O-ring seals effectively seal in both
directions of movement. They are used to prevent both internal and external
leakage, and are the most commonly used seals in aviation.
V Ring U Ring O Ring
Examples of Seals and Packing Rings

Fig. 1
O-rings are available in various materials and sizes (both diameter and
thickness). They are supplied in individual, hermetically-sealed, envelopes with all
the necessary information marked on the packaging. This system has replaced
the previously used colour-coding of seals which had severe limitations.
Where installations operate at pressures above 100 bar (1500 psi), additional
back-up rings (refer to Fig. 2) can be used to prevent the O-ring from being forced
out or extruded. These back-up rings are usually made from Teflon, which does
not deteriorate with age, is unaffected by system fluids and vapours and tolerates
temperatures well in excess of those found in high-pressure hydraulic systems.
For applications that subject a seal to pressure from two sides, two back-up rings
can are used, when the pressure is from one side only, a single back-up ring is
adequate.
Other seals commonly found are V-ring and U-ring seals. The V-ring has an open
V facing the pressure and is located by the use of a male and female adapter.
The U-ring seals can be found in brake unit assemblies and master cylinders,
where pressures below 70 bar (1000 psi) are encountered. As they only seal in
one direction, the concave surface must face towards the pressure.
No Backing Ring Backing Ring Fitted

Seal Extrudes Out No Seal Extrusion
Examples of Backing Rings

Fig. 2
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7 DETECTING DEFECTS IN COMPOSITE MATERIALS

While composites do not suffer the corrosion and cracking problems, associated
with metals and also have good fatigue characteristics, they do, however, require
regular inspection for the defects to which they are particularly prone.
The areas to be inspected are, usually well known and they will be detailed in the
relevant chapter (51-57 for Airframe topics, 61-61 for Propellers) of the Aircraft
Maintenance Manual (AMM). The inspection methods to be used will be found in
the Non-destructive Testing Manual (NTM) and the approved repair procedures
will be outlined in the Structural Repair Manual (SRM).
Repairs in unexpected areas, or damage, which is not covered in the SRM, will
necessitate the request of specific repair drawings from the aircraft manufacturer.
7.1 CAUSES OF DAMAGE
If a sharp object strikes a thermosetting plastic, the plastic is liable to crack and
shatter, like glass, with straight sharp edges. The reason for this is that, once a
crack starts in the plastic, it travels very easily and quickly in a straight line.
Damage of this kind would be disastrous in a load-bearing component.
The damage appears as a star in the composite, providing it has no surface

finish applied to it. An important point about this type of damage is that there is
little loss of strength in the overall material, in addition to the absence of the
shattering that occurs without fibre reinforcement.
The majority of damage to composite structures occurs during ground handling

such as dropping tools or from ground equipment. Bird-strike damage can also
require extensive repairs. Damage to composite structures may result from a
number of other causes such as:
Erosion caused by rain, hail or dust

Fire
Overload caused by heavy landings or flight through turbulent air
Lightning strikes and static discharge
Chafing against internal fittings such as pipes and cables
7.2 TYPES OF DAMAGE
The types of damage, which may affect fibre-reinforced structures are Cracks,
Delamination, Debonding, Blisters and Holes.

Cracks can penetrate through the lamination layers, but their travel through fibre
reinforced plastics is much slower than through metallic structures. Fibre
reinforced plastics are much stronger than normal plastics and have different
failure modes. Each strand of fibre acts as a trap, to slows cracks travelling
through the plastic (refer to Fig. 1).
A travelling crack quickly reaches a fibre, which is difficult to break, so instead the
crack travels along the fibre. Eventually the crack reaches another fibre and is
deflected again. This process continues until the failure is divided into many small
cracks, which will not have propagated far from the initial damage.
Fibre
Crack travelling Crack travelling Crack around

towards fibre along fibre fibre
Crack Propagation within a Composite

Fig. 1
Delamination (debonding or disbonding) is the separation of the reinforcing fibres
from the resin or adhesive used to bond the composite together. This separation
can also involve the lack of adhesion between a composite skin and honeycomb
centre. The adhesion between the honeycomb centre and the outer skin covers
very small areas, the bonding will not be as great as that between fibre layers and
its resin.
Once separation starts the strength of the whole structure is reduced by a

significant amount. If the honeycomb core is crushed in addition to separation
then extensive repairs or expensive replacement of the complete component may
be required. Delamination is often caused by the ingress of fluids, such as water
and hydraulic oil, or excessive local force on the structure.
Blisters usually indicate a breakdown in the bond within the outer laminations and
may be caused by moisture penetration through a small hole, or by poor initial
bonding.

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Holes may range from small pits, affecting one or two outer layers, to holes,
which completely penetrate the component. Holes may be caused by lightning
strikes or by static discharge.
7.3 INSPECTION METHODS
Areas on the aircraft that are likely to be damaged, should be inspected regularly,
and complete removal of the component may be required at overhaul.
7.3.1 Visual Inspection
Visual inspection is used to detect cracks, surface irregularities (from an internal

flaw) and surface defects such as delamination and blistering. A lamp and a
magnifying glass are useful in detecting cracked or broken fibres. A small
microscope or a x20 magnifier may be helpful in determining whether the fibres in
a cracked surface are broken, or if the cracks affect only the resin.
Delamination may sometimes be found by visual inspection. If the area is

examined at an angle, with a bright light illuminating the surface, the delaminated
area may appear to be a bubble, or an indentation in the surface. When viewed
from the inside, a change of colour could indicate delamination because of a
change in light reflection.
A visual inspection can also find several manufacturing defects such as resin-rich
or resin-starved areas, pinholes, blisters and air bubbles.
7.3.2 Ring or Percussion Test
To detect internal flaws, or areas suspected of delaminations, a ring or

percussion, test can be used. In some instances a properly designed miniature
hammer is used for the test while, in other procedures, a length of an appropriate
hardwood, or a particular size of coin is employed to tap against the surface of
the suspect area.
Variations in the tapping sound will provide clues as to the quality of the bond. A
sharp solid sound indicates a good bond, whilst a dull thud indicates bond
separation. Care must be taken to make allowances for changes in material
thickness, fasteners and earlier repairs, all of which can give false indications.
Whenever damage is found visually, then a percussion test should be done
around the area. In the majority of instances, if there is a hole, crack or other
damage, there is, often, also delamination.
7.3.3 Ultrasonic Inspection
To detect internal damage, an ultrasonic test may be done by authorised,

specialist, personnel. This procedure involves the directing of a low-frequency
ultrasonic beam through the structure and viewing the pattern of the resulting
sound echo on an oscilloscope.

7.3.4 Radiography
Radiography can, sometimes, be used to detect cracks in the surface in addition

to being able locate internal faults that cannot be visually detected. Radiographic
procedures may also be employed to detect water ingress within honeycomb core
cells.
7.4 ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGE
One of the greatest problems, caused by replacing aluminium alloy with

composite structures (especially honeycomb sandwich), is the inspection for
damage. It is unfortunate that when a composite of any kind is struck, the majority
of the damage occurs internally and often, there is little or no visible damage
showing at the surface.
It is vital that any damage to a composite structure be thoroughly inspected, not

only for damage to its surfaces, but also (in a sandwich structure) for possible
damage to its core, which is usually softer than the skins. Damage that gives little
clue to its depth or significance is often referred to as Barely Visible Damage
(BVD).
As with metal structures, the damage occurring to GFRP or CFRP structures may
be classified as negligible (or allowable), repairable by cover patch, repairable by
insertion or repairable by replacement.
These classifications may only be determined by reference to the appropriate

aircraft SRM. Signs of secondary damage (i.e. damage occurring remote from the
primary damage) must not be overlooked. This is particularly important in the
case of impact damage where the shock may be transmitted through the
structure, to cause damage away from the point of impact. In some instances
secondary damage may be more serious than the primary damage.
Sometimes damage may be difficult to detect, due to the natural flexibility of the
material which may cause it to spring back into shape. Any evidence of cracking,
straining, crazing or scuffing of the gel coat should be regarded with suspicion, as
it may indicate the presence of damage.
Where delamination is known or suspected to exist, the area surrounding the

visible damage should be checked to determine the extent of the damage and
integrity of the laminations.

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8 BASIC COMPOSITE REPAIRS

The chemicals, used in laminating resins and cleaning agents, are hazardous
substances and extreme care is called for when handling them. Most resins are
an irritant to the skin. Many people are allergic to the resin, and repeated skin
contact can cause serious damage.
If symptoms of an allergy appear when the resin is used, further contact should
be avoided and the symptoms should slowly fade away. Direct skin contact with
the resin should be avoided, and rubber or plastic gloves worn when there is a
possibility of the hands becoming contaminated.
The resins and solvents, used with synthetic fibres, are all poisonous, so
protection against inhalation, eye or skin penetration should be taken.
If a rotary grinder is used on a glass fibre laminate, much glass and resin dust will
be produced and a respiratory mask should be worn for protection. The same
dust is likely to cause an irritable skin rash to develop on the forearms, especially
when glass fibre is being hand-sanded.
Before washing hands and arms, after working with GFRP, it is advisable to rinse
them in cold water. The arms should be washed in soapy water and the operator
should avoid scratching, especially while dust is lying on the skin.
Before commencing repairs on any composite material (whether it be a simple

fibreglass skin or a complex honeycomb sandwich), the complete area of the
damage must be carefully surveyed. This must be done in accordance with the
AMM, to ensure that all damage is discovered and assessed.
Any subsequent repair will depend on the type of damage, the extent of that
damage and the importance (significance), to the safety of the aircraft, of the
material being repaired. The AMM will provide either a repair scheme or
component replacement information.
The strength of a glass fibre repair is dependent on the strength of the bond to
the original structure. Since the repair receives its working loads through this
bond, it is imperative that every effort is made to ensure a sound connection.
Some of the important considerations are:
Correct Surface Preparation

Correct Bond Strength - this requires correct procedures to be used during the
repair process
Uniform Stress: - once again correct procedures during repair will ensure that
local stress concentrations are minimised.

8.1 REPAIR OF A SIMPLE COMPOSITE PANEL
If a heavy object has been dropped onto a glass-fibre-reinforced epoxy panel, the
damage could consist of a small hole surrounded by damaged composite (refer to
Fig. 1).
Point of Contact
Front of Panel
Damaged
Area
Damage to Composite
Fig. 1
The damaged material is removed first (refer to Fig. 2), bearing in mind that the
damage may be small on the front, but may extend some distance to the rear of
the panel.
Undamaged Panel
Damage Area Removed

Fig. 2
Once the hole has been cleaned out, degreased and its surfaces roughened up,
a piece of glass cloth is laid over the hole, followed by application of the resin.
Several other pieces, each on top of the previous piece are laid, again with more
resin for each layer. In this way, the hole is filled with successive layers and
completed with several large layers over the final surface (refer to Fig. 3). The
SRM will give the exact procedures for each repair.

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Repaired Composite Panel with Sacrificial Layers

Fig. 3
8.2 REPAIR OF A SANDWICH PANEL
These repairs are considered to be more difficult than composite panels, due to
their complexity, and require skilled personnel. In this example, the assumption is
that the dropped tool has broken the skin and damaged the core. As previously
stated, the first task is to remove the damaged material, usually with a router
(refer to Fig. 4).
Damaged Removed with a Router

Fig. 4

A plug of honeycomb is cut to the correct dimensions, without gaps, and bonded
into the hole (refer to Fig. 5).
Damaged Plugged
Fig. 5
Once the plug is bonded in place, the upper skin can be repaired in much the
same way as with the composite panel. Several layers of mat are then bonded
carefully onto both the original surface and the plug (refer to Fig. 6).
Completed Repair of Damaged Area

Fig. 6

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These examples are only an outline of the full repairs that may be done, during
aircraft maintenance.

8.3 GLASS FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITE REPAIRS
These course notes deal exclusively with repairs to glass fibre reinforced
composites, including honeycomb-cored structures. Glass fibre composites have
two basic constituents, namely the glass fibre and the surrounding plastic matrix.
The glass fibres reinforce the plastic matrix and carry most of the load. The matrix
gives the composite its rigidity and protects the fibres from attack by moisture or
chemicals.
Glass fibres are generally woven into a fabric, which gives a regular orientation to
the fibres and allows them to be handled more easily. To produce a glass fibre
laminate, successive layers of the fabric are placed into position and impregnated
with resin. The liquid resin solidifies within a few hours and after post curing at
elevated temperatures, forms a strong matrix around the fibres.
Using this technique, intricate shapes can easily be formed with the load carrying
filaments orientated in the best possible manner. It is also possible to reinforce
the laminate locally and to mould in load bearing fittings into the laminate.
8.4 TYPES OF GLASS REINFORCEMENT
After production of the basic glass fibres, they are collected together to form a
collection of continuous, parallel fibres known as a roving. Glass fibre cloth is
made by weaving rovings together. Depending on the closeness of the weave,
and the number of rovings in each weave of the fabric, different weights of cloth
may be produced.
The direction the rovings follow, are given names to help with orientating the cloth
when laying up. The rovings in line with the material are called the warp whilst
those that cross the cloth at right angles are known as weft (refer Fig. 7).
Reinforcing cloth often has a coloured strip woven into the fabric to assist with
laying up of the cloth. The strip is always in the direction of the warp.
Warp
Weft
Orientation Directions
Fig. 7
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8.4.1 Uni-Directional Cloth
A uni-directional glass cloth has the majority of the glass fibres lying parallel and
in one direction, with only enough transverse fibres to hold the fabric together.
Roving may also be used either individually, or grouped together, to give a fully,
uni-directional composite.
8.4.2 Bi-directional Cloth
A bi-directional cloth has the same number of roving in both warp and weft
directions and, as such, can take stresses in both directions. There are two main
types of bi-directional cloth:
Plain weave is woven with an over one and under one configuration and is
used for most flat surfaces
Twill weave, has a weave with an over one and under two configuration,
which gives drapeability and is used where curved component shapes are
required.
8.4.3 Chopped Strand Mat
Chopped strand mat has random short fibres, lightly held together with a binder.
A laminate of this material is heavy and of low strength, compared with one that is
made of woven fabric. As a result, it is of little use in aircraft construction.
8.5 RESIN
The choice of resin for a particular application, is most important, because resins
are produced with the necessary properties to suit only certain requirements and
are therefore, not suitable for universal application.
Some resins are supplied as a three-part mix, consisting of resin (adhesive),

accelerator and catalyst. It is vitally important, when mixing this type of resin, that
the accelerator is never mixed with a free catalyst, otherwise an explosion may
occur. The correct mixing procedure must be followed so that the resin and
catalyst must be mixed together before adding the accelerator.
Most laminating resin comes in two-liquid parts, namely a resin and a hardener.
Once hardener is mixed with the basic resin a chemical reaction begins and the
mixture begins to solidify (cure).
8.5.1 Resin Mixing

In any resin mix, the proportions are absolutely critical, since the cured strength
depends on it. The proportions are normally specified by weight of the quantity of
resin required. An excess of hardener in the mixed resin is as damaging as a
deficit. In both cases the cured resin will have an incomplete molecular structure
and result in poor physical properties.

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Scrupulous cleanliness is essential in the mixing process, which should be

performed in a warm, dry atmosphere in a well-ventilated and dust-free room.
The materials should be measured in clean glass, or non-absorbent cardboard,
containers.
8.5.2 Pot Life
The temperature of the resin mix affects the rate at which the curing reaction
occurs. If the temperature is too low the resin will be too thick to work, and if the
temperature is too high, the resin will be comparatively thin and will drain out of
the laminate before solidification occurs. Ambient temperature and humidity
requirements are specified by the resin manufacturer.
The length of time before a mix of activated resin begins to solidify is called pot
life and is dependent on the temperature and quantity of resin. Once the resin
becomes thick and stringy it should not be used, since the cured strength
properties will be seriously degraded. To prevent waste only sufficient resin
should be mixed for the task in hand.
8.6 CURING
Most resins used in aircraft structures will cure at standard room temperature
(20C) but may take several days to reach a fully cured state. Once the resin has
hardened, post-curing, at elevated temperature, is required for the resin to gain
its full strength.
For repair purposes the heat is usually applied by means of an infra-red lamp or
electric heater. For components, which have been removed from the aircraft, an
oven of suitable size may be used, to allow accurate control of temperature. If a
large enough oven is not available, then a hot-air tent should be constructed
around the repair, and a thermometer used, to measure the average temperature
inside the tent.
Temperature may also be controlled by use of a temperature-indicating lacquer or

pencil. These, when applied adjacent to a repair, will melt or change colour when
a pre-determined temperature has been reached.
The times and temperatures, required to effect a cure, are specified in the
relevant SRM. The maximum curing temperature must not be exceeded. A typical
time and temperature would be 8 hours at 60C.
The use of pressure is normally specified for a repair whilst it is being cured. This
assists in maintaining the correct profile of the repair and improves the bond.
Pressure may be applied by clamps, weights or by a vacuum bag.
Once the resin has cured, it is absolutely neutral. It will not swell or shrink with
changes in climate and is only attacked by a few chemicals.

8.7 GEL COAT
The durability and appearance of a glass fibre moulding is dependent on its

exposed surface. The purpose of the gel coat is to provide a resin-rich covering of
the exposed surface of the laminate. This prevents the outermost glass fibres of
the laminate from becoming exposed to attack by moisture and sunlight. If the gel
coat is pigmented, then a solid coloured surface is also given to the laminate.
Generally, the gel coat surface is incorporated in the moulding process, but it may
also be used as paint and, after curing, it can polished to give a smooth, glossy
surface.
8.8 STORAGE OF GFRP MATERIALS
GFRP materials are expensive and, to ensure maximum shelf life, they should be
stored in proper conditions.
8.8.1 Storing Resin
Most laminating resins have a limited shelf life, which is specified by the
manufacturer. In general, they should be stored in airtight tins at a cool
temperature (usually below 10C). The resin should be removed from storage at
least 24 hours before use, to allow it to assume workshop temperature.
Depending on the type of resin, the shelf life may be up to 12 months, after which
time it must be discarded. Resins, which have absorbed moisture, and become
cloudy, should normally be discarded, but they can sometimes be recovered by
heating them to 120C, to evaporate the moisture. If the resin clears on cooling, it
may be used but, if it remains cloudy, it must be rejected.
8.8.2 Storing Hardener
Hardeners generally react with oxygen in the air and must be stored in airtight
containers. Some hardeners may crystallise if they become cold. To liquefy the
hardener it should be gently warmed and then allowed to cool at room
temperature. The catalyst and accelerator of a three-part laminating resin, should
be stored separately to avoid inadvertent contact.
8.8.3 Storing Fabrics
Glass fabric should be stored in a warm, dry atmosphere, free from dust, oil or
other contaminants. In order to preserve the fibre surface treatment it must no get
damp. Before use, it is recommended that the fabric is heated to 45C in an oven,
to drive off any moisture that may be in the fabric.
Pre-preg fabrics should be stored in refrigerated conditions and all fabrics should
be stored in their original wrappings.

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8.9 PREPARATION FOR REPAIR
When the damage has been assessed as repairable, preparatory steps may be
taken which are common to most types of repair.
The gel coat should be removed by grinding, or by gently chiselling and peeling it
away, to determine whether the glass fibres are damaged. Signs of overstraining
of the structure will show up as white cracks in the laminations. If the rear of the
structure is accessible, a strong light, shone through the laminates, will show up
any damage (delamination or cracks) as a dark area. The affected area should be
cut out and the damage treated as a hole.
The damaged area should be cleaned and then cut back until sound material is
reached. No evidence of whitening or cracking must be allowed to remain. Before
cutting out the damage, the area should be marked in some way, to determine its
orientation for future reference. Items such as control linkages and bearings
should be covered to keep out glass dust and surplus resin.
The type and number of glass cloth layers, used in the damaged area must now
be determined, which may require the manufacturer to be consulted. It is possible
to analyse a sample of material, removed from the damaged area, by igniting one
corner of the sample with a flame. This burns off of the resin and allows individual
fabric layers to be separated. The weight and direction of the fibre may now be
determined and related to the parent laminate by reference to the previously
applied orientation.
Notes should be made to ensure that the repair would be to the same
specification as the original laminate (i.e. number, weight and direction of each
layer). If the structure used a core material, the type and thickness should be
noted. If the core is wood, the grain direction should be noted.
The patch edges may now be prepared according to the particular repair being
followed and any surface that will have fibre bonded to it must have a thorough
preparation. When preparing a chamfered or scarfed edge, the sanding direction
should be towards the tip (refer to Fig. 8). The prepared edges should be
examined for any sign of delamination, which must be removed by further
sanding.
Sanding Direction
Direction of Sanding
Fig. 8

Some manufacturers specify that cut-outs should have round corners, while
others permit square corners. The inside of the structure should now be cleaned
out and any loose pieces of glass fibre and accumulations of dust removed.
8.9.1 Surface Preparation
To ensure a composite repair cures correctly the environmental conditions must

be right. The workshop temperature should be between 15C - 23C, with a
relative humidity of no more than 65%. Control and monitoring of these
parameters is essential. The exact procedure for preparing the repair is normally
found in that aircrafts SRM, but the following procedure is a common one.
1. Remove excess damage and assess

2. Thoroughly abrade the repair area using abrasive paper to remove the top film
of resin from the reinforcing fibres so they become whiskery
3. Degrease using the approved fluid (i.e. acetone), and allow it to evaporate
from the surface
4. Remove any dust with a clean cloth or vacuum cleaner, after which area
should not be touched with bare hands
5. The repair should commence as soon as possible
8.9.2 Composite Fibre Laying-Up Techniques
The following is a typical to be used in laying-up the repair:
1. Cut pieces of the reinforcing cloth to fit the damaged area

2. Brush a coat of resin onto the prepared surface and lay the first piece of cloth
on the resin
3. Stipple the resin into the cloth using the resin brush, ensuring that the cloth
weave pattern is not disturbed and that no air bubbles remain
4. Continue with more layers of resin and fabric ensuring each cloth piece is
orientated correctly
5. The final layers will usually be proud of the repaired panel to allow for
shrinkage
Once the lay-up procedure is complete, the curing process can begin, depending
on which types of resins have been used. This may involve heater mats, vacuum
bags, an autoclave or the ambient temperature of the workshop.
The quantity of resin required should be estimated and mixed in the correct
proportions of resin and hardener according to the manufacturers instructions.
The container in which the resin is mixed must be clean and there must be no
possibility of the container contaminating the contents, so unwaxed paper
cartons are recommended.
Using too much resin will result in a resin-rich and heavy repair. Ideally there
should be just enough resin in a laminate to wet out the cloth. The fibres, when
correctly wetted out, are almost invisible.

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9 ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS

Adhesive bonding has been used on an ever-increasing scale and particularly in
the aerospace industry. Adhesives are used for constructional tasks varying from
aircraft fuselages, flight control surfaces, to propellers and helicopter rotor blades.
Controlled ventilation, protective clothing, and anti-fire/explosion practices, are

absolutely essential when working with adhesives and sealants. Although many
of the adhesives in current use are supplied in film form, some are liquids or
pastes, from which toxic/flammable vapours are emitted, prior to curing. Many of
the necessary surface preparation solvents also give off toxic/flammable vapours.
9.1 THE MECHANICS OF BONDING
The adhesive bond may be achieved mechanically or chemically, but in practice,

most adhesives use both ways of bonding to form a joint.
Mechanical: - here the adhesive penetrates into the surface and forms a
mechanical lock, by keying into the surface. It also forms re-entrants, where
the adhesive penetrates behind parts of the structure, and becomes an
integral part of the component to be joined.
Chemical: - in this method of bonding, the adhesive is spread over the

surfaces to be joined and forms a chemical bond with the surface
9.1.1 Stresses on a Bonded Joint
Joint stress is at a maximum when the adhesive is in shear. Adhesives should not
be used, if significant stresses are to be carried in tension or peel. The lap joints
type is generally favoured, as the strength of the adhesive bond is proportional to
the area bonded.
Adhesive joints are liable to experience four main types of stress (refer to Fig. 1)
Tensile, Shear, Clevage and Peel.
Tensile forces pull the bonded joint directly apart, whilst shear forces pull the
upper and lower bonded plates in opposite directions, but in the same plane.
Cleavage happens when separation of the plates is attempted at one end of the
joint only. Peel is very similar to cleavage but the force is applied to one bonded
plate only

Joint in Tension Joint in Shear
Joint in Cleavage Joint in Peel
Stresses on Bonded Joints

Fig. 1

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9.1.2 Advantages of Adhesives
The major reasons for the widespread use of adhesives are as follows:
No weakening of the component due to the presence of holes. Also providing

a smooth finish due to lack of rivet heads
No local stress raisers, which are present with widely-pitched conventional
fasteners such as bolts and rivets
Can be used to join dissimilar materials and materials of awkward shapes and
of different thickness
Although the strength per unit area, may be inferior to a mechanical or welded
joint, adhesive bonding takes place over a greater continuous area giving
comparable or increased strength, coupled with improved stiffness
Adhesive and sealants provide electrical insulation and prevent dissimilar-
metal corrosion between different materials
Leak-proof joints can be achieved
The elastic properties of some adhesives, gives flexibility to the joint and may
help to damp out vibrations
Heat-sensitive materials can be joined
9.1.3 Disadvantages of Adhesives
The major disadvantages associated with adhesive bonding are:
Limited heat resistance normally below 200C

Poor electrical and thermal conductivity
High thermal expansion
Limited resistance to certain chemicals such as paint strippers
Integrity difficult to check with non-destructive testing procedures
9.1.4 Strength of Adhesives
The three most important considerations are:
Fail Stress: - fail load within the glued area

Creep behaviour
Durability: - its long-life capability without serious deterioration.

9.2 GROUPS AND FORMS OF ADHESIVES
There are many types of adhesives and the correct type, for a particular
application will be specified in the relevant repair procedure. Great care must be
taken to ensure the correct adhesive type is used because the consequences
could be fatal.
The two major groups of adhesives are Flexible and Structural.
9.2.1 Flexible Adhesives
Flexible adhesives are used when some flexing, or slight relative movement of
the joint, is essential and where high load-carrying properties are not paramount.
In general, flexible adhesives are based on flexible plastics or elastomers,
whereas structural adhesives are based on resins, (the most common ones being
epoxy or polyester).
9.2.2 Structural Adhesives
Structural adhesives are primarily aimed at applications where high loads must
be carried without excessive creep. They are relatively rigid, but without being
excessively hard or brittle.
Another group of adhesives is the two-polymer type, which has a reasonably

even balance of resin and elastomer, which results in a flexible and fairly strong
adhesive.
9.2.3 Adhesive Forms
Adhesives can be obtained in a variety of forms, the most common being liquid,
paste or film. Others, available, are those such as the special foaming types,
which are used to splice honeycomb sections together. Some require heat for
curing, whilst others can be cured by the addition of a catalyst or hardener.
9.3 ADHESIVES IN USE
To achieve optimum bonding, performance, and life in service, from adhesives

and sealants, it is absolutely crucial to follow carefully planned processes and
procedures and to pay the utmost attention to quality at every stage.
Absolute cleanliness at all stages is essential. Surface preparation of the

component is also crucial. To ensure consistent results on structural components,
a purpose-built clean room is required, in order to reduce contamination to a
minimum.

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Pressure and heat may be required. Sophisticated equipment is required to

produce pressure over the components in areas where adhesives are applied.
This will often entail vacuum bags, purpose-built ovens, or pressurised curing
ovens (autoclaves).
Inspection of the bonded joint is difficult. Special inspection techniques and test
pieces are necessary to check the integrity of the bond. Prior to preparing the
mating surfaces for gluing, it is necessary to carry out a dry lay-up i.e. a trial
assembly of all related parts to check and adjust the fit if necessary.
This procedure is essential, to enable the final assembly wet lay-up to proceed
without delay, and without the risk of generating swarf or of contaminating
specially prepared surfaces.
9.3.1 Surface Preparation
Grease, oil, or other contaminants, must be removed by suitable solvents

An optimum surface roughness must be produced
Once pre-treated, a surface must be protected from harmful contamination
until the bonding process is complete
Surfaces to be bonded are normally thoroughly cleaned/degreased in a
suitable solvent and this may be followed by a chemical etch or light blasting
treatment, a water wash and subsequent drying.
9.3.2 Final Assembly
The adhesive is applied (usually within a specified time, otherwise re-processing

may be necessary), and the assembly suitably clamped, or put in a nylon vacuum
bag, and heated in an autoclave. The curing process then takes place under
carefully controlled temperature and pressure conditions.
When cool, the component is inspected, visually for positioning and for a
satisfactory spew line. The glue-line thickness is also checked, with a calibrated
electronic probe, and specimen test pieces are tested for shear and peel
properties.
Following a satisfactory inspection, the component is finally given appropriate

corrosion protection (usually over-painting).
After commencing the final (wet) lay-up, curing of the adhesive must be carried
out within a specified time (usually 12 hours). If this period is exceeded by a few
hours it is necessary to increase the temperature and pressure levels during
curing (and to obtain an official concession cover for this discrepancy).
If the permissible time between wet lay-up and curing is greatly exceeded (e.g. a
full shift or day), it will be necessary to dismantle and not only re-commence the
wet lay-up, but also to, possibly, repeat some of the preliminary surface
preparation treatments (such as etching).

9.3.3 Typical (Abbreviated) Process
Dry lay-up (dummy run)

Prepare faces to be bonded (alumina blast, etch or anodise)
Water wash and dry
Apply adhesive in clean room and clamp or apply vacuum bag
Cure in press/oven or autoclave (typically 120C - 170C)
Release autoclave pressure when cool
Inspect the positioning
Glue-line thickness (electronic probe)
Specimen test-piece results (shear and peel)
Carry out final post-cure surface treatments (over-painting of primer, sealant
or top coat of solvent-resistant paint).
9.4 SEALING COMPOUNDS
Certain areas of all aircraft are sealed to withstand pressurisation, prevent fuel or
fume leakage and to delay the onset of corrosion, by sealing against the weather.
Most sealant compounds, consist of two or more ingredients, that are

compounded to produce a desired combination of strength, flexibility and
adherence. Some materials are ready-for-use, straight from their packaging,
whilst others require mixing before application.
9.4.1 One-Part Sealants
One-part sealants are prepared by the manufacturer and are ready for application
straight from their packaging. The consistency of some of these compounds can
be altered to satisfy a particular application method. If, for example, thinning is
required, then a thinner (recommended by the sealant manufacturer), is mixed
with the sealant.
9.4.2 Two-Part Sealants
Two-part sealants are compounds requiring separate packaging, to prevent

curing prior to application. The two parts are identified as the base sealing
compound and the accelerator. Two-part sealants are generally mixed, by
combining equal portions (by weight), of the base and accelerator compounds
and any deviation from the prescribed ratios will result in inferior sealing or
adhesion.
Many common sealants/adhesives are produced in pre-measured kits, that

simply require the mixing together of the whole quantities of the materials
supplied. These eliminate the need for balances and other weighing equipment.

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The instructions must be followed but, in general, require the addition of the
accelerator to the base compound, followed by thorough mixing before
application.
A working life is usually quoted, which applies after mixing, so the work must be
thoroughly prepared prior to mixing.
Some materials may be kept, after mixing, for a limited time, by the use of
refrigeration. The instructions will give details if this is possible.
9.4.3 Sealant Curing
The curing rate, of mixed sealants, varies with temperature and humidity. For
example, at temperatures below 15C, curing is extremely slow. At temperatures
above 21C, curing times are usually faster. For best results, a temperature of
around 25C, with a relative humidity of 50%, is ideal for curing most sealants.
If the temperature of curing is increased to accelerate the curing time, it must not
exceed 50C at any time during the curing cycle. The heat can be applied, by
using infrared lamps, or heated air, providing the air is dry and filtered.
A practical test, to see if curing has been completed, can be done by laying a
sheet of cellophane on the work, and checking whether the sheet adheres to it
(lack of adhesion indicates full curing).


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10 CORROSION
Corrosion costs the civil aircraft industry many millions of pounds (sterling) each
year and, with care and good husbandry, this figure can be reduced. The more
that aircraft can be manufactured, operated and maintained with the short- and
long-term considerations of the effects of corrosion in mind, then the more those
maintenance costs will be reduced.
Metallic elements are usually compounded with other elements, in the ground,
before they are mined and (compared to the actual metals into which they are
subsequently formed) they are relatively stable. Corrosion is the tendency of
metals to revert to the thermodynamically more stable, oxidised, state. This
occurs when they react with dry air to form metal oxides, or with acids and alkalis
to form metallic salts. Some metals, such as gold and platinum, strongly resist
corrosion.
Reactions, between metals and their environments, can occur in either of two,
often simultaneous ways:
chemical (oxidation)
electrochemical (galvanic)
In both cases, the metal is converted into metal compounds such as carbonates,
hydroxides, oxides or sulphates.
The corrosion process involves two concurrent changes. The metal that is
attacked, suffers an Anodic change while the corrosive agent undergoes a
Cathodic change. The result is that material is lost from the Anode and gained by
the Cathode, forming an ionic bond.
10.1 CHEMICAL (OXIDATION) CORROSION
In a strict chemical sense, oxidation occurs whenever a metal is converted to its

ions. An ion is a neutral atom that has gained or lost one or more of its electrons.
The term oxidation is normally used to describe the direct combination of a metal
with the oxygen of the atmosphere.
The phenomenon is essentially a dry one, although water vapour in the air, does
play a part in the oxidation of some metals. With the exception of gold and
platinum, all metals in contact with air, form a very thin, visible oxide film.

Chemical corrosion can be caused by direct exposure, of the metal surface, to

caustic liquids or gaseous agents such as:
Spilled battery acids or battery fumes. Spilled acids are less of a problem now
that Nickel Cadmium batteries are in common use
Flux deposits from inadequately cleaned joints. Flux residues are hygroscopic
(readily absorb moisture)
Entrapped caustic cleaning compounds. Caustic cleaning solutions should be
kept capped when not in use. Many corrosion-removal solutions are corrosive
agents and should be carefully removed after use.
10.1.1 Effect of Oxide Thickness
The oxide film that forms on a metal, generally tends to protect it from further
corrosive attack. The oxidation rate normally falls sharply as the film thickness
increases (refer to Fig. 1), so that, at some time, there is virtually no further
increase in film thickness.
Oxide Constant
Thickness Temperature
0 Time
Oxide Thickness/Time Graph

Fig. 1
The graph shows the normal situation with no temperature increase but,
occasionally, there is a continuation of oxidation, due to the fact that oxides may
react chemically, or combine with, water to produce a film that is not impervious
to the passage of further oxygen through it. The oxide skin may also crack or
flake and expose the metal surface to further oxidation.
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10.1.2 Effect of Temperature
The effect of an increase in temperature usually results in an increase in the rate

of oxidation of a metal (refer to Fig. 2). The actual curves are not as smooth as
those shown.
550C
525C
Oxide 500C
Thickness
450C
0 Time
Effect of Temperature on Oxidation

Fig. 2
10.1.3 Effect of Alloying
Alloying a metal with another metal sometimes improves the oxidation resistance
of the original metal (refer to Fig. 3). The graph shows the effect of adding varying
amounts of aluminium (Al) to iron. It can be seen that larger amounts of
aluminium result in a slower oxidation rate.
0% Al
+ 3% Al
Oxide
Thickness
+ 7% Al
Effect of Alloying on Oxidation

Fig. 3
The reason for this effect is that the oxide film that forms is rich in aluminium
oxide, and provides more protection than iron oxide. This process is also involved
when chromium is added to nickel to produce stainless steel, on which the
reaction with air on the chromium produces a protective film of chromium oxide.
10.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL (GALVANIC) CORROSION
A more complicated form of corrosion, which can occur not only on the surface of
a metal, but also within the granular structure of the metal (especially in alloys).
10.2.1 The Galvanic Cell
The mechanism of electrochemical corrosion (on single metal and at bimetallic

surfaces) is similar to that of a primary cell, which produces a low-voltage direct
current.
In its basic form, it consists of two dissimilar metals in the presence of an

electrolyte, An electrolyte is a chemical (or its solution in water), which is able to
conduct an electric current, due to the process of ionisation. This forms a simple
electric cell in which the less noble metal (the anode) is eaten away.
When, for example, zinc and copper plates, are partially immersed in an
electrolyte, of dilute sulphuric acid, and are connected to an ammeter and
voltmeter, the potential difference, between the plates, causes a current to flow
(refer to Fig. 4).
Electron Flow
V
Zn Cu
H2
Zn Cu
Simple Galvanic Cell

Fig. 4

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The zinc forms the anode of the cell, and is oxidised into ions that dissolve into
the acid. At the surface of the copper plate (the cathode), a balancing reaction
occurs. The electrons, formed in the anode, are conducted around the circuit and
meet with positively charged hydrogen ions at the cathode, to give off hydrogen
gas. The thermodynamic driving force of this cell is the difference in galvanic
potential between the two metals (zinc and copper). The metal of lower potential
(the anode) in such a cell is oxidised or corroded.
Similar electrochemical corrosion processes, with balancing anodic and cathodic

reactions, occur in neutral (non-acidic) electrolytes such as water. The anodic
reaction will involve oxidation (corrosion) of the metal with the lower galvanic
potential, but the cathodic reaction will, usually, be the reduction of oxygen
dissolved in the electrolyte.
10.2.2 Rate of Galvanic Corrosion.
The onset of corrosion and its severity depends on several factors, and include
the conductivity of the electrolyte solution and the electric potential between two
metals. These complex factors are given brief explanations below.
Conductivity of the Solution
Should the resistance of the solution increase, then the rate of current flow will
decrease. This explains why very little corrosion occurs in pure water (which has
a high resistance), whilst quite severe corrosion occurs in salt water which
conducts electricity quite well. Adding various chemicals to the electrolyte can
change the resistance and the reaction of the galvanic cell. Adding sodium
chloride (salt) to the solution lowers the resistance of the circuit and so increases
the current. The addition of hydrochloric acid to the solution, will remove the oxide
film from the plate and lower the resistance and so increase the current flow.
Potential Difference between the Metals
The galvanic potentials of metals and alloys, can be measured and typical values
found in solutions of seawater, or water with 3.5% salt dissolved in it. Table 6
shows, in any combination of two metals, that one will be the anode, and one the
cathode. It cannot predict the severity of the corrosion, as this depends on the
type of electrolyte present.

Table 1
Extract from the Galvanic Series
Extract from the Galvanic Series
(Based on Hydrogen at 25C (298 K))
Potential in Volts Material Anodic/Cathodic
Anodic
-2.71 Sodium
-2.38 Magnesium
-1.66 Aluminium
-1.63 Titanium
-0.76 Zinc
-0.74 Chromium
-0.44 Iron
-0.40 Cadmium
-0.25 Nickel
-0.14 Tin
-0.13 Lead
0 Hydrogen
+0.34 Copper
+0.80 Silver
+1.2 Platinum
Cathodic
+1.43 Gold
Electrical Resistance
As the corrosion products build up between two metals in contact, and with an
electrolyte present, the products can, in some instances, increase the resistance
of the action. This will result in slowing or even halting the reaction. Alternatively,
the products can bridge any insulation, which has been placed between the
metals, and start an electrolytic action.
Ratios of Areas
If the ratio of the anode to cathode area is not equal then the rate of corrosion
can be much faster (or slower), than would be obtained if they were. If the
cathode area is small, relative to the anode area, then the rate of corrosion is
slow. If the cathode area is much larger than the anode area, then the corrosion
can be quite severe (refer to Fig. 5).
Aluminium Rivet Steel Rivet
Steel Sheet Aluminium Sheet
Effect of Ratio of Areas on the Rate of Corrosion

Fig.5

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Single Metal Cells
Corrosion can happen within alloys or metallic mixtures and can occur between
metal grains and their grain boundaries, as well as in several other places. It can
also occur if small metallic impurities are present within a pure metal, even if the
amount of impurity is merely a fraction of one percent. The removal of impurities
from metals, at the manufacturing stage, can greatly improve their corrosion
resistance.
Oxygen Concentration (Differential Aeration)
Corrosion can occur when the composition of the electrolyte varies at different
parts of the contact area. For example, if the electrolyte is in contact with the air,
the oxygen can be absorbed, giving a high dissolved oxygen level, whilst the
electrolyte elsewhere (in a crevice perhaps), will be low in dissolved oxygen. The
effect of this is to make the metal, close to the highly oxygenated part, a cathode
and that in contact with lower oxygenated part, an anode and so corrosion will
begin and, consequently, the crevice (pitting) increases in depth.
Non-Uniform Temperature
Differences in temperature at varying points will also have the effect of producing
different potentials at these points. This can result in severe corrosion in
components such as radiators and heat-exchangers.
10.3 TYPES OF CORROSION
There are many forms of corrosion. The form may depend on the metals
involved, their function, atmospheric conditions and corrosive agents present.
The following are the more common found on aircraft structures; Surface,
Dissimilar Metal, Intergranular, Exfoliation, Stress, Fretting, Crevice, Filiform,
Pitting, Corrosion Fatigue, Microbiological and Hydrogen Embrittlement.
10.3.1 Surface Corrosion
This is a general roughening or pitting of the metal surface, frequently

accompanied by a powdery deposit of corrosion products. It may be caused by
direct chemical or electrochemical attack and can spread under the surface
coating unnoticed, until the paint or plating is lifted off the surface by the corrosion
products. It is a fairly uniform corrosive attack, which slowly reduces the cross-
section of the metal and is probably, the least damaging form of corrosion. A mild
attack may result in only general etching of an area, whilst a heavier attack may
produce deposits which depend on the type of metal that is being attacked.
Pure aluminium, stainless steel and copper have more resistance to surface
corrosion than aluminium alloy, magnesium alloy and non-stainless steels. This
type of corrosion only becomes serious over a period of time and gives a warning
of worse corrosion to follow.

10.3.2 Dissimilar Metal Corrosion
Galvanic action leads to one of the more common forms of corrosion, which
occurs between two dissimilar metals in contact with each other and where there
is moisture present. It is caused by the difference in galvanic potential of the two
metals where plating or jointing compound has been removed or omitted.
This type of corrosion can occur where steel bolts and nuts are in contact with
aluminium alloys such as aircraft wheels. This may be taking place out of sight
and may result in extensive pitting. It may or may not be accompanied by surface
corrosion.
10.3.3 Intergranular Corrosion
This corrosion is also known as intercrystalline corrosion, and results from micro-
galvanic cells at the grain boundaries in the metal (refer to Fig.6). The corrosion
progresses from the metal surface, normally along grain boundaries and often
penetrating quite deeply to produce a serious mechanical weakening of the
metal.
The amount of metal corroded is small, relative to the volume of metal affected
and indications of the damage may not be visible to the naked eye. Intergranular
corrosion may often be detected by ultrasonic, eddy current or radiographic
inspection procedures.
Corrosion enters
through cracks in the
Paint Film
paint film
Cladding
Intergranular Aluminium
Corrosion Steel Rivet
Intergranular Corrosion
Fig.6

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10.3.4 Exfoliation Corrosion
Exfoliation or Layer corrosion, of certain wrought aluminium alloys, is a form of

intergranular corrosion in which the attack occurs in layers parallel to the surface.
The wedging action, of the corrosion products, occupies a larger volume than the
alloy, and will cause lifting of the metal surface, causing it to exfoliate. This
occurs at an early stage, when the corrosion is on, or just below, the surface.
Exfoliation corrosion often attacks aluminium alloys with an appreciable amount

of Zinc. When the corrosion occurs well below the surface, extensive damage can
occur before the surface deformation is apparent. Spars, stringers and other high-
strength parts, which are extruded or hot rolled, are often (because the grains
tend to form in layers) susceptible to this kind of corrosion if they have been
poorly heat-treated.
10.3.5 Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking is a cracking process, caused by the combined action

of a sustained tensile stress and a corrosive environment. Only certain
combinations of alloys and environments result in stress corrosion cracking,
although this type of failure may occur at stresses well below the yield strength of
the alloys. Many of the high-strength structural alloys, used in aircraft, are prone
to stress corrosion cracking in a wide range of environments and they are
particularly susceptible in marine environments.
In aircraft alloys, the principal stresses, causing this stress corrosion cracking, are
not the applied service loads, but the stresses developed within the metal during
manufacture and during assembly. For example, internal stresses can arise from
quenching after heat-treatment, from force fits, from badly mating parts, or from
welding procedures. Service stresses are only significant when they act in the
same direction as internal or assembly stresses.
Stress corrosion cracking has three distinct phases in that there is an initial
Incubation period, (when a stress corrosion crack starts from pitting or film
breakdown). The incubation is followed by a period of Slow Growth of the stress
concentrations and culminates in a short, Rapid Crack-Growth rate.
In highly stressed parts such as landing gear components, cracks may originate
from a stress raiser such as a scratch or surface corrosion. This problem is
characteristic of aluminium, copper, stainless steels and high-strength alloy steels
and may occur along lines of cold working.
Signs of stress corrosion are given by minute cracks radiating from areas of the
greatest stress concentration. Likely areas for this type of corrosion are landing
gear jacks, shock absorbers, bellcranks with pressed-in bushes, or other areas
where parts are a force fit, highly stressed or have residual stresses induced
during the forming process.

10.3.6 Fretting Corrosion
Fretting corrosion is the result of rubbing movement between two heavily loaded
surfaces, one, or both, of which are metallic. The rubbing action destroys any
natural protective film and also removes particles of metal from the surface. In its
early stages, the debris of this corrosion forms a black powder. These particles
form an abrasive compound, which aggravates the effect of the rubbing action
and the surface is continually removed to expose fresh metal to the corrosive
attack. This form of attack can eventually cause cracking and fatigue failure.
The most likely areas affected are gears, screw jacks, loose panels, splined
hydraulic pump drives and rivets (when they become loose). It may be serious
enough to cause cracking and fatigue failure.
10.3.7 Crevice Corrosion
Crevices are liable to preferential attack, usually by a differential aeration form of

corrosion, intensified by the high ratio of cathode to anode area involved. The
attack is more severe where crevices collect dust and moisture (Fig. 7).
Low Oxygen
Concentration
becomes Anodic
High Oxygen
Concentration Crevice
becomes Cathodic
Crevice Corrosion
Fig.7
Severe localised corrosion occurs at narrow openings or gaps between metal

components, often due to flexing. Corrosive agents are able to penetrate into the
joint.
10.3.8 Filiform Corrosion
Filiform corrosion occurs beneath thin, protective coatings, on aluminium and

steel alloys, with the paint or coating often bulging or blistering. On aircraft
structures, the attack often starts at fasteners and extends as thread-like lines of
corrosion under the paint. It may not be readily visible until it has become quite
severe. The damage tends to be very shallow and is not, usually, structurally
dangerous.

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10.3.9 Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion can occur on aircraft materials when the protective film, whether
applied or natural, breaks down locally and this may also lead to intergranular
corrosion. The corrosion often stems from the screening effect of silt, scale or
corrosion deposits that reduce the oxygen concentration at local points on the
metal surface, which establishes differential concentration cells.
Local rough spots, inclusions, contaminations and lack of homogeneity in the

alloy or metal are also possible causes of pitting. In size and depth, the pits are
widely variable and a large number of pits can give a surface a blotchy
appearance. Aluminium and magnesium alloys, chromium-plated and stainless
steels (including nitrided surfaces), are all particularly susceptible to this form of
corrosion. Pitting corrosion of an aluminium alloy component can be detected by
the appearance of white powder on the surface of the metal (refer to Fig. 8).
Pitting Corrosion of an Aluminium Alloy Component

Fig. 8

10.3.10 Corrosion Fatigue
This is similar to stress corrosion cracking, except that the applied loads are
cyclic instead of static. Crack propagation is aided by the corrosion that occurs, at
the root of the crack, during the tensile part of the loading cycle.
10.3.11 Microbiological Contamination
This is caused, directly or indirectly (and in one or more ways), by micro-

organisms which are not only able to produce corrosive substances (such as
hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and inorganic acids), but can also act as
depolarisers or catalysts in corrosion reactions. Local depletion of oxygen and
water, held in contact with a metal surface, by matted fungi and micro-organisms,
all contribute towards establishing corrosive environments.
The commonest form of microbiological corrosion in aircraft, is that, which is

caused by contamination of fuel tanks (unless the fuel has an additive to protect
against it). The growth of the fungi depends on several conditions, but a high
ambient temperature can drastically increase the rate of growth, and especially
so when the temperature is above 30C with a high relative humidity. This
microbiological growth is sometimes called Cladosporium Resin.
Where fungal growth has formed, there is a probability that corrosion of the tank
will occur. The organisms, resembling a mucous, can cause problems with filters
and with the fuel contents gauge units. The roots of the fungus, penetrating the
internal sealing and protective coatings of fuel tanks can cause further problems.
In well-developed contaminations, a dense mat of fungus forms on the floor of the

tank, retaining water and preventing free flow to the water drain-valve. In integral
fuel tanks, this can result in serious corrosion of the aircraft structure such that
penetration of the bottom wing skin has been known to occur. Spillage, of organic
materials, from around galley and toilet areas, provides a further source of
microbial contamination and this can be more corrosive than its chemical
composition due to fermentation by yeast and bacteria.
10.3.12 Hydrogen Embrittlement of Steels
Many of the standard surface protection treatments, including cleaning and

electroplating, are liable to introduce hydrogen into steel. To avoid embrittlement,
the steels must be baked, at a temperature of around 200C, following the
treatments. The duration of the baking is dependent on the strength of the steel.
High-tensile steels are much more susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement than
are other metals.
Hydrogen embrittlement shows itself in slow strain-rate mechanical tests and not
by fast rate tests such as in impact testing. These steels can show a sudden
failure after many weeks of loading at well below their normal yield strength.

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10.4 FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION
Many factors will affect the cause, type, speed of attack, and seriousness of
metal corrosion. Some are beyond the control of the aircraft designer or
maintenance engineer while some of them can be controlled.
10.4.1 Climatic
The environmental conditions under which the aircraft is operated and maintained
cannot normally be controlled. The worst conditions would exist in a hot and wet
maritime environment. The following factors will effect the rate at which corrosion
will occur.
Marine environment exposure will increase rate of corrosion

Moisture laden atmosphere as against a dry atmosphere
Temperature considerations as high temperatures will increase the rate of
corrosion as all chemical reactions occur faster at higher temperatures.
10.4.2 Size and Type of Metal
Some metals corrode more easily than others. Magnesium corrodes readily,
whilst Titanium is extremely corrosion-resistant because it oxidises readily. Thick
structural sections are also more susceptible than thin sections, because
variations in physical characteristics are greater. Such sections are also likely to
have been cold worked and are, therefore, more susceptible to stress corrosion.
10.4.3 Corrosive Agents
Foreign materials, that may adhere to metal surfaces, and, consequently result in
corrosion, can include:
Soil and atmospheric dust

Oil, grease and engine exhaust residues
Salt water and salt moisture condensation
Spilled battery acids and caustic cleaning solutions
Welding and brazing flux residues

10.5 COMMON METALS AND CORROSION PRODUCTS
One of the problems involved in corrosion control, is the recognition of corrosion

products whenever they occur. The following brief descriptions are of typical
corrosion products, common to materials used in aircraft construction.
10.5.1 Iron and Steel
The most common, and easily-recognisable, form of corrosion is red rust. The
initial oxide film, formed on freshly exposed steel, is very thin and invisible. In the
presence of water, or in a damp atmosphere, especially if sulphur dioxide
(industrial atmosphere) or salt (marine environment) is present, thick layers of
hydrated oxide develop.
These layers vary in colour from brown to black. Rust promotes further corrosion
by retaining salts and water. Mill scale (a type of oxide formed at high
temperatures), also promotes rusting, by forming an electrolytic cell with the
underlying steel. Heavy deposits of rust can be removed only by abrasive blasting
or by immersion in rust-removing solutions.
Surface rust can develop on steel nuts, bolts and other fasteners and may not
adversely affect the operational integrity of the equipment. Its appearance is an
indication that adequate maintenance procedures have not been followed.
10.5.2 Aluminium Alloys
The corrosion of aluminium and its alloys, takes a number of different forms. It
may vary from general etching of the surface, to the localised, intergranular-
attack, characteristics of some strong alloys in certain states of heat-treatment.
The corrosion products are white to grey and are powdery when dry. Superficial
corrosion can be removed by scouring, light abrasive blasting, or by chemical
methods.
In general, pure aluminium sheet and alclad surfaces have good corrosion
resistance, except in marine environments. In these areas, aluminium and its
alloys need protection and high-strength aluminium alloys are always given a
substantial protective treatment.
10.5.3 Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium corrosion products are white and voluminous, compared to the base
metal. When the failure of protective coatings on magnesium alloys occurs, the
corrosive attack tends to be severe in the exposed areas, and may penetrate
totally through a magnesium structure in a very short time. Any corrosion, on
magnesium alloys, therefore requires prompt attention. In contrast to high-
strength aluminium alloys, the strong magnesium alloys, used in aircraft, do not
suffer intergranular attack. Corrosion is readily visible on the surfaces of
Magnesium Alloys.

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10.5.4 Titanium
Titanium is highly corrosion-resistant, but should be insulated from other metals

to avoid dissimilar metal corrosion of the adjacent material. Titanium alloys can
suffer stress corrosion at temperatures above 300C when in the presence of salt
and fatigue cracks can develop more quickly in a saline atmosphere.
Cadmium can penetrate the surface of titanium alloys and embrittle them at all
temperatures above ambient. Lead, Tin and Zinc can also cause embrittlment at
temperatures higher than approximately 120C. Embrittlement can occur if the
cadmium is plated onto the titanium or if cadmium-plated steel parts (and
cadmium-contaminated spanners) are used with titanium. Great care must be
taken to ensure that these conditions never occur if at all possible.
10.5.5 Copper Alloys
Copper and its alloys are relatively resistant to corrosion. Tarnishing has no
serious consequences in most applications. Long-term exposure to industrial or
marine atmospheres gives rise to the formation of the blue-green patina (aerugo
or verdigris) on copper surfaces, while brasses can suffer selective removal of
zinc (de-zincification). In aircraft construction, copper-based alloys are frequently
cadmium-plated, to prevent dissimilar metal corrosion.
10.5.6 Cadmium and Zinc
Cadmium and zinc are used as coatings, to protect the parts to which they are
applied. Both confer sacrificial protection on the underlying metal. Cadmium is
normally chosen for use in the aircraft industry, as it is more durable under severe
corrosive conditions such as in marine and tropical environments. Both metals
produce white corrosion products.
10.5.7 Nickel and Chromium
Electroplated nickel is used as a heat-resistant coating, while chromium is used

for its wear-resistance. Both metals protect steel only by excluding the corrosive
atmosphere. The degree of protection is proportional to the thickness of the
coating. Once the underlying steel is exposed (through loss of the coating, due to
abrasion or other damage), then the coatings actually accelerate the rusting, due
to the fact that the steel is more anodic than the protective coating.
Chromium is also highly resistant to corrosion, whilst Nickel corrodes slowly in

industrial and marine atmospheres, to give a blue-green corrosion product.

AIRCRAFT FASTENERS
Fasteners, or fastening devices, are used to create secure joints between two or
more components. Types of fastening devices, used on aircraft, vary in
accordance with the materials, which require joining, and the importance of the
joined components, or structures, to the safety of the aircraft. Only those
fastening devices approved by that aircrafts maintenance manual are allowed to
be used, as substitution with incorrect parts can cause fatal consequences.
The environment in which the joint must operate and the frequency and ease with
which the joint may need to be disassembled, for inspection, replacement or
repair, will also influence the choice of fasteners to be employed. Fasteners may
be metallic or non-metallic (or composites of both types). They may be flexible or
rigid (or a combination of both) and may be used to form the three basic
categories of joints.
10.6 TEMPORARY JOINTS
Temporary joints are used where the joint can be disassembled without damage
and where, usually, the same fastener can be used to reassemble the joint. Bolts
and nuts, circlips and quick-release fasteners are, typically, used in temporary
joints.
10.7 PERMANENT JOINTS
Permanent joints are those which are not intended to be disassembled on a

frequent basis (if at all), and are joints where either the fastening medium or the
joined components will suffer damage in their separation. Adhesives, rivets and
welds are examples of uses of permanent joints.
10.8 FLEXIBLE JOINTS
Flexible joints allow movement of the joined components relative to each other.
Anti-vibration mounts, universal couplings and hinges are devices which may be
employed in flexible joints.
Whatever fasteners are used, to make a particular joint, it must be ensured that
only the approved materials are utilised and that their legality is confirmed. This
can be done by reference to published Part Numbers, which are to be found in
Aircraft Maintenance Manuals, Wiring Diagrams, Structural Repair Manuals,
Illustrated Parts Catalogues (also called Illustrated Parts Lists) and other,
approved, publications.
The use of non-approved fasteners can lead to expensive and, possibly, fatal
failures in aircraft and their associated structures.

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10.9 SCREW THREADS
Threaded fasteners allow parts to be fastened together with all of the strength
that unthreaded fasteners provide. However, unlike rivets and pins, threaded
fasteners may be disassembled and reassembled an almost infinite number of
times. Due to the large range of different available fasteners, great care must be
always be taken to select the correct fastener for each particular installation.
Aircraft, bolts, nuts, screws and studs are manufactured to the many, different,
International Standards and in a variety of different thread forms, as can be seen
in Table 1. Most aircraft now use Unified or Metric threads but, however, some
older aircraft use British Association (BA), British Standard Fine (BSF) or British
Standard Whitworth (BSW) thread forms. None of these are compatible with the
Unified or Metric thread forms.
Table 1
Common International Thread Standards
International Standard Common Abbreviation
American National Coarse ANC

American National Fine ANF
Unified Coarse UNC
Unified Fine UNF
British Association BA
British Standard Fine BSF
ISO Metric M
10.9.1 The Inclined Plane and the Helix
The value of the wedge, as a means of transmitting motion, is well known. For a
constant effort applied in driving a wedge, a smaller angle of inclination between
the planes will cause a greater force to be exerted through a shorter distance.
Conversely, a larger angle will cause less force to be exerted through a greater
distance (refer to Fig. 1).
Push wedge
in and column
will lift
Shallow Wedge = Small Movement Steeper Wedge = Larger Movement
Transmission of Motion with Inclined Plane

Fig.1

Whilst the wedge is, generally, used as a means of transmitting motion, it must be
remembered that the action may be reversed and the wedge can be caused to
move when a force is applied to the inclined surfaces.
This is readily appreciated when the angle is large (the larger the angle of
inclination becomes, the more readily is the motion reversed), but no matter how
small the angle may be, the resultant of forces applied will still tend to produce
movement. Friction between the surfaces may prevent movement from actually
occurring.
When a continuous, inclined plane is cut around the outside (or the inside) of a
cylinder, then a spiral or helix is produced (refer to Fig. 2). The helix angle is
important in screw threads, because it dictates the number of threads, which can
be cut, per axial length on or inside the cylinder.
Helix Angle
Helix Angle of a Screw Thread

Fig.2
In a similar manner to the previously mentioned wedges, a thread with a small

helix angle (a fine thread), will exert a greater force than one with a larger helix
angle (a coarse thread) for a given cylinder diameter.
Fine threads are, normally, associated with small and delicate instruments or in
equipment, where secure holding power is often required of miniature-sized
fasteners. The greater wedging action of fine threads also makes them much
more dependable in situations where vibration (or a change of temperature) has
the tendency to loosen threaded joints.

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Most aircraft components are assembled using fine threads on the various bolts,
nuts, screws and studs, which are then often further secured by some other,
mechanical process, to reinforce their resistance to the effects of temperature
changes and vibration.

10.10 SCREW THREAD TERMINOLOGY
There are two basic types of screw thread fastener, these being the bolt and the
screw. A bolt is considered to have a plain shank portion in addition to a threaded
section, whilst a screw has threads running the full length of the shank with no
plain portion. There are exceptions to this general statement, as shown by
American AN structural screws having a plain shank.
As there are variations with screw thread terminology, the correct way of
describing a threaded fastener is to use the correct terminology, found in the
relevant aircraft Illustrated Parts Catalogue when ordering replacement items.
10.10.1 British Standard (BS) Threaded Fasteners
BS threaded fasteners use the term Nominal Length (refer Fig. 3) to describe the
measurement of length.
Screw
Nominal
Length
Bolt
Nominal
Length
British Standard Terminology

Fig.3
10.10.2 American Standard Fasteners
The American method of length measurement uses two terms, Length and Grip
(refer to Fig. 4) to describe threaded fasteners. The Grip is the portion of the
fastener that is unthreaded.
Grip
Length
American Terminology
Fig.4

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Screw threads are usually formed with a clockwise turning groove and are
referred to as right-hand threads. There are occasions where a thread is formed
with the groove spiralling in an anti-clockwise direction and these are designated
as left-hand threads.
While a traditional thread shape can be used to illustrate the terminology

associated with screw threads (refer to Fig. 5), the actual profile of a thread is
determined by the standard, or specification to which it is manufactured. This of
course, will also be influenced by the use to which the threaded item is to be put.
Crest
Pitch
Flank Lead Thread

Angle Angle
Depth Root
External or Major Root, Core or Effective

Diameter Minor Diameter Diameter
Screw Thread Terminology

Fig.5
The following additional terminology also refers to screw threads:
Single Start Thread: Term used when there is only one screw thread (helix) cut in
the material
Multi-Start Thread: Consists of two or more separate, parallel threads cut into the
material carrying the thread. This method is used in order to achieve a quick-
acting motion between two threaded items
Runout: The part of the thread where the minor diameter increases until it equals
the major diameter and merges with the plain portion of the shank. The runout
cannot be used and any nut, rotated onto the runout, would become thread-
bound

10.10.3 Screw Thread Forms
The type of screw thread utilised for any application is dependant on the function
of the component. Typically a bolt or screw will use a V shaped threaded form
similar to the metric thread, whilst the Acme, Buttress and Square threads are
utilised to transmit movement in vices and flap screw jacks (refer to Fig. 6).
Pitch Pitch
60
ISO Metric Thread Square Thread
Pitch
Pitch
45 29
Buttress Thread Acme Thread
Screw Thread Forms

Fig.6
Thread forms have developed over the years, from the early standardisation on
the BSW thread with its rather coarse thread, to the modern, finer threads which
are more suitable for use on aerospace components and structures. In an attempt
to provide a common standard Canada, the United States of America, and the
United Kingdom adopted the Unified system of threads.
The International Standard Organisation (ISO) recommended that the Unified

system be used internationally, in parallel with a system using Metric units of
measurement, but with a similar form of thread profile and standards of
tolerances.
Unified Coarse (UNC) and Unified Fine (UNF) threads may be found wherever
their use is appropriate, but special threads, such as UNS (for high-temperature
applications) and UNJ (increased fatigue strength) are also used. Screw threads
may be formed, by processes such as tapping, dieing, machine cutting or (where
maximum fatigue resistance is required of a bolt), by rolling.

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In the United States, a parallel but differing group of thread systems is used. The
four main systems are ANC, ANF (also referred to as AF), UNC and UNF, with
the NC and NF having a finer thread than the UNC and UNF.
10.10.4 Classes of Fit
In addition to being identified as either coarse or fine, the threads are also
classified by their class of fit (refer to Table 2).
Table 2
Classes of Thread Fits
Class of Fit Type of Fit
1 Loose
2 Free
3 Medium
4 Close
5 Tight
A nut on class 1 fit bolt can be tightened by hand along the threads entire length,
whilst a Class 4 or 5 fit requires a spanner to be used throughout the tightening
operation.
The Class 3 fit is the type mostly employed on aircraft, and would be typical of a
thread which is designed for use in a high-temperature environment and may
require the application of an anti-seize compound before installation.
By comparison a fastener that is to be subjected to high tension or shear loads,

associated with the securing of aircraft engine parts, would need to be a Close
tolerance type of fit.
10.10.5 Measuring Screw Threads
It is not considered a normal operation to measure a screw thread, as its

identification can be found by using the manufacturers part number. Whilst this is
true and the manuals should always be used, there are other ways of identifying
screw threads.
One method is to identify the screw by means of various marks, normally found
on the head of the screw. These marks may give a clue as to which type of
thread the screw is using, whilst a measurement across the thread crests, using a
micrometer, would give the diameter of the screw in question. The identifying
head markings would also give the material from which the screw is made.
Two useful tools (refer to Fig. 7) may be used for different stages of thread
measurement.

The profile gauge can be used to ensure that the tool, which is cutting the thread,
is of the correct type. The pitch gauge can be used to find the thread size by
simply fitting the various blades of the gauge against the screw thread until a
match is achieved.
42 55 0.25 2.5 mm
60 47
Profile Gauge Pitch Gauge
Thread Checking Gauges

Fig.7
10.11 BOLTS
The bolts used in the construction of aerospace components and structures, have
evolved into a large range of materials, shapes and sizes, all of which are
dictated by the applications for which the items have been designed.
Standards and systems have been established, to provide identification of the

many different forms of threaded devices, in order to ensure that only the correct
items are installed in the relevant locations.
It is stressed here, that only the approved design materials may be used for
aerospace components. While a selection of some of the bolts are presented in
these course notes, by way of introduction, the relevant AMM, SRM and IPC will
be the sole authority for deciding the correct type of bolt that is to be used in a
particular application.
10.11.1 British Bolts
An extensive range of bolts and screws is provided for, in the specifications

drawn up by the Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC). The following
abbreviations (some of which have, already, been discussed are in common use:

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AGS Aircraft General Standard

AS Aircraft Standards
Al. Al. Aluminium Alloy
BA British Association
BSF. British Standard Fine
HTS. High Tensile steel
HTSS. High Tensile Stainless Steel
LTS. Low Tensile Steel
SS Stainless Steel
UNC. Unified National Coarse
UNF. Unified National Fine.
10.11.2 Identification of BS Unified Bolts
British Standard Unified (BS Unified) bolts are identified by the use of an alpha-
numeric code, which provides information relating to the type, material, surface
finish, length, diameter and other important characteristics of the threaded device.
Table 3 shows a small selection of aircraft standard bolts and screws with a brief
description of the type of device and the materials from which it is made.
Reference to the table shows that the code A102 signifies a hexagonal-headed
bolt which is made of high-tensile steel, while the code A175 represents a 100
countersunk-headed bolt, made from an aluminium alloy.
Table 3
Examples of Code Numbers for Unified Threads
Standard Number Description Material
A102 Hex. Headed Bolt HTS

A104 Hex. Headed Bolt SS
A111 Hex. Close Tolerance Bolt HTS
A112 Shear Bolt HTS
A174 100 Countersunk. Head Bolt SS
A175 100 Countersunk. Head Bolt Al. Al.
A204 100 Countersunk. Head Screw HTS
A205 Pan Head Screw HTS
There are other methods of indicating that an item has a Unified thread such as:
Three contiguous (touching) circles marked on the machined bolts or nuts

A shallow recess in the head of a bolt, equal to the nominal diameter of the
thread on cold forged items
A small protrusion (dog point) on the threaded shank end, which is normally
found on screws.

Further numbers and letters are added to the identifying code, to provide
information relating to the length (usually of the plain shank or gripping portion)
and to the diameter of the items. The length is given by a number, which signifies
increments of tenths of an inch, so that a 5 would represent a bolt with a plain
shank of 0.5 in, while the number 12 would signify the plain shank as being 1.2 in
long
Reference to Table 4, will show how the diameter of an item is designated by the
addition of another letter to the system. A bolt with the code marking of A102 9 E,
would signify a Unified-threaded, hexagon-headed bolt, made from high-tensile
steel, with a plain shank length of 0.9 in, and a diameter of in.
Table 4
Examples of BS Unified Bolt Codes
CODE DIAMETER CODE DIAMETER
Y 0-80 UNF J 3/8" UNF (UNJF)
Z 2-64 UNF L 7/16" UNF (UNJF)
A 4-40 UNC N 1/2" UNF (UNJF)
B 6-32 UNC P 9/16" UNF (UNJF)
C 8-32 UNC Q 5/8" UNF (UNJF)
D 10-32 UNF UNJF) S 3/4" UNF (UNJF)
E 1/4" UNF (UNJF) U 7/8" UNF (UNJF)
G 5/16" UNF (UNJF) W 1" UNF (UNJF)
In the earlier UK system bolts more than inch diameter are normally BSF,
whilst bolts less than inch diameter (and most screws) are BA. Both of these
items also use a number to represent their nominal length and a letter code (as
can be seen in Table 4) to identify their diameter.
Other bolts of this era may have nicks at the corners of the head (High Tensile
Steel) or a raised ring on the bolt head (Cold Rolled) to assist differentiation of
their particular designations.
Table 4
Examples of BA and BSF Bolt and Screw Codes
Code Size Code Size
A 6 BA P 9/16" BSF
B 4 BA Q 5/8" BSF
C 2 BA S 3/4" BSF
E 1/4" BSF U 7/8" BSF
G 5/16" BSF W 1" BSF
J 3/8" BSF X 12 BA
L 7/16" BSF Y 10 BA
N 1/2" BSF Z 8 BA

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10.11.3 American Bolts
American aircraft bolts and nuts are threaded in the NC (American National
Coarse), the NF (American National Fine), the UNC (Unified National Coarse),
and the UNF (Unified National Fine) thread series. The item is often coded to give
the diameter of the threaded portion and the number of Threads Per Inch (TPI).
Aircraft bolts may be made from HTS, Corrosion-Resistant Steel or Aluminium

Alloy. Head types may be hexagonal, clevis, eyebolt, internal wrenching and
countersunk (refer to Fig. 8) and head markings may be used to indicate other
features such as close tolerance, aluminium alloy, CRS or other types of steel.
Heaxagon Internal Wrenching Internal Wrenching Drilled

Drilled (1 Hole)
Hexagon Slotted 100 Countersunk Cylinderical Hexagon

(Cross Recess) Wrenching
Pan, Cross Recess Heaxagon 12 Point Extended Washer

Drilled (6 Hole)
Examples of Aircraft Bolts

Fig 8
10.11.4 Identification of AN Standard Bolts
While there are several different US Standards, there is only need to discuss one
type for the purpose of these course notes, as the others are very similar. AN
bolts come in three head styles, Hexagon Head, Clevis and Eyebolts and Table
12 provides an indication of the various code numbers in use.

TABLE 5
EXAMPLES OF AN STANDARD BOLTS (EARLY SERIES)
AN Type Material Process Thread Size Thread
Number Type
3-20 Bolt Hex. Steel Cadmium Plated No 10 to 1 UNF

Head CRS Nil
Al. alloy Anodised
21-36 Bolt, clevis Steel Cadmium Plated No. 6 to 1 UNF
42-49 Bolt, eye Steel Cadmium Plated No 10 to 9/16 UNF
73-81 Bolt, hexagon, Steel Cadmium Plated No 10 to UNF or
drilled head UNC
173-186 Bolt Close Steel Cadmium Plated No. 10 to 1 UNF
Tolerance thread and head
CRS Nil
Al. alloy Anodised
For identification purposes the AN number is used to indicate the type of bolt and
its diameter. In addition a code is used to indicate the material, length and
presence of a split pin or locking wire hole as follows:
Diameter: The last figure or last two figures, of the AN number indicates
thread diameter, 1 = No. 6, 2 = No.8, 3 = No.10, and 4 = with subsequent
numbers indicating the diameter in 1/16 increments. Thus an AN4 is a
hexagon headed bolt of diameter and an AN14 is a hexagon headed bolt
of 7/8 (14/16) diameter.
Lengths: The length of a bolt, in the case of a hexagonal headed bolt, is

measured from under the head of the first full thread (refer to Fig. 9) and is
quoted in 1/8 increments as a dash number. The last figure of the dash
number represents eighths and the first figure inches, so that an AN4 12 is a
diameter hexagon headed bolt, 1 long.
X
X
Steel Corrosion Steel Close Corrosion Resistant

Resistant Steel Tolerance Steel (Close Tolerance)
Aluminium Drilled Head, Multi-Drilled Aluminium Alloy,

Single Hole Head Close Tolerance
AN Bolt Head Markings

Issue: IK01 OCT 2012 Fig 9 Page 10-143
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Position of Drilled Hole: Bolts are normally supplied with a hole drilled in the
threaded part of the shank, but different arrangements may be obtained:
Drilled shank - normal coding AN24 15

Un-drilled shank - an A added after dash No. AN24 15A
Drilled head only - an H added before the dash number
and replacing it and an A added after the dash number AN25H15A
Drilled head and shank an H added before dash No AN25H15
Material: The standard coding applies to a non-corrosion-resistant, cadmium-

plated steel bolt. Where the bolt is supplied in other materials, letters are
placed after the AN number as follows:
1. C - Corrosion Resistance Steel (CRS) AN25C15

2. DD - Aluminium Alloy AN25DD15
Thread: When the bolt is supplied as either UNF

or UNC threads, a UNC thread is indicated by
placing an A in place of the dash. AN24A15
10.11.5 Special-to-Type Bolts
The hexagon headed aircraft bolt AN3 AN20 (refer to Fig.10), is an all purpose
structural bolt used for applications involving tension or shear loads where a light
drive fit is permissible.
Hexagonal Head Clevis Bolt
Eye Bolt
Countersunk Head Internal Wrenching
Special-to-Type Bolts
Fig 10

Alloy steel bolts, smaller than 3/16 diameter, and aluminium alloy bolts smaller
than are not used on primary structure. Other bolts may be used as follows:
Close Tolerance Bolts are machined more accurately than the standard bolt.
They may be hexagon headed (AN173 AN186) or have a 100 countersunk
head (NAS80 NAS86). They are used in applications where a tight drive fit
is required the bolt requires the use of a hammer to drive it into position.
Internal Wrenching Bolts (MS 20024 or NAS 495) are fabricated from high-
strength steel and are suitable for tensile or shear applications. The head is
recessed to allow the insertion of a hexagonal key used for installing or
removing the bolt. In Dural-type material, a heat-treated washer must be used
to provide an adequate bearing surface for the head.
Clevis Bolt heads are either round or slotted, for a standard screwdriver, or
recessed, for a cross-pointed screwdriver. This type of bolt is used only for
shear loads and never in tension. It is often inserted as a mechanical pin in a
control system.
Eyebolt is designed for the attachment of cable shackles or turnbuckles and

the bolt is used for tensile loads. The threaded end may be drilled for wire
locking.
10.11.6 Metric Bolts
The identification of a Metric bolt is by the use of the diameter in millimetres,

immediately after the capital letter M. In this way, M6 represents a 6 mm
diameter bolt. The length is also shown in millimetres, so the bolt M6 -15 will be a
6 mm diameter bolt, which is 15 mm long. The basic terminology, for identifying
bolts of the Metric system, involves the nominal length, the grip length and
diameter (refer to Fig. 11).
Length
Diameter
Grip
Metric Bolt Terminology

Fig.11

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10.12 NUTS
Aerospace standard nuts are made in a variety of shapes and sizes. They can be
made of cadmium-plated carbon steel, stainless steel or anodised 2024T
aluminium alloy and can have right or left hand threads (refer to Fig. 12). As a
general rule, nuts are manufactured from the same material as the bolt or screw
to which they are attached, with the exception of high-tensile steel bolts, when
mild steel nuts are used.
Castle Engine Slotted Shear Slotted
Shouldered Hexagon Plain Hexagon Wing Nut
Selection of Typical Nuts

Fig.12
Nuts do not normally have any identifying marks or lettering and are usually
identified by their colour and their constructional features. Familiar types of nuts
include the following:
Castle Nuts are used with hexagon headed bolts or studs, eye bolts and clevis
bolts and are rugged enough to withstand large tensile loads. The slots or
castellations are designed to accommodate a split pin for locking purposes.
Engine Slotted Nuts are similar in construction to castle nuts and are used in
similar applications, except that they are normally used for engine use only.
Shear Slotted Nuts are a much lighter nut, used for miscellaneous light tensile
requirements.
Plain Hexagon Nuts are of robust construction and suitable for large tensile loads.
Since they require an auxiliary locking device, their use on aircraft is limited.
Check, Pal or Lock Nuts are of the same construction and are employed as
locking devices for other plain nuts and other devices such as cable rod ends.
Some plain hexagon nuts have a built in collar or shoulder to give them additional
strength and thickness for certain applications.
Wing Nuts are used where the desired tightness can be obtained merely with
using the fingers and where the assembly is frequently removed.

10.12.1 Stiffnuts Nuts
A plain nut will depend upon friction between the engaging threads to ensure its
tightness. Vibration can cause the nut to slacken off and in extreme cases unwind
itself completely from the thread. In areas where this might occur locking devices
are used. These either increase the frictional resistance between the threads, or
take the form of positive a security, which prevents movement of the nut once
they have been tightened. A recognised rule for serviceability of a stiff nut is that
they should be discarded when they can be screwed along the entire thread
using only finger pressure.
Stiffnuts (refer to Fig. 13) employ various means of increasing the friction forces
between the threaded devices and common types include:
Nyloc is a standard hexagonal nut, which has a plastic insert in the counter-
bored end. This insert is initially unthreaded and has an internal diameter
slightly smaller than the nut thread so that as the nut is screwed on the bolt,
the plastic insert is displaced and a high degree of friction is created. A fibre
lock nut is a similar type of stiff nut uses a fibre insert instead of nylon. The
Nyloc Capnut is another type of plastic stop nut that completely seals and is
used with pressurised components such as fuel and oil tanks. Nyloc nuts
should never be used in areas of extreme temperatures, hot or cold.
Oddie nut has a slotted end consisting of six tongues, which form a circle
slightly smaller than the bolt or stud diameter. As the nut is turned a friction
load is imparted onto the threaded device.
Philidas nut has a circular crown, which has horizontal slots in two places. The
thread on the slotted part is slightly out of phase with the rest of the thread,
so that increased friction is achieved when the nut is turned.
Aerotight are similar to the Philidas in appearance and locking method, except
that the slots are vertical.
Lightweight nuts have the locking section slightly oval in shape and this
causes increased friction when the thread passes through it. Metal hexagonal
type stiff nuts may be re-used provided they retain their friction effect and the
relevant manual allows it.
Nyloc Nyloc Cap Nut Oddie
Philidas Aerotight Lightweight
Typical Stiffnuts
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10.12.2 Anchor nuts
Anchor Nuts (refer to Fig. 14) are usually similar in design to plain or stiff nut
securing devices. They allow threaded devices to be turned from one side only
when access to the back of the fastener can not be achieved. They are usually
secured to the inside of structures by rivets during construction, with their shape
and size being dictated by the amount of space available.
Anchor nuts are supplied with single or double attachment points and may be
either fixed or floating in a cage. The anchor nut may be a single unit stiff nut
integral with the base plate, or an assembly comprising stiff nut, cage and base
plate. Single attachment types are used in corners or where space is limited and
have two adjacent fixing points. Double anchor nuts have a hole either side of the
stiff nut.
Strip Nuts are a number of anchor nuts ganged together on a strip for ease of
attachment and are used to secure large panels. Both anchor and strip nuts are
usually of the floating variety and are all attached to the structure by riveting.
Corner Anchor Nut Right Angle Anchor Nut
High Temperature One-Lug Anchor Nut

Two-Lug Anchor Nut
Strip Anchor Nut
Typical Anchor Nuts

Fig.14

10.13 SCREWS
Screws are probably the most commonly used threaded fastener in aircraft
construction, and they differ from bolts as they are generally made from lower
strength materials. They can be fastened by a variety of tools, including
screwdrivers, spanners and Allen keys. Most screws are threaded along their
complete length, whilst some have a plain portion for part of their length.
There are a number of different types of screw which, can be used for a wide
range of tasks. Great care must be taken to replace screws with the correct
items, by using the markings on the screw, the IPC and any other systems used
by the supply department, to protect against incorrect screws being installed.
There are major differences with terminology between the British and American
names for screw heads. When the British refer to as a countersunk headed
screw, the Americans call a flat head or flush screw and mushroom headed
screws are known as truss heads in the USA.
10.13.1 Machine Screws
Machine screws (refer to Fig. 15) are used extensively for attaching fairings,
inspection plates, fluid line clamps and other light structural parts. The main
difference between aircraft bolts and machine screws, is that the threads of a
machine screw usually run the length of the shank, whereas bolts usually have an
unthreaded grip length.
A common machine screw used in aviation is the fillister head screw, which can
be wire-locked using the drilled hole in the head. The countersunk head screw is
available with single or cross-point slotted heads. The round head screw and the
mushroom head screw, provide good holding properties on thin metal sheets.
Countersunk Instrument Head Fillister Head Cap Head
Cheese Head Pan Head Round Head Grub Screw
Machine Screws
Fig.15

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10.13.2 Structural Screws
Structural screws (refer to Fig. 16) are made of alloy steel, are heat-treated and
can be used in many structural situations. They have a definite grip and the same
shear strength as a bolt of the same size. They are available with fillister,
countersunk or washer heads. The washer head screw has a washer formed into
its head to increase its holding ability with thin materials, much like the mushroom
head.
Grip
Length
Diameter Diameter
Structural Screw Terminology

Fig.16
10.13.3 Self-Tapping Screws
Self-tapping screws (refer to Fig. 17) have coarse threads and are used to secure
soft materials and thin sheets of metal. The type A screw has a sharp point or
gimlet, and the type B has a blunt point with threads that are slightly finer than the
type A. There are four types of head in normal use, round head, countersunk oval
head, truss or mushroom head and flush countersunk head.
Type A Type B Round Truss Countersunk 100

Head Head Oval Head Countersunk
Self Tapping Screws
Fig.17

10.14 STUDS
Studs are metal rods that are threaded at both ends (refer to Fig. 18). In general
they are used where it is not possible, or desirable for a bolt to be used. Like
many screw types of fastener, most studs are produced in a standard form, with
variants used for special purposes. It will be appreciated that the security of a
stud depends upon the friction between its thread and that of the tapped hole (the
metal thread) into which it is inserted. If this friction fails to hold the stud, it will
work loose and all precautions to prevent the nut from slackening will be negated.
Standard
Waisted
Stepped
Shouldered
Stud Types
Fig.18
10.14.1 Standard Studs
By far the most widely used stud is the standard (plain or parallel) type, in which
the diameter of the whole stud, along its length, is constant. Standard studs are
classified by the thread type, diameter and overall length. The metal thread is
usually, finished very slightly oversize to give a tight fit into the tapped hole.
Other variants of the standard stud are available for use in circumstances that
require special consideration.

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To meet special requirements, the various types of standard studs may also be
supplied with non-standard lengths of plain portion and metal end. A simple
method of fitting and removing a stud is by running two plain nuts down the nut
end of the stud and cinching (locking) them together using two spanners. The
stud can then be screwed into or removed from the material. Breaking the cinch
then separating and removing the nuts completes the operation.
10.14.2 Waisted Studs
Waisted studs are used where reduction of weight, without the loss of strength, is
of paramount importance. The diameter of the plain portion of the stud is reduced
to the minor diameter of the end threads, thus lightening the stud without
impairing its effective strength.
10.14.3 Stepped Studs
This type affords a stronger anchorage than the standard type, if the metal end
of the stud has to be housed in soft metal. The thread of the metal end is one
size larger than that of the nut end. For example, a inch BSF stepped stud
has a plain portion of inch thread on the nut end and a 3/16-inch thread on the
metal end.
Stepped studs are also used as replacements for standard studs when the
tapped stud-hole has to be re-drilled and tapped with a larger thread, due to
damage.
10.14.4 Shouldered Studs
This type is used where maximum rigidity of assembly is of prime importance.

The stud is machined from oversize bar and a projecting shoulder is left between
the metal end of the thread and the normal diameter plain portion. The shoulder
seats firmly on the surface of the metal and gives additional resistance to
sideways stresses. The clearance hole in the second component, through which
the nut end and plain portion of the stud passes, must be machined at the inner
end to give clearance to the stud shoulder.
10.15 THREAD INSERTS
Thread inserts are a means of providing a stronger anchorage, for bolts, screws
or studs, in the comparatively softer metal alloys (aluminium, magnesium,
bronze), wood, plastics or composite materials. They may also be used when it is
necessary to do a repair to a threaded hole that has suffered damage.
There are two basic types of thread insert (Wire and Thin Wall), but the designs
of each type will vary according to the many manufacturers or to the environment
in which the fastener must operate.

10.15.1 Wire Thread Inserts
Wire thread inserts consist of a very accurately formed helical coil of wire, which
has a diamond (rather than a round) cross-section and is usually made from
corrosion-resistant steel or heat-resistant nickel alloy. Specifically sized drills,
taps and thread gauges (provided by the insert manufacturer) are required to
form the tapped holes for the inserts and another special tool is necessary to
insert the wire coils correctly into their prepared holes.
10.15.2 Thin Wall Inserts
Thin wall inserts are available in a variety of designs, materials and surface
finishes. They consist of a thin tube, which is threaded internally and may, or may
not, be threaded externally. Special tools are required from the manufacturer to
prepare the holes for the inserts and various methods are adopted to secure each
particular type of thin wall insert into its hole. Thin Wall inserts include:
Key-Locked Inserts are threaded both internally and externally, and after
being screwed into the prepared hole, are (as their name implies), locked into
their holes by tiny wedges or keys. The keys are then pressed (or hammered)
into place between the insert and the wall of the hole.
Swaged Inserts are also threaded internally and externally and again, are
screwed into the hole before a tool is used to deform or swage the insert so
that it is locked into the hole.
Ring-Locked Inserts with internal and external threads, are screwed into holes
which are counter bored, to allow a special lock-ring to be installed, (after the
insert) and yet another special tool is used to complete the locking action of
the lock ring.
Bonded Inserts are usually only internally threaded (to hold the bolt, screw, or
stud) and are secured in the prepared hole by the use of adhesives.
Great care must be taken to ensure that only the approved types of inserts are
used in aerospace components and that the procedures for their installation and
removal (laid out in the relevant Manuals) are carefully followed.

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10.16 DOWELS AND PINS
Dowels and pins used in aircraft include the Roll Pin, Clevis Pin, Split (Cotter) Pin
and Taper Pin.
10.16.1 Dowels
While not usually used as fasteners, dowels are rods or pins of the appropriate
material which are fixed (often permanently) in one of the components of a joint
such that the protruding shank of the dowel locates with a corresponding hole in
the item being attached, thus ensuring accurate assembly.
Two examples of the use of dowels may be found where a Propeller Control Unit
is attached to an engine casing and there is a requirement for absolute accuracy
in the alignment of the oil tubes. Also when the segments of an engine
compressor need to be joined with precision so that the rotating members do not
foul the stationary parts.
10.16.2 Roll Pins
Roll pins (refer to Fig. 19) are often used to secure a pulley to a shaft or to
provide a pivot for a joint where the pin is unlikely to be removed.
A roll pin is normally made from flat spring steel that is rolled into an incomplete
cylindrical shape that allows the pin to compress when it is pressed into the hole,
and creates a spring action that holds the pin tight within the bore of the hole. To
remove a roll pin it must be driven from the hole with a correct-sized punch.
Roll Pin
Fig. 19

10.16.3 Clevis Pins
Clevis or flat-head pins (refer to Fig. 20) are used for hinge pins in some aircraft
control systems. They are made of cadmium-plated steel and have grip lengths in
1/16-inch increments. When a clevis pin is installed, a plain washer is usually
placed over the end of the shank and a cotter (split) pin is inserted, through the
pre-drilled hole in the clevis pin, to lock it in place.
Diameter
Length
Clevis Pin
Fig. 20
10.16.4 Taper Pins
Plain and threaded Taper Pins (refer to Fig. 21) are available with either Metric or
Imperial tapers. The Metric type has a taper of 1:50 whilst the Imperial version
has a taper of 1:48. They are designed to carry shear loads and are
manufactured from high-tensile steel. The pins do not allow any loose motion or
play and are used for joining tubes and attaching collars to shafts.
The plain taper pin is forced into the hole, which has been reamed to the
specified size with a Taper Pin Reamer, and is held in place by friction alone. To
ensure security, it can also be wire locked in place, by passing lock wire through
a pre-drilled hole in the pin then securing the wire around the shaft.
Plain taper pins, which do not normally have a lock wire hole, may have their
smaller ends peened, after being installed, to secure them in their holes.
The Threaded Pin is similar to the plain pin except that its small end is threaded
to accept either a self-locking shear nut or a shear castle nut with split pin.
Some taper pins can be found with a split small end, which can be spread much
like a split pin, to prevent it loosening. These pins are sometimes referred to as
Bifurcated Taper Pins.
The metric taper pin is measured by the diameter of its small end and its overall
length, whilst the imperial type is utilises the diameter of the large end and overall
length.

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Threaded Taper Pin
Plain Taper Pin
Taper Pins
Fig. 21
10.17 LOCKING DEVICES
The problems associated with threaded devices, and the effects of vibration on
their security, were discussed previously, when the use of stiffnuts and anchor
nuts was considered. In addition to using methods that increase the friction
between threads, there are several other ways in which the integrity of a threaded
joint can be assured.
10.17.1 Spring Washers
These washers are usually include the single coil, double coil, crinkle and cup or
Belleville washer (refer to Fig. 22). In some instances (particularly with light alloy
assemblies), spring washers are assembled with plain facing washers between
the spring washer and the component. This is done to prevent damage to the
surface finish when the spring washer is compressed although, with steel
assemblies, the plain washer is usually omitted.
It is good practice to renew spring washers during overhaul or repair. This

procedure is most essential in engines and engine components as well as where
units have reciprocating parts, such as in compressors or pumps. In normal
circumstances, spring washers can be re-used if they have retained their
springiness and sharpness.

Single and Double Coil Washers are manufactured from rectangular sectioned
steel sheet and formed into a portion of a helix, the single and double coil are
the most common types of spring washer to be found on aircraft components.
Crinkle Washers are usually manufactured from either copper alloy or

corrosion resistant steel. They are often used with lightly loaded applications
such as instruments and electrical installations.
Cup or Belleville Belleville washers are manufactured from spring steel and
are dished to form a spring of high rating. The flattening of the washer during
tightening, exerts an axial load to the nut, which will resist any tendency of the
nut to lose torque. Assembly should always be in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions.
Single Coil Double Coil Crinkle Cup
Spring Washers
Fig. 22
10.17.2 Shake-Proof Washers
Flat washers of this type (refer to Fig. 23) are manufactured from steel or
phosphor bronze and are used in place of spring washers. In some
circumstances conical shake-proof washers are used for locking countersunk
screws.
Either the internal or the external diameters can be serrated, the serration being
designed to bite into the component and nut to prevent rotation.
All shake-proof washers should be used only once. It is rare for these washers to
be specified in assemblies where an anti-corrosion treatment of the components
has been specified, as this could damage the treatment.

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Internal External Conical
Shake Proof Washers

Fig. 23
10.17.3 Tab Washers
Tab washers (refer to Fig. 24) are normally used on plain nuts. The washers are
manufactured from thin metallic sheet material and have two or more tabs
projecting from the external diameter. They can also be designed for locking two
or more nuts.
Once the washer is installed, one tab is bent against the component or inserted
into a hole provided, whilst a second tab is bent against the flat (or flats) of the
nut, after it has been torqued down correctly. Multi-tab washers can be re-used
until all tabs have been used once.
Tab Washers
Fig. 24

10.17.4 Lock Plates
In certain circumstances, the torque applied, the thread, or the type of nut, being
used may not guarantee that the nut would not unwind in use (such as during
vibration). Lock plates (refer to Fig. 25) are used where positive retention of a nut
is required.
Lock Plate
Fig.25
The nut is torque loaded and then if necessary, turned a small amount, (< 1/12
revolution) until its flats align with the hole in the lock plate. The plate usually has
12 facets to allow for this adjustment. The plate is then placed over the nut and
the small set-screw fastened into the tapped hole adjacent to the nut. Removal of
the nut simply involves removing the set-screw, lifting off the plate and unwinding
the nut.
A Tab washer could be used to do the same task. The lock plate is used where
the nut is frequently removed the plate can be used indefinitely providing it retains
a good fit with the nut.
10.17.5 Split (Cotter) Pins
These pins are usually manufactured from either cadmium-plated carbon steel or
from corrosion-resistant steel. Their primary purpose is to lock slotted and
castellated nuts as well as for securing clevis pins. The nuts are locked onto their
bolts by passing the pin through the hole in the bolt and the nut castellations. The
legs of the pin are spread in one of two methods (refer to Fig. 26).
Whilst either of these methods will secure the nut to the bolt, different
manufacturers prefer one method to the other. The pins are measured by
diameter and length. It must be noted that the nuts must never be over-torqued to
get the holes into line. The nut must either be backed-off, if this is permitted, or
washers added under the nut.

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Often a stated torque value will be over a small range rather than a set figure.
This allows very small movement of the nut to facilitate alignment of the locking
pins. Details of the correct method for each task will be in the AMM.
Split Pin Securing Methods

Fig.26
10.18 LOCKING WIRE
Wire-locking (or Safetying as it is known in the USA), is the commonest form of

locking in use throughout the aircraft industry. The wire is usually made of
corrosion-resistant steel or heat-resistant nickel alloy. Fine copper wire is also
used for some special locking operations.
The wire is normally classified by its diameter in increments of Standard Wire

Gauge (SWG) or American Wire Gauge (AWG). The most usual gauge used is
22 SWG (or the AWG equivalent), although great care must be taken to check
the correct wire gauge for each particular application.
Wire-locking is a positive method of securing items such as bolts, pipe unions,

turnbuckles and nuts. Components designed to be wire-locked have holes in the
appropriate positions to enable the lock wire to pass through.
When installing the wire it should not span a distance of more than 75 mm (3 in)
without being supported. The wire is also positioned so that the item being locked
will be restrained from turning in a loosening direction.
There should be approximately eight turns to every 25 mm (1 in) length of wire

and no length of more than 9.5 mm (3/8 in) should be left untwisted. The angle of
approach or angle of pull (refer to Fig. 27) should be not less than 45 to the
rotational axis.
When the wire has been passed through the last hole, the wire must be pulled
tight and the twisting continued for at least 13 mm ( in). The wire is then cut and
the end doubled under, to prevent personnel getting snagged or badly cut.

Correct Incorrect
12mm
90
90
Not Less
Than 45
Angles of Approach
Fig.27
Some forms of wire-locking are done with a single strand of the specified wire,
especially in cases of where a complete ring or similar formation of nuts is found
(refer to Fig. 28). The wire is passed in sequence, through the holes in their
respective nuts and bolts (or screws), until the wire ends meet.
Again the wire must be threaded so that any tendency, of a nut or bolt, to attempt
to slacken off, will add tension to the wire.
Single Wire Locking for Close Spaced

Drilled Head Screws
Fig.28

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10.18.1 Use of Locking Wire with Turnbuckles
As with any threaded fastener, turnbuckles must be locked to prevent them from
coming loose and jeopardising the control runs they are connecting. There are a
number of different types of wire-locking used on turnbuckles and the AMM must
be consulted to find which method is specified. Methods used include the single
wrap and single wrap spiral as well as the double wrap and double wrap spiral.
The single wrap and single wrap spiral use a single strand of the appropriate wire
that passes through the hole in the centre of the turnbuckle, finishing up wrapped
around each end. The single wrap spiral also uses a single piece of wire that is
spiralled around the turnbuckle barrel and passed through the centre hole twice.
Two pieces of wire are used in the double wrap method, which are basically two
single wraps, one in each direction. A double wrap spiral consists of two single
wrap spirals, again one in each direction.
10.18.2 Use of Locking Wire with Locking Tabs.
When locking tabs are used, they should be installed in such a way that the tabs
and the wire are in complete alignment (refer to Fig. 29). Whenever possible, the
closed end of the wire should be in the tab and the twisted end at the component
to be locked, although the exact method may be found in the AMM.
Incorrect
Positioning of
Wire
Correct Use
of Tabs
Closed End
of Wire
Locking Tab Positioning
Fig.29

10.18.3 Thin Copper Wire
Thin copper wire is used to hold some switches and levers in a set position and,
thus, prevents the accidental operation of those switches, which control certain
critical systems such as emergency circuits.
When the switch is required to be operated, then a deliberate movement is made,

which will break the copper wire and permit movement of the switch.
A secondary purpose of copper wire is as an indicator or witness, where a

broken wire indicates that the switch or control has been operated. This method
is employed on systems where it is necessary to know when a component, such
as an engine fire extinguisher has been operated.
10.19 QUICK-RELEASE FASTENERS (QRF)
Special fasteners have been designed to hold fairings, cowlings and inspection
panels in position and to allow their rapid removal and replacement during
servicing.
10.19.1 Dzus Fasteners
Cowling and other inspection access doors will usually be found with Dzus
fasteners, that can be locked and unlocked by a quarter turn of the stud (refer to
Fig. 30).
These fasteners consist of a hard spring-steel wire, which is riveted across an

opening on a fixed part of the airframe. The stud is mounted onto the panel (or
removable part) using a metal grommet.
When the panel is closed, a quarter turn of the stud pulls the wire into the curved
slot of the stud, securing the panel to the airframe.
Panels (and cowlings) usually have a number of fasteners installed to ensure full
security and, to indicate that all fasteners are correctly secured, the cowling will
have a series of lines marked (painted) on the surface.
When the studs are correctly fastened, then their screwdriver slots will be in-line
with the lines marked on the surface of the panels.
Some Dzus fasteners have a built-in receptacle, which guides the legs of the stud
onto the wire, to facilitate correct engagement.

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Stud Assembly Grommet
Spring
Dzus Fastener
Fig.30
10.19.2 Oddie Fasteners
Oddie fasteners (refer to Fig. 31) have a central stud, which is held in position in
the panel with a rubber washer or a coiled spring. A two-legged clip is fastened to
the fixed component (usually with rivets). The stud is bullet-shaped and has two
recesses opposite each other at the joint end.
The fastener is locked by positioning the recess in line with the legs of the spring,
and then pressing the stud home. This is achieved by ensuring the screwdriver
slot is in line with marks on the panel. There should be a definite click as the
fastener engages. A quarter turn of the stud will release it from the spring, and
free the panel.
Spring
Bullet Shaped Stud

Twists to Unlock
Oddie Fastener
Fig. 31

10.19.3 Camloc Fasteners
Camloc fasteners (refer to Fig. 32) consist of a spring-loaded stud assembly and
a receptacle. The stud assembly is fastened to the removable panel whilst the
receptacle is fastened to the airframe.
To lock the fastener, the stud is pushed against its spring with a screwdriver and
given a quarter of a turn clock-wise. As a result, the cross-pin, on the stud, rides
up a cam in the receptacle and draws the two components together.
Finally the stud spring pulls the cross pin into a locking groove at the end of the
cam. The fastener is unlocked by a quarter turn anti-clockwise when the stud
spring causes the stud to snap outwards.
Receptacle Spring Loaded

Stud Assembly
Unlocked Locked
Camloc Fastener
Fig. 32
10.19.4 Airloc Fasteners
Airloc fasteners (refer to Fig. 33) consist of a stud with a cross-pin in the
removable cowling or door, and a sheet spring-steel receptacle in the structure.
The fastener is locked by turning the stud through a quarter turn. The pin drops
into an indentation in the receptacle and holds the fastener locked.
Stud Receptacle
Roll
Pin
Airloc Fastener
Fig. 33

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10.19.5 Locking Indications
Most quick release fasteners utilise a simple method to indicate when they are in
a locked or unlocked position. This indication is normally two painted or etched
lines on either side of the fastener head. The fastener is locked when the marks
align with the screwdriver recess in the head (refer Fig. 34).
Locked Indication Unlocked Indication
QRF Indications
Fig. 34
10.19.6 Pip-Pins
Quick-release Pip-Pins are used in assemblies where it is necessary to rapidly

remove or reposition components. They usually take the place of more
permanent bolts.
The pip-pin quick-release fastener (refer to Fig. 35) operates on a push-pull

principle. It consists of a hollow body containing a spring-loaded plunger. When
the pin is pushed into a hole, two steel locking balls, held in the shank of the pin,
move into a recess in the plunger.
When the pin is fully home, and the pushing pressure is released, the balls are
forced to protrude from the shank, as the spring around the plunger expands, and
so lock the pin in position.
A pip-pin is removed by a simple pull on the ring. This action aligns the groove in
the plunger with the two locking balls that retract to allow the pin to be withdrawn.
Pip-pins will be found in many places where two components have to be

separated at regular intervals and also require a hinging action. An example of
where pip-pins would be required is on engine cowlings. These have to be
opened daily to allow for engine inspection, and are removed completely for
engine changes.

Locking Balls
Release
Ring
Pip Pin
Fig. 35
10.19.7 Circlips and Locking Rings
Circlips and locking rings (refer to Fig. 36) are manufactured from spring sheet
metal or spring steel wire, They may also be specially designed for a particular
purpose. Hardened and tempered to give either and inward or outward spring,
they can be used for locking several parts together, locating components within
bores or for locating components onto shafts.
Spring sheet circlips have holes in the ends to allow circlip pliers to be inserted,
enabling the circlip to be removed or installed as required. Spring wire rings
usually have one bent end that is inserted into a radial hole, drilled through the
component, which matches an inner or outer ring.
All circlips are subject to some damage at times and it will usually be a
requirement, after they have been removed, to inspect them thoroughly. Any that
show damage or corrosion should be discarded, although it is usual practice to
discard the wire type circlips whenever they are removed.
Spring Plate Circlips Spring Wire Circlips
Circlips and Locking Rings

Fig. 36
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10.19.8 Keys and Key-ways
These items can be found where chain-wheels or pulleys are located on shafts. A
key with its associated key-way (the slot or channel cut into the pulley or shaft), is
used to transmit the driving force from one part to the other.
There are different types of keys and key-ways, the main ones being the Gib
Head (Taper), Feather and Woodruff Key.
The Gib Head Key (refer to Fig.37) can only be used where the wheel is fixed to
the outer end of the shaft. A recess is cut into the pulley and the shaft allowing
the taper key to connect the two components together. The key secures itself in
the slot through friction alone.
Pulley
Slot
Shaft
Gib Head Key

Fig. 37
The Feather Key (refer to Fig. 38) is parallel and fits into a pocket milled into the
shaft and the cut into the pulley. This allows small amounts of axial movement
with a positive rotational drive.
Feather Key
Fig. 38
The Woodruff Key (refer to Fig.39) is a semi-circular shaped key that slots into a
groove on the shaft, whilst engaging into a channel in the pulley. This allows the
key to float making it self-aligning. A special milling cutter is required to make the
pocket in the shaft.

Woodruff Key
Fig. 39
10.19.9 Peening
Peening (or Buring) is a method of preventing a threaded device (bolt, nut or

screw), becoming loose by distorting the end of the thread, after installing the
device (refer to Fig. 40). The distortion is normally achieved (using a centre
punch) by striking the thread of the bolt or screw where it emerges from the
threaded device, thus jamming and effectively locking the threaded device and
preventing it from loosening.
When using a nut and bolt combination, then one and a half threads of the bolt
must protrude from the nut in order to create an effective peening.
The disadvantage of peening (and the distortion of the thread) means that, once
the joint is dismantled, then the threaded device is useless and can only be
discarded.
Distortions of
Threaded Part
Typical Peening Examples

Fig.40

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10.20 GLUE/ADHESIVE BONDED JOINTS
As was previously discussed (in the section on Composite and Non-Metallic

Materials), these are permanent joints in which an adhesive is used to join two, or
more, materials together. The materials can be any of the large variety of fabrics
found in the aerospace industry (metal, paper, plastic, rubber or wood).
Some advantages of using adhesives, to make joints, are that the materials being
joined may or may not be similar and the joints can be made proof against the
leakage of gases and liquids.
Adhesives are normally good electrical insulators, which can greatly reduce
dissimilar corrosion on metal joints, and are not, normally, affected by
temperature changes.
Joining with adhesives not only saves the weight (and costs) associated with
threaded fasteners (and rivets), but also eliminates the need to make holes in the
structure, for those fasteners, which avoids the possibility of potential stress
raisers.
The absence of fasteners in an aircrafts skin results in a smoother airflow around

the aircraft, and thus contributes to its aerodynamic efficiency. Adhesive bonded
joints also provide greater stiffening to the structure, compared to that achieved
with mechanical fastenings.
There are, however, some disadvantages in that the surfaces, of the items to be
stuck together (the adherends), must be free from grease, oil or dust, and the
type of adhesive must be suitable for the conditions or environment in which it is
intended to be placed.
Fumes from adhesives can be narcotic, toxic and extremely flammable, so that
great care must be taken when applying adhesives. This entails working in well-
ventilated conditions, wearing the appropriate personal protective equipment and
observing the relevant safety precautions to prevent (and if necessary, fight) the
outbreak of fire.
10.20.1 Locking by Adhesives
Applying adhesives such as Shellac or Araldite to DTD 900 specification, may be

used to lock many small components, particularly those in instruments, valves,
and switches. Adhesive is applied to the outside of the nut face and the
protruding screw thread, or to the component and screw head, after tightening,
and prevents movement between relevant parts.
It is good practice, when using Araldite, to mix a separate sample under similar
conditions, to check that it hardens within the specified time period.

10.20.2 Contact/Impact Adhesives
Contact and Impact adhesives such as Evostick consist of a thermoplastic

material dissolved in a volatile solvent. The adhesive is applied to the two
surfaces being joined, and then left for a specific period to allow the solvent to
evaporate. When the two surfaces are tacky they are brought together, and
adhesion takes occurs by molecular attraction on contact.
Details of evaporation time, adhesive thickness and ambient temperature

requirements can be found in the AMM/CMM Standard Practices Chapter or the
Manufacturers Instructions for that adhesive. These requirements must be
observed if the adhesion is to be effective.
10.20.3 Thread Locking Adhesives
Thread Locking adhesives such as Loctite are liquid sealants, used for locking
metal threads. It is an approved proprietary material, which hardens in the screw
threads after assembly. They are supplied in various grades to give a
predetermined locking strength in a variety of applications from stud locking to
retaining bearing housings.
When using these adhesives, it is advisable to degrease the parts to achieve

maximum strength. If the threads are not degreased, about 15% of the locking
strength is normally lost. Loctite should only be used when specified by the
approved drawings or instructions, and applied in accordance with the
manufacturers directions.
10.20.4 Synthetic Resin Adhesives
Synthetic resin adhesives are used extensively for joints in wooden structures, to
avoid the localised stresses and strains, which may be set up, following the use
of mechanical methods of attachment. The adhesive used for gluing aircraft
structural assemblies, must comply with the requirement prescribed in an
acceptable specification.
Synthetic resin adhesives usually consist of two separate parts, namely the resin
and the hardener. The resin develops its adhesive properties only as a result of a
chemical reaction between it and the hardener.
10.20.5 Testing of Adhesive Joining Techniques
Frequent tests would be made to ensure that joining techniques are satisfactory.
Whenever possible, tests should be done, using off-cuts of actual components
from each batch. Where off-cuts are not available, tests should be done on
representative test pieces.

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11 AIRCRAFT RIVETS
An aircraft, even though made of the best materials and strongest parts, would be
of doubtful value unless those parts were firmly held together. Several methods
are used to hold parts together, welding or soldering, threaded fasteners and
riveting being three of the main methods.
Rivets are an alternative method of fastening structure, a rivet being a metal pin
on which a head is formed, during manufacture. The rivet is inserted into a pre-
drilled hole and the plain end of its shank is deformed (set or closed) by the use
of a hand- or power-tool.
Rivets create a joint at least as strong as the material that is being joined. Rivets
are normally strong in shear, but they should not be subjected to excessive
tensile loads.
There are two main categories of rivet:
Solid rivets which are set using a riveting gun on the manufactured head and
a reaction block or bucking bar on the remote side
Blind rivets which are usually installed when access is restricted to the shank
end of the rivet.
11.1 SOLID RIVETS
There are a number of different types of rivet head (refer to Fig. 1), the most
common being the mushroom and round heads. Both of these rivets project
above the surface of the metal that is being riveted. The countersunk head,
however, provides a flush and smooth surface, when closed, and the flat (or pan)
head can be used internally, when a flat head will make closing the rivet easier.
Countersunk Mushroom Flat Round
Length
Diameter
Types of Solid Rivets

Fig. 1

The terminology used to define rivet shape is that commonly used in the UK, and
may differ those used in US publications. Countersunk rivets may be called Flat
or Flush, whilst Flat head rivets can also be called Pan head. The spherically
shaped rivet heads are available in different degrees of roundness and can be
called Mushroom, Brazier, Round or Universal depending on the manufacturer.
The majority of aircraft rivets are manufactured from aluminium alloys. Rivets can
also be made from other materials such as steel, Monel metal, titanium or copper.
Material specifications for British and American rivets are not identical. The
manufacturers publications (AMM or CMM) will give details on which rivets can
be used if the specified ones are unavailable.
The dimensions that identify the size of a rivet are simply its length and diameter.
Other identifying features are the shape of the head, (including the countersink
angle, if applicable) and the material from which the rivet is made. This latter
requirement involves many different identifying marks and letters.
11.2 RIVET IDENTIFICATION
The identification of solid rivets covers a multitude of marks and letters that
indicate, the material and heat treatment, (if any) that the rivet has gone through.
The American rivets are usually, natural (gold) or grey in colour and have head
markings, whilst British rivets, generally, use a combination of colour and
alpha/numeric codes.
11.2.1 Solid Rivets (British)
Standards for British Solid rivets are issued by the Society of British Aerospace
Companies (AS series) or the British Standards Institute (SP series). The
standards overlap to a certain extent, with obsolete rivets, in the AS range, being
replaced by SP rivets.
11.2.2 Rivet Identification (British)
A standard number and a part number are used to identify rivets. The standard
number identifies the head shape, material and finish. This is followed by a three
or four figure code, the first one or two figures indicating the shank diameter in
thirty-seconds of an inch and the last two, the length in sixteenths of an inch.
Example:
A British rivet, with the identifying code AS 162-408, would be a 90 countersunk,

aluminium alloy (5% magnesium) rivet, of 1/8 inch diameter and 1/2 inch long.
The AS 162 indicates the head type and material, while the -4 indicates that it
has a 4/32 inch (1/8 inch) diameter and 08 indicates it has a length of 8/16 inch
(1/2 inch).

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11.2.3 Rivet Material Identification (British)
Tables 1 and 2 give details on materials and identification marks for the various
types of AS rivets. Many of these rivets are obsolescent and have been
superseded by rivets conforming to SP standards.
Table 3 gives details of material and identification information for SP rivets with
the standard numbers shown in Table 4. SP rivets are also available in metric
sizes.
The colour coding, of both British systems of solid rivets is generally the same as
that used for the similar material in the other system. For example (in both
systems) pure aluminium rivets are black, Hidiminium rivets are violet, Monel
rivets are natural and 5% magnesium rivets are green. This way of coding allows
material types to be more easily identified.
Table 1
MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION OF AS RIVETS
Material. Spec. Material Type Identification Marks Finish
L37 Dural D on shank end Natural
L58 Al. Alloy X on shank end Dyed or Anodised
(5% Mg.) Green
L86 Hidiminium S on shank end Dyed Violet
DTD204 Monel M on shank end Natural or
Cadmium Plated
Table 2
TYPICAL SPECIFICATION NUMBERS OF AS RIVETS
Material Snap Mush 90 Csk 100 120 90 Close
Spec. Csk Csk Tol.
L37 AS156 AS158 AS161 - AS164 AS2918
L58 AS157 AS159 AS162 AS4716 AS165 -
L86 AS2227 AS2228 AS229 - AS2230 AS3362
DTD204 - - AS5462 - AS465 -
Table 3
MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION OF SP RIVETS
Material. Material Type Identification Marks Finish
Spec. (On shank end)
L36 Aluminium I Black Anodic
L37 Dural 7 Natural
L58 Al. Alloy 8 Green Anodic
(5% Mg.)
L86 Hidiminium 0 Violet
BS1109 Steel - Cadmium
DTD204 Monel M Natural or
Cadmium

Table 4
TYPICAL SPECIFICATION NUMBERS OF SP RIVETS
Material Spec. Snap Head Mushroom Head 100 Csk Head
L36 SP77 - SP68
L37 SP78 SP83 SP69
L58 SP79 SP84 SP70
L86 SP80 SP85 SP71
BS1109 SP76 - SP86
DTD204 SP81 - SP87
11.2.4 Solid Rivets (American)
These are generally used in normal construction and repair work. They are
identified by the kind of material from which they are made, their head type,
shank size and temper condition. Typical head types (refer to Fig. 2) are Round
head, Brazier head, 100 Countersunk head, Flat head and Universal head.
Plain Dimple Raised Two Raised Cross

(A) (AD) Dot (D) Dashes (DD) (B)
American Rivet Identification

Fig. 2
11.2.5 Rivet Identification (American)
The rivets shown in Fig. 2, are of the AN (Air Force-Navy) designation and are
merely used to illustrate a typical coding system. The other most common
standard for American rivets is the MS (Military Standards) system which, whilst
having slight differences from the AN system, uses similar terminology to
describe the many forms of rivets.
A part number (using the standard letters AN or MS) identifies each type of rivet,
so that the user can select the correct rivet for the task. After the standard letters,
there follows a number, which indicates the particular type of rivet head.

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Next comes a letter (or letters), denoting the material composition, which is
followed by another figure expressing the diameter of the rivet shank in 32nds of
an inch. The last number(s), separated by a dash from the diameter number,
express the length of the rivet shank in 16ths of an inch.
Example:
An American AN system rivet with the identifying code AN470 AD 3-5, would be a
universal head, aluminium alloy 2117-T rivet, of 3/32 inch diameter with a length
of 5/16 inch.
Head markings, using dimples and raised dots (or dashes and rings) are also
used as an aid to indicate the material content of the rivets.
Protective surface coatings, used by the manufacturers, are shown by colours,

where zinc chromate is usually yellow, an anodised rivet is usually pearl grey and
a metal sprayed rivet has a silvery grey colour.
11.2.6 Rivet Material Identification (American)
As previously stated, the material used for the majority of aircraft solid rivets is
aluminium alloy. Digits and letters identify the degree of temper condition, of
aluminium alloy rivets, in a similar manner to that used for sheet aluminium alloy.
The normal material grades are 1100, 2017-T, 2024-T, 2117-T and 5056.
The 1100 (A) rivet is 99.45% pure aluminium and, as such, is very soft. It would
be used for riveting lightweight, soft, aluminium structures, where strength is not a
factor.
The 2117-T (AD) rivet is made from aluminium alloy and, as has previously been
mentioned is known as the field rivet. It is the most commonly used rivet, mainly
because it is ready to use as received and needs no further heat-treatment. It
also has a high resistance to corrosion.
The 2017-T (D) and 2024-T (DD) rivets are made from high strength heat-
treatable aluminium alloys. They are used where more strength is required than
that obtained from the AD rivet. The rivets need to be heat-treated and, if not
required immediately, they should be refrigerated until needed. The 2017-T (D)
rivet should be driven within 1 hour of removal from refrigeration (or following
heat-treatment) and the 2024-T (DD) must be driven within 10-20 minutes.
The 5056 (B) rivet is used for riveting magnesium alloy structures, because of its
galvanic compatibility with magnesium (to reduce the risk of corrosion).
Mild Steel rivets are used for riveting steel parts while Corrosion Resistant Steel
(F) rivets are used for riveting CRS components in areas such as fire-walls and
exhausts. The absence of a letter following the AN standard number indicates a
rivet manufactured from mild steel.

Monel (M) rivets are used for riveting nickel-steel alloys. They may also be used
as a substitute for CRS rivets when specified.
Copper (C) rivets are also available, but their use is limited on aircraft. They may
only be used on copper alloys or non-metallic materials, such as leather.
Most metals, including aircraft rivets, are subject to corrosion. This may be the
result of local climatic conditions or the fabrication process used. It can be
reduced to a minimum by using the correct materials and by the use of protective
coatings on the structure and the rivets.
The use of dissimilar metals should be avoided where possible and, as previously
stated, the rivet manufacturers usually apply a protective coating on the rivets,
which may be either of a zinc chromate, a metal spray or an anodic film finish.
11.3 HEAT-TREATMENT/REFRIGERATION OF SOLID RIVETS
The action of closing a rivet, and the strength required on completion, dictates
whether any heat-treatment will be required prior to closing. As previously
discussed, some rivets, for non-structural applications, can be manufactured from
pure aluminium. These are given no heat-treatment and are soft, both before and
after closing.
Among the most common rivets in use (and which are made of aluminium alloy)
are those already identified, in the American AN specification system, as AD
rivets. AD rivets are heat-treated during manufacture and remain easy to close
whilst possessing adequate strength.
11.3.1 Heat-Treatment.
Metal temper is important in the riveting process, especially with aluminium alloy
rivets. These generally have the same heat-treating characteristics as sheet
alloys and can be annealed and hardened in much the same manner. The rivet
must be relatively soft before a good head can be formed.
Where rivets of a stronger material are required, then 2017-T (D) and 2024-T
(DD) rivets may be specified. These rivets are much stronger and harder than the
2117-T (AD) rivets and must be softened before their tails can be formed.
The softening process is achieved by solution-treating the rivets, just prior to

driving them. This may be done in either an electric furnace, air furnace or in a
salt bath. The temperature range, depending on the alloy, is in the region of 495
to 505C.
For convenient handling, the rivets are heated on a tray or in a wire basket, and
after heating for the required period, they are finally quenched in cold water.
Once they have been removed from the oven, they will begin to age harden, and
must be driven as soon as possible.

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11.3.2 Refrigeration
If it is not convenient to form the rivets within a short period of time, the age-
hardening process can be slowed by storing them at temperatures below 0C,
and are known as icebox rivets in the USA. At these low temperatures the rivets
will remain soft enough for driving for up to 2 weeks. Any rivets not used in that
period should be removed and re-heat treated.
These low temperatures only delays age-hardening and that age- hardening will
continue at a rapid rate as soon as the rivets are removed from the refrigerator.
The 2017-T (D) rivets must be driven within 1 hour of refrigeration and 2024-T
(DD) rivets, within 10 minutes.
11.3.3 Rivet Head Types
The many forms of rivet heads have evolved due to the specific requirements of
an application and, whether they are of the British or American (or any other)
standards, their designs and uses are fairly similar. A selection, considered here,
gives typical used for the more common types of rivets:
Brazier head: has a head of larger diameter, making it suitable for riveting thin
sheet. It offers only a slight resistance to airflow and is often used on exterior
skins, especially on aft sections of fuselage and empennage. A modified
brazier head rivet is also produced which has a reduced head diameter.
Countersunk head: this rivet is flat topped and bevelled towards the shank so
that it can be installed into a countersunk or dimpled hole and so be flush with
the materials surface. The countersunk angle may vary from 78 to 120 (the
100 rivet being the most common type). Countersunk rivets are used to
fasten metal sheets which overlap others. They are also used on exterior
surfaces of the aircraft, because they offer only a slight resistance to airflow
and therefore minimise turbulence.
Flathead: used on interior structures, where there is insufficient clearance to

use a roundhead rivet.
Roundhead: used in the interior of the aircraft and has a deep rounded top
section. The head is large enough to strengthen the sheet around the hole
and to offer resistance to tension.
Universal head: this rivet is a combination of brazier, flathead and roundhead.

It is used in aircraft construction and repair in both interior and exterior
locations. It may be used as a replacement for all protruding head types of
rivet.

11.4 BLIND AND HOLLOW RIVETS
There are many places in an aircraft where access to both sides of the structure
is not possible, or where limited space will not permit the use of a reaction
(bucking) bar. The attachment of many non-structural parts, such as interior
furnishings, flooring material and de-icer boots do not require the full strength of
solid shank rivets. For use in such places, special rivets have been designed
which only require access from one side.
These rivets are often lighter than solid rivets, yet amply strong enough for their
intended use. The rivets are produced by several manufacturers, and have
unique characteristics requiring special installation tools and procedures. The
same general basic information, relating to their fabrication, composition, uses,
selection, installation, inspection and removal procedures applies to most of
them.
Hollow rivets that can be closed by pulling a mandrel through them are often
known as blind rivets and these in turn can be described as Mechanically
Expanded Rivets. They fall into one of two main types:
Friction Lock Rivets such as Tucker Pop, Avdel and Chobert rivets
Mechanical Lock Rivets such as Cherry Lock, Cherry Max and Huck rivets
Where blind or hollow rivets are installed in place of solid rivets, they must in the
absence of specific instructions, be of the same material as the original solid rivet,
and be of equivalent shear strength. The shear strength of the rivet, may be
increased, by using a form of plug to fill the hollow shank of the rivet.
11.4.1 Friction Lock Rivets
These are generally fabricated in two parts, consisting of a rivet head with a
hollow shank and a stem that extends through the hollow shank. They may,
typically, be of the friction lock protruding head or countersunk head styles of
rivet. Several events occur in sequence when a pulling force is applied to the
stem of the rivet:
The stem is pulled into the rivet shank

The mandrel part of the stem forces the rivet shank to expand
When the pulling action becomes great enough, it causes the stem to fracture
at the weakest point. The bottom end of the stem is retained in the shank,
giving much greater shear strength than could be obtained from a hollow rivet.
With this type of rivet, the stem is often designed to break above the rivet head,
necessitating a further action, which entails cutting off the extra portion of the
stem with snips (or a specialised pneumatic gun) and milling the exposed portion
flush with the head.

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11.4.2 Mechanical Lock Rivets
A mechanical lock-type of rivet, is similar in design to the friction lock rivet, except
in the manner in which the mandrel is retained in the rivet. This type of rivet has a
positive mechanical locking collar, to resist the vibrations that may cause the
friction lock rivet mandrels to loosen and fall out.
In addition, the mechanical locking-type rivet stem breaks off flush with the head,
and usually does not require further stem trimming when properly installed. Self-
plugging, mechanical lock rivets display all the strength of solid rivets, and subject
to approval by the aircraft manufacturer, they are often used as a direct
replacement.
Three operations are performed when the rivet is installed (generally using a
pneumatic gun):
When pulling force is exerted on the stem, the stem is pulled in, forming the
blind head and clamping the sheets of metal together
At a pre-determined point, the head of the gun forces the locking collar into
position
The rivet stem snaps off approximately flush with the head of the rivet leaving
the locking collar visible for inspection.
11.4.3 Tucker Pop Rivets
Tucker Pop rivets are supplied mounted on steel mandrels. The head of the
mandrel is pulled into the rivet, expanding it, before the mandrel fractures at the
waisted portion.
When the waisted portion is near to the head of the rivet, they are known as
Break Head (BH) rivets (refer to Fig. 3), and when it is located part way up the
stem it is called a Break Stem (BS) rivet (refer to Fig. 4).
Break Head Tucker Pop Rivet

Fig.3

Break Stem Tucker Pop Rivet

Fig. 4
The rivets are set, using a pair of Pop pliers or by the use of a hydro-pneumatic
gun. Pop rivets are less suitable for use on aircraft as they tend to loosen with
vibration and then become increasingly difficult to remove, because of the
looseness and the presence of the steel mandrel. (They also tend to spin when
attempts are made to drill them out).
Break head rivets must not be used if the structure is not accessible to retrieve
the mandrel heads. It is sometimes permitted for the mandrels of Break Stem
rivets to be dipped in an adhesive, so that they will not vibrate loose after
installation.
If Tucker Pop rivets are to be used externally on aircraft, the heads must be
sealed to prevent the ingress of dirt and moisture. Cellulose Metallic Filler is often
recommended for this purpose. Care must be taken to ensure all remaining
stems and swarf, are totally removed from the aircraft, on completion of work,
when using these rivets.
The rivets are manufactured in either aluminium alloy or cadmium-plated Monel

metal, with either dome heads or 100 and 120 countersunk heads. The AGS
reference number consists of the AGS number identifying the material and head
type, a three figure size code and letters specifying Break Head or Break Stem. In
the size code the first figure represents the diameter, in increments of 1/32 inch
while the last two figures indicate the length in increments of 1/10 inch.
Example:
A rivet, with the designation code AGS2051/537/BS, would be a Tucker Pop,

made from Monel metal, with a 120 countersunk head. The figure 537 indicates
that its diameter is 5/32 inch and its length is 0.37 inch. BS shows that it is a
Break Stem.

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11.4.4 Avdel Rivets
Avdel rivets (refer to Fig. 5) are rarely used on modern aircraft, but may be found
when repairing older aircraft. To close the rivet, the stem is pulled through and, at
a predetermined load, the stem breaks proud of the manufactured head of the
rivet, plugging the rivet body.
Whilst the stems can be milled off on alloy rivets, those manufactured of stainless
steel or titanium break flush with the rivet head. A flush finish is required for
aerodynamic reasons.
Avdel rivets are pre-lubricated by the manufacturer, to facilitate forming the rivet
and they should not be de-greased in solvent before use.
Stem begins to pull

through Rivet Shank Mandrel is Milled
Flush
Mandrel Expands Rivet

Shank and Breaks at
Weak Point
Avdel Rivets
Fig. 5
11.4.5 Chobert Rivets
Chobert rivets (refer to Fig. 6) are also similar to Tucker Pop rivets, but have a
tapered bore. The head of the mandrel is re-usable, and is pulled fully through the
rivet on forming. This gives an advantage of no loose articles after the riveting
operation is completed.
The mandrel is drawn through the rivet using a special tool, which carries a
number of rivets on the mandrel to allow repetitive and faster riveting. The tool
simply feeds the next rivet into place after the closure of the previous one.
Where additional shear strength or water-tightness is required, sealing pins or

plugs of the same material are driven into the bore of the closed rivets

Stem begins to pull

through Rivet Shank
Shear Pin fitted after

Mandrel has pulled
through Shank
Chobert Rivets
Fig. 6
11.4.6 Cherry Rivets
Cherry Rivets are a range of mechanical locking rivets that are manufactured by
the Textron Cherry company in the USA, and are commonly used on during
aircraft construction and repair. The two most common types are the Cherry-Lock
and the Cherry-Max, and the main difference between them is the position of the
locking collar before they are formed.
The locking collar of the Cherry Lock rivet is visible both before and after the rivet
is formed, whilst the Cherry Max locking collar is only visible after the rivet has
been formed (refer Fig. 7).
During the final stages of closing, the locking collar locates into a recess between
the rivet head and the stem, and prevents the stem from any further movement.
When the rivet has been formed it will have a shear and bearing strength high
enough to allow their use in place of solid-shank rivets.
A locking collar that sits flush with the top of the head indicates a correctly formed
rivet. If excessive loads are applied to the rivet during service the locking collar
will protrude at an angle, so the position of the collar can be used an indication of
its condition.

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Cherry Lock Rivet Cherry Max Rivet
Locking Driving
Collar Anvil
Mandrel
Cherry Rivets
Fig. 7
11.4.7 Huck Rivets and Huck Bolts
Huck Rivets and Huck Bolts (refer to Fig. 8) are mechanically locked blind
fasteners and are similar to the Cherry range of rivets. They are available with
heads of 100 countersunk or dome whilst the tail forms a bulbed shape after
closing. There are two types of rivet, the single-action and the double-action, and
the tools that close them differ between the different action.
Although Huck rivets and Huck bolts look and form in the same way, the
difference is due to their diameters. Huck rivets are sized from 1/8 to 1/4
diameter, whilst Huck bolts use sizes from 5/32 to 1/2.
Huck Rivets are made from aluminium alloy, Monel metal or corrosion-resistant
stainless steel. They will grip materials in thickness from between 0.7mm (0.025)
and more than 19mm (3/4). The single action is the most common type and can
be identified by its yellow coloured spindle (mandrel).
Huck Bolts are made from cadmium-plated alloy steel or passivated corrosion-
resistant steel. Material grip thickness ranges from 0.8mm (0.031) and greater
than 19mm (1). The two smallest sizes of 5/32 and 3/16 are single-action
type with a colour coded green spindle, or double-action type with no colour
coding. The rest from 1/4 to 1/2 are only available with the single-action
mechanism and are again, not colour coded.

Huck Lock Bolts

Fig. 8
11.4.8 Grip Range
When forming rivets it is important to know the total material thickness that a
given rivet can fasten together, because the thickness of material can change
between rivets. Unlike a solid rivet, the part of a blind rivet available to form the
tail cannot always be seen.
The depth of a prepared rivet hole can be found by using a special tool that are
usually provided by the rivet manufacturer. They should only be used with that
specific rivet system.
The correct length of a particular rivet for the prepared hole is known as the Grip
Range, and can be measured with a Grip Range Gauge (refer to Fig. 9). This
device measures the depth of each hole and indicates the length or Grip required
for that hole. The value shown by the gauge is used in conjunction with the rivet
manufacturers data table.
Material
9 7 5 3 1
This example
uses a -03 grip
Grip Gauge
Fig. 9
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11.5 MISCELLANEOUS FASTENERS
These fasteners are, basically, close-tolerance, metal pins that combine the best
features of a rivet and bolt. They usually require access to both sides of the joint
but are extremely strong in shear, with a shear strength equal to a standard AN
bolt of the same size. The three types considered here are:
Hi-Lok Fasteners
Hi-Tigue Fasteners
Hi-Shear Fasteners
11.5.1 Hi-Lok Fasteners
The Hi-Lok fastener (refer to Fig. 10) consists of a metal pin (made from heat-
treated steel) which has a thin, manufactured head at one end and a part-
threaded shank at the other. The threaded end of the Hi-Lok fastener contains a
hexagon-shaped recess, for the insertion of an Allen Key.
After the pin is located in its prepared hole, a hexagon-headed collar is turned
onto the threaded shank by a box wrench or an ordinary spanner. An Allen Key
engages in the recess in the shank end, to prevent rotation of the pin whilst the
collar is being tightened and, when a pre-determined load is reached, the
hexagonal section of the collar shears off, leaving the pin securely fastened in the
hole. Because the collar breaks off at a designated pre-load, the use of torque
wrenches is eliminated and three primary design advantages are:
Accurate pre-load and torque to within 10%.

Minimum size and weight.
Rapid, quiet, single-handed operation.
Hi-Lok Fastener
Fig. 10

11.5.2 Hi-Tigue Fasteners
Hi-Tigue fasteners (refer to Fig. 11) are similar to Hi-Loks, excepting that they
possess a bead at the bottom of the shank, adjacent to the threaded portion of
the fastener. The bead exerts a radial load to the side of the hole which serves to
strengthen the area surrounding the fastener hole. This reduces the effect of
cyclic loads on the fastener which, in turn, will reduce the effect of the cold
working of the joint and minimise the likelihood of subsequent failure. Hi-Tigue
fasteners are closed in exactly the same manner as the Hi-Lok types.
Bulbous Area
Hi-Tique Fastener
Fig. 11
11.5.3 Hi-Shear Fasteners
A Hi-Shear fastener (refer to Fig. 12) is a close-tolerance pin, which is an

interference fit and must be tapped into its hole before the locking collar is
swaged on. There are two head styles; one being flat while the other is
countersunk. The rivets are closed, either with a special pneumatic pulling tool or
by a conventional riveting gun and a conical set.
Collar
deforms
around
Pin
Hi Shear Fastener
Fig. 12
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11.6 SPECIAL PURPOSE FASTENERS
In addition to the fasteners already described, other rivet-type fasteners are often
used in the manufacture and repair of aircraft. While some of these are designed
for a specific use, others may be categorised as High Strength Fasteners.
Typical examples of these special purpose-type fasteners include Jo-Bolts,
Tubular Rivets and Rivnuts.
11.6.1 Jo-Bolts
This is the trade name for a fastener, which is used where a nut and bolt would
normally be fitted, but where access is available only to one side of the work.
Jo-bolts (refer to Fig. 13) consist of three components; an alloy steel nut (which
may be of a hexagonal or countersunk headed type), a hollow steel bolt and a
stainless steel sleeve.
The fastener is installed with either a pneumatic or a hand-operated tool, with

which the bolt is rotated and the nut is held stationary. This action expands the
sleeve over the tapered end of the nut and draws the fastened items together. At
a pre-determined torque, the bolt breaks off at a notch-weakened point, flush with
the head of the nut. A different tool is required for each of the two head forms and
for each particular diameter bolt.
Countersunk Hexagon
Type Head Type
Flat Section
of Thread
Waisted
Groove
Breaker
Deformed
Bolt Sleeve
Sleeve
Jo Bolts
Fig.13

11.6.2 Tubular Rivets.
Tubular rivets (refer to Fig. 14) are used primarily to save weight when riveting
through tubular or hollow members, where a large part of the rivet is merely
passing through space.
Mandrel Pulls through Rivet

Tube to Expand the Tail
Hollow Rivet
Fig. 14
They are often used on control rods for connecting end fittings. The rivets are
made to AGS drawing specifications in several materials. The drawing number
indicates the type of rivet and the following letter denotes the material. The
number after the letter denotes the dimensions of the rivet, but has no particular
significance as is the case with other types of rivet.
Example:
A tubular rivet with the designation code AGS 501/H/49 is made of mild steel, has
a length of 1 inch, and has a wall thickness of 26 SWG. Table 5 shows the letters
used to indicate different tubular rivet materials and the features by which the
materials may be recognised.
Table 5
Identification Codes for Tubular Rivets
Letter Material Identification Feature
Identification Protective Physical
Treatment Characteristic
A Aluminium (L54) Anodic film Dyed black
D Duralumin (L37) None Natural colour
H Mild steel (T26) Cadmium Magnetic
plated
J Nickel alloy Cadmium Only slightly
(DTD268) or plated magnetic
Monel metal
(DTD204A)
K Monel metal None Only slightly
(DTD204A) magnetic

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11.6.3 Rivnuts
These fasteners were produced to attach rubber de-icing boots to aircraft wing
and tail leading edges. Rivnuts can be either of the countersunk or flat head
types, of which, each can have open or sealed ends (refer to Fig. 15).
Rivnuts
Fig. 15
Installation is achieved by drilling a hole into the skin and a small notch made on
the edge of the hole to prevent the Rivnut rotating during closing. The Rivnut is
screwed onto the thread of the pulling tool, and is inserted into the hole, with the
key aligned with the notch.
The pulling tool handle is squeezed, closing the nut and gripping the skin. The
tool is then unscrewed from the Rivnut, leaving a threaded hole to accept a screw
or bolt of the appropriate size.
Rivnuts are supplied in American thread sizes and in BA or BSF thread forms, but
to avoid confusion, only the American types are considered here.
These Rivnuts are available in six grip ranges, the minimum grip Rivnut having a
plain head while the next size has a radial dash mark on the head. Each
succeeding grip range is indicated by an additional radial mark on the head with
the largest size having five radial dash marks.

SPRINGS
The invention of the wheel is considered to be one of the major advances of

mankind, but another, less-praised, technical, innovation followed the
development of devices employed to alleviate the discomfort of travelling on
unmade or rutted roads.
Using the fact that the elasticity, inherent in most materials, allows them to absorb
energy by distorting or deflecting when under load - and then, to return to their
original shape after the load has moderated (or has been removed). Early springs
consisted of flat and curved sections of wood (and later, metal), to which were
attached the carriages of the respective eras.
The dawning of The Industrial Revolution led to the mechanisation of practically

every facet of civilised life, from the production of food and textiles to the mining
and processing of minerals in order to provide many other materials and the
various machines deemed necessary for sophisticated living conditions.
In addition there has followed huge advances in transport, time-keeping, world-

wide communication and inevitably military capabilities, in all of which can be
found mechanisms involving the principle of the spring.
The subject of spring technology is vast and well beyond the scope of these
notes, so it is sufficient for the student to appreciate the basic uses for springs in
the aerospace environment and the functions that they fulfil.
11.7 SPRING FORCES
The three basic forces, which may be exerted on, and applied by springs are:
Compression
Tension
Torsion
These forces may act singly, in combinations of any two or all three.
11.8 TYPES OF SPRINGS
Springs have evolved into various shapes and sizes (and degrees of stiffness),
which have been dictated by the uses to which they have been put. The more
common forms are included here for consideration.
11.8.1 Flat Springs

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Flat springs, while they were a development of flat, rectangular-sectioned, strips

of metal, can actually be found in forms other than simply flat as, for instance, in
the shape of the springs which control the contact breaker points in the magneto
of an aircraft piston-type engine.
11.8.2 Leaf Springs
Leaf springs are formed by layers of flat springs and while very early aircraft
embodied leaf springs in their landing gear, this type of spring is more familiar in
the automobile and railway industries.
11.8.3 Spiral Springs
Spiral springs may be found in the form of spirally wound flat springs (known as
motor or power springs) or as spirally wound wire, such as the hair springs of
many types of instruments.
11.8.4 Helical Compression and Tension Springs
These are the most commonly found springs, which superseded the leaf spring
when space and lightness of structure were the requirement. They are made in a
wide variety of materials and sizes and may be found in a seemingly endless
number of applications.
11.8.5 Helical Torsion Springs
While being similarly wound to the previous two types, these springs have
specially shaped ends, to permit a torque force to be applied, and transmitted, in
a plane normal to the helix axis.
11.8.6 Belleville (Coned Disc) Springs
Belleville springs are, in fact, shaped like the Cup Washers, which were
previously discussed in the topic on Locking Devices. Belleville Springs are
capable of exerting frictional or linear forces.
11.8.7 Torsion-Bar Springs
Torsion-bar springs are, basically, straight bars of metal, with splined (or flanged)
ends, that can accept and transmit torsional forces.
11.9 SPRING MATERIALS
The materials, used for the manufacture of springs, cover a very wide range of
metallic and non-metallic (plastic and elastomer) substances. These notes will,
however, be confined mainly to the discussion of metallic types, with a small
consideration being given to some composite materials.

11.9.1 Steels used for Cold-Wound Springs
Below a material cross-sectional diameter of approximately 9.5 mm to 18.5 mm

(0.375 in to 0.725 in) certain steels are drawn into wires and cold-wound to form
the required shape of the spring. The wires are then usually, given some form of
heat-treatment, to relieve the stresses imposed by the winding processes. Typical
types of carbon- and alloy-steel are used for the manufacture of springs and
include:
Hard-drawn Spring Wire: which is of a low-quality (and least expensive)

carbon-steel. This wire is liable to posses fine seams in its surface, and as
such, would only be used in applications of low stress and not where a fatigue
loading could be exerted
Oil-tempered Spring Wire: which is of a better quality, high-carbon steel,

though it may also contain surface discontinuities and would be found where
long fatigue life is not required
Music Wire: which is a carbon-steel of high quality and is suitable for small-
sized, helical springs in applications involving high fatigue stresses
Chrome-Vanadium Steel Wire: which is a material that has been used for
piston-type aero-engine valve springs and is, suitable for high-temperature
and high-stress conditions
Chrome-Silicon Steel Wire: which when used in valve springs, has a higher
fatigue life in the lower cycle ranges (10 kHz 100 kHz) than other wires
Stainless-Steel Spring Wire: which as is obvious from its name, is used in

conditions where high corrosion-resistance is the requirement. This grade of
wire would also be utilised in applications where resistance to creep at
elevated temperatures is desired. Some grades of Stainless-Steel wires can
be made to accept magnetism, where this characteristic is needed alongside
the other qualities.
11.9.2 Steels used for Hot-Wound Springs
Above the cross-sectional diameters, previously mentioned, it is considered

impractical to cold-wind and so, the larger diameter metals (bars or rods) are hot-
wound and then also subjected to various stress-relieving processes.
Similar carbon- and alloy-steels to those already discussed are employed in the
manufacture of hot-wound springs, with the necessary variations in their contents
of carbon, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, and vanadium.

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11.9.3 Steels used for Cold-Rolled, Flat Springs
These steels vary in composition, depending on their location, but are commonly
based on carbon and manganese as the main constituent elements. They may be
formed from oil-tempered steels (thin sections clock-type springs) or from
annealed steels which are subsequently heat-treated.
11.9.4 Non-Ferrous Metals used for Springs
Based mainly on copper alloys, where corrosion resistance and good electrical
conductivity is required, and on nickel alloys where the ability to work at elevated
temperatures is desirable, these alloys include:
Spring Brass: which is comparatively inexpensive, has good electrical

conductivity, but is unsuitable for high-stress applications
Nickel Silver (also called German Silver): which has better characteristics than
brass and is made from different percentages of copper, zinc and nickel
Phosphor Bronze: which has a minimum percentage of 90% copper content

and has excellent electrical conductivity. It is suitable for applications of higher
stress levels than those of brass
Silicon Bronze: which has similar characteristics to those of phosphor bronze

but is less expensive to produce
Beryllium Copper: which has similar conductivity (and corrosion resistance)

qualities to those of copper with the addition of beryllium (2.0-2.5%) imparting
greater hardness and other superior mechanical properties
High-Nickel Alloys: which are the types more commonly found in aero-engine
applications and which fall under various, familiar, trade names such as:
Monel
K Monel (3% aluminium)
Permanickel
Inconel
Inconel X (2.5% Titanium)
Another high-nickel alloy goes under the name of Ni-Span-C and contains almost
50% iron.
All of these non-ferrous alloys can be found in the cold-rolled or drawn conditions
for the manufacture of many types of springs.

11.9.5 Composite Materials used for Springs
Some composite springs involve the joining of certain metals with elastomers to
form the anti-vibration mountings (Metalastic Bushes and Housings) such as
those found in aero-engine and auxiliary power unit (APU) installations.
Others combine synthetic rubber strands, encased within a sheath of braided

cotton, nylon or similar materials. They are usually referred to as Shock
Absorbers or Shock Cords rather than Springs and are more familiarly known
by the generic name of Bungee Cords. Bungee Cords may be encountered on
many light- and medium-sized aircraft while their use on heavier aircraft is not
unknown.
11.10 SPRING CHARACTERISTICS
If a Load/Deflection graph for a typical, helical-wound spring were to be plotted, a

straight-line graph (or linear load/deflection graph) would be the result (refer to
Fig. 1). (Provided the spring was not loaded beyond its elastic limit and the
effects of temperature and constant or repeated loading were ignored.) This
indicates that the deflection is directly proportional to the load, so if the load is
doubled, then the deflection also doubles.
Non-linear load/deflection graphs can be produced by Belleville springs (refer to

dashed line of Fig.2). Their particular characteristics also prove extremely useful
in certain control and indicating functions. Another non-linear graph (refer to solid
line of Fig.2) can be found when a thin, flat, circular disk is loaded to a large
deflection. The individual characteristics of these different spring types are used
to good effect in many aeronautical applications.
Load Load
Deflection Deflection
Linear Load/Deflection Graph Non-Linear Load/Deflection Graph

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

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11.11 APPLICATIONS OF SPRINGS IN AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING
There are many applications involving the use of springs in aircraft engineering
and some examples are:
Pressure Regulating/Limiting Devices: in Fuel, Hydraulic, Lubrication, and

Pneumatic systems
Fail Safe or Return to Neutral Condition Devices: in Electrical Relays and

Solenoids, and also in Electric, Hydraulic, Mechanical, or Pneumatic Actuators
Acceleration and Speed Control Devices: in Engine and Propeller control

systems and in Power-Assisted Flight Controls and Wheel Braking systems
Shock Absorbing Devices: in Landing Gear systems and as Anti-Vibration

Mountings for delicate instruments and components which are subject to
movement
Devices which are capable of applying a constant force (linear or rotary) in a

desired direction, as in the holding closed of an aero-engine valve spring for
one example
Devices with the ability to accurately indicate (and control) the value of an
applied force, as used in many instruments such as Ammeters, Voltmeters,
Fuel Flow Meters and Tachometers provide typical examples.

12 PIPES AND UNIONS

The many different systems in an aircraft require the services of pipes and hoses,
in a range of sizes. These can include fuel, oxygen, lubrication, hydraulic,
instruments, heating, fire extinguishing, air conditioning and water systems. Loss
of integrity in any of these systems could put the aircraft at risk.
The pressures inside the pipes can vary from negative (suction) through ambient,
in instrument piping, to as much as 400 Bar ( 6000 psi) in a hydraulic system.
Low-pressure fluid lines can be manufactured from metal or plastic (pipes and
tubes) or, alternatively, from various forms of rubber (hoses). High-pressure fluid
line can be made from a variety of materials, including aluminium alloy, stainless
steel, copper and titanium, as well as reinforced flexible hoses.
Fluid lines are made of rigid, semi-rigid and flexible tubes, depending on their
use. A rigid fluid line would be one that is not normally bent to shape or flared.
Direction changes and connections are made by the use of threaded end-fittings.
Semi-rigid fluid lines are bent and formed to shape and have a relatively thin wall
thickness in comparison to rigid lines. A variety of end-fittings may be used to
make connections between semi-rigid tubes.
Flexible fluid lines are made from rubber or synthetic materials and are usually
called hoses. Depending on the pressure they are designed to carry, hoses may
have reinforcing materials wrapped around them. Various types of end-fittings are
used to attach hoses to each other and to other components.
12.1 RIGID PIPES
These are usually manufactured in a standardised combination of length, outside

diameter (OD), and wall thickness. The use of threads, cut into the pipe wall, and
the need for special end-fittings means that, apart from some components, there
are few rigid pipes used on aircraft.
12.2 SEMI-RIGID PIPES
Semi-rigid pipes are also known as tubes or tubing and can be bent to shape and
are often flared for connectors. Sizing is also by length, OD and wall thickness.
Various methods are used to connect semi-rigid pipes both to each other and to
other connectors. These will depend upon the use, location and pressure being
carried in the pipe. The most common end-fittings are of the flared, flare-less,
swaged or brazed types and are often standard parts.

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12.2.1 Flared End-Fittings
There are two main types of flared end fittings used with aircraft pipes, AGS and
AN, and whilst they make look similar, they use different angles and are not
interchangeable. The AGS system uses a 32 included angle flare, whilst the AN
system, uses flares of 74 included angle. Care must be taken to ensure that the
correct couplings are fitted when assembling these pipes.
A special nut and sleeve are used to pull the flare onto the cone and to form a
fluid-tight metal-to-metal seal. The end-fittings are produced in a wide variety of
types, depending upon their use. Some examples are the In-line, Cross, Elbow,
and T type of end-fittings. In addition the Bulkhead fitting allows pipes to pass
fluids through structural portions such as the bulkheads of an aircraft or of an
engine power-plant assembly.
In-line connectors may be either of the pipe-to-pipe or pipe-to-adapter type of

connectors and internally coned adapters normally require the use of adapter
nipples to provide an effective seal (refer to Fig. 1).
Collar Externally coned

adapter Internally coned adapter
Flared
pipe
Spherical-ended
Union nut adapter nipple
Pipe to External Pipe to Internal

Cone Adapter Cone Adapter
Spherical-ended
adapter nipple
Sleeve
Pipe to Pipe
Adapter
Standard Flared Pipe Couplings

Fig. 1

Where it is necessary to have fuel, oil or other pipes passing through structural
bulkheads, it requires an end-fitting with a long body and provision for securing
the end-fitting to the bulkhead (refer to Fig. 2). Typical bulkhead end-fittings, can
be identified by the extra machined thread at one end, for attachment to the
bulkhead, by an additional threaded locking device.
Bulkhead Union Bulkhead Elbow
Elbow Tee
Typical Pipe Connectors

Fig. 2
12.2.2 Flare-Less Couplings
The heavy-wall pipe used in some high-pressure systems, is difficult to flare and
tends to put the end of the pipe in a stressed condition. For these applications the
flare-less coupling is designed to provide leak-free attachments without flares.
Although there is no need to flare the pipe, in one of the methods used, it is
necessary to pre-set the coupling, prior to its installation (refer to Fig. 3). Pre-
setting is the process of applying enough pressure to a sleeve (also called a
ferrule) to cause it to cut into the outside of the pipe.
Hooked
Sleeve Under-tightened
pre-set
Correctly tightened
pre-set
Over-tightened
pre-set
Flareless Pipe Coupling Pre-set

Fig. 3

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The pipe and ferrule are placed into a pre-setting tool and the action of tightening
the nut causes the ferrule to bite into the external pipe wall. Depending on the
size of the tube and its material, between one and one and a half turns of the nut
is enough to form the pre-set. When complete, the tube can be inspected and, if
satisfactory, attached directly to the appropriate union or adapter.
Two other methods of forming flare-less couplings involve the swaging of metal
sleeves around the ends of the pipes, which are being connected and the joining
of pipes by brazing. Both methods require specialist skills, which are beyond the
scope of these notes.
12.3 FLEXIBLE PIPES (HOSES)
The need for flexibility in many areas of aircraft construction means it is often
necessary to employ hoses, instead of semi-rigid piping, for the transmission of
fluids and gases under pressure. Whilst a number of hoses were previously
manufactured from rubber, most modern hoses are manufactured from materials
such as Teflon and Elastomers.
12.3.1 Low-Pressure Hoses
An example of the type of construction used in these hoses is where the inner
and outer tubes are made from synthetic rubber, with the inner having a braided
cotton reinforcement (refer to Fig. 4). These hoses are used on instrument
systems, vacuum systems, autopilots and other low-pressure systems, usually
operating at pressures below 20 bar (300 psi).
Single Cotton Braid

Smooth or Ribbed Reinforcement Seamless
Synthetic Rubber
Synthetic Rubber
Inner Liner
Low Pressure Hose

Fig. 4
A typical marking on this type of hose could be a yellow line with the letters LP
along it. The line (lay line) is used to ensure that the hose is not assembled with a
stress-inducing twist in it. Other markings may include the hose manufacturers
code and part number, its size and the date of manufacture.

12.3.2 Medium-Pressure Hoses
Medium-pressure (refer to Fig. 5) hoses are generally used with fluid pressures
up to 100 bar (1500 psi). Their maximum pressure varies with diameter, so that
whilst smaller diameter hoses will be able to withstand such pressures, larger
sizes may be restricted to lower pressures.
Typical construction of this type of hose is a seamless inner liner made from
different materials, a layer of cotton braid, a layer of stainless-steel reinforcement
and an outer layer of tough, oil-resistant, rubber-impregnated cotton.
Oil-Resistant Cotton Braid

Cotton Braid Reinforcement
Seamless
Synthetic Rubber
Inner Liner
Cotton Braid
Reinforcement
Medium Pressure Hose

Fig. 5
12.3.3 High-Pressure Hoses
High-pressure hoses (refer to Fig. 6) usually have a working pressure of between

100 to 200 bar (1500 psi to 3000 psi) and use a synthetic rubber liner to carry
petroleum products. The inner liner is usually wrapped with two or more steel
braids as reinforcement. To distinguish high-pressure from medium-pressure
hose, the entire hose usually has a smooth outer cover.
The end fittings on a flexible hose assembly are made of steel or light alloy,
depending on their application. They are designed to exert a grip on the pipes
and wire braids, so as to resist the high pressure twisting and vibrating loads, as
well as providing an electrical bond throughout the assembly.

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Synthetic Rubber High-Tensile

Outer Cover Carbon Steel Braid
Reinforcements
Smooth Synthetic
Rubber Inner
Liner
Fabric Braid
Reinforcement
High Pressure Hose

Fig. 6
12.3.4 Hose Identification
Flexible hoses have their sizes identified by their inner bore diameter and the
overall length. With pre-assembled hoses, the overall length of the assembly,
from the centres of the nipple extremities, regardless of the shape of the end
fittings, is used for identification purposes (refer to Fig. 7).
Flexible hoses, used in engine bays and other high temperature areas, will often
have a metallic stainless braid as the outside layer, to make the hose fire-
resistant.
Effective
Length
Hose Effective Length

Fig. 7

12.4 UNIONS AND CONNECTORS
Very few pipes and hoses are manufactured at company engineering facilities,
the majority being obtained direct from manufacturers and specialist suppliers.
It is important that engineers be aware of the variety of different types of unions

and connectors that are available for rigid pipes and flexible hoses on aircraft.
These may be of British, European or American manufacture with the different
standards that these entail.
12.4.1 Aircraft General Standards (AGS)
It has already been discussed, in earlier topics, how this British standard
comprises a wide range of small parts, which includes items such as bolts, nuts,
rivets and taper pins. The standard also includes pipe end-fittings (union nuts and
adapters), sleeves, collars, and nipples. The flares on AGS end-fittings (unions
and adapters) have an included angle of 32, with the pipe flaring machines being
shaped accordingly.
12.4.2 Air Force and Navy (AN)
This standard may also be found in a wide range of aircraft and components, but
it should be noted that the flares and other hardware for this standard have an
included angle of 74.
12.4.3 Military Standard (MS)
This standard (as previously discussed) has replaced the standards from the AN
system. Many AN part numbers have been incorporated into the MS system and
now appear with MS designations
Other specifications in current use with aircraft manufactured in the USA include
National Aerospace Standards (NAS) and Military Specifications (Mil Specs).
These may have an equivalent civilian or Military Standard.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the Aeronautical Materials

Division of SAE specifications (AMS) are yet another set of standards to which
aerospace materials may be produced. The Society of Automotive Engineers has
a second standard - referred to as the Aeronautical Standard (AS) which is for
components that do not qualify for an AMS standard.
All these specifications provide for a range of fasteners with Unified threads in the
UNC, UNF and UNJF series and, whereas British aircraft fasteners are
manufactured in a selected range of Unified threads, American fasteners are in
some instances supplied in both UNC and UNF threads. Great care must be
taken when matching up union assemblies with these many different forms of
thread, the correct way being by use of OEM part numbers.

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12.5 QUICK-RELEASE COUPLINGS
Quick-release couplings are required at various points in aircraft systems. Typical

uses are in fuel, oil, hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Their purpose is to save
time in the removal and replacement of components; to prevent the loss of fluid
and to protect the fluid from contamination. The use of these couplings also
reduces the maintenance cost for the system involved.
A coupling consists of a male and female assembly (refer to Fig. 8). Each
assembly has a sealing piston/poppet valve that prevents the loss of fluid when
the coupling is disconnected.
When the coupling is disconnected a spring pushes the conical shaped poppet
onto a seat to ensure no fluid can escape. When the coupling is connected the
piston faces compress the springs and lift the poppet off its seat allowing fluid to
pass through.
Poppet Piston
Coupling
Disconnected
Spring Piston Force Poppet

Valves Open
Coupling
Connected
Quick Release Coupling

Fig. 8
It is extremely important to ensure the open parts of a disconnected coupling do

not become contaminated. This can be achieved by placing blanking caps on the
end of the couplings as soon as they have been separated.
Three checks may be used to verify a positive connection. These involve an

audible, visual and tactile indication. A click may be heard at the time the coupling
is locked and indicator pins will extend from the outer sleeve upon locking, which
can be seen and felt.

13 BEARINGS
Bearings are usually classified by the shape of the rolling element that is used in
their construction. Ball bearings use steel balls, which rotate in grooved
raceways, whilst Roller bearings utilise cylindrical, tapered and spherical rollers
running in suitably shaped raceways.
13.1 RADIAL AND AXIAL LOADS
The rolling element of a bearing is subject to loads, which are dependent on what
the bearing is used for. The two main types of load a bearing may be subject to
are radial and axial (refer to Fig. 9). Most bearings are designed to accept one of
these loads, but some types can accept both loads simultaneously.
The amount of loading a bearing can accept depends on factors such as the size
of the rolling element, the depth of the race and the material it is constructed
from. Ball bearings and tapered roller bearings accept both radial and axial loads,
whilst the other types of roller bearings may accept only radial loads.
Axial Movement
Forces the Inner
Race into the Ball
Rolling Element
Radial Axial
Load Load
Shaft
Inner Race
Outer
Race Rolling
Element
Radial and Axial Loads on a Ball Bearing

Fig. 9
Bearings which are contained in cages, are generally used for engine and
gearbox applications were rotational speeds are in excess of approximately 100
rpm. Most other bearings on an aircraft or in an engine, are intended for
oscillating or slow rotation conditions and do not have a cage.

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They are generally shielded or sealed and pre-packed with grease, although
some have external lubrication facilities. The specific AMM should always be
followed when work of any type is done on bearings.

13.2 BALL BEARINGS
Ball bearings may be divided into four main types that define the way in which the
bearings are used. These are Radial Bearings, Angular-Contact Bearings, Thrust
Bearings and Instrument Precision Bearings.
13.2.1 Radial Bearings
Radial bearings (refer Fig. 10) are the most common type of bearing and can be
found in all types of transmission assemblies such as shafts, gears, control rods
and end fittings. They are manufactured with either a single or double row of
balls, rigid for normal applications and self-aligning for positions where accurate
alignment cannot be maintained, such as in control rod ends.
Cage
Seal
Outer
Race
Inner
Race
Shield
Single Row Shielded Ball Bearing

Fig.10
13.2.2 Angular-Contact Bearings
Angular-Contact bearings (refer Fig. 11) are capable of accepting radial loads
and axial loads in one direction only. The outer ring is recessed on one side to
allow the ball and cage assembly to be installed, which enables more balls to be
used and the cage to be in one piece. The axial load capacity depends on the
contact angle. Where axial loads will always be in one direction, a single angular-
contact bearing may be used, but when they vary in direction, an opposed pair of
bearings would be required.
Contact Angle
Outer
Race
Thrust
Face
Cage
Angular Contact Ball Bearing

Fig.11

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13.2.3 Thrust Bearings
Thrust bearings are designed for axial loading only (refer Fig. 12), and are
normally used together with roller or radial ball bearings. The balls are retained in
position by a cage and run on flat or grooved washers. These bearings are
adversely affected by centrifugal force, and work best under high-load, low-speed
situations.
Thrust
Cage
Direction
Outer
Race
Washer
Washer Type Thrust Bearing

Fig.12
13.2.4 Instrument Precision Bearings
Instrument Precision Bearings are manufactured to high accuracy and finish.

They are generally of the radial bearing type and can be found in both
instruments and communication equipment. They contain a large number of very
small diameter balls.
13.3 ROLLER BEARINGS
Roller bearings may be divided into three main types that define their use. They
are Cylindrical Roller Bearings, Spherical Roller Bearings and Tapered Roller
Bearings.
13.3.1 Cylindrical Roller Bearings
Cylindrical Roller bearings will accept greater radial loads than ball bearings of
the same size (refer Fig. 13). This is due to the greater contact area of the rolling
elements and, if they have ribs on both rings, cylindrical roller bearings will also
accept light, intermittent, axial loads. Normally the rollers have a length equal to
their diameter, although some rollers have a length greater than their diameter to
cater for special applications.
Roller bearings, which have a length much greater than their diameter, are
normally called needle roller bearings. These are designed for radial loads only
and are best used in situations where the movement is oscillatory rather than
rotary, such as in universal joints and control rod ends.

Outer
Cage Race
Inner
Race
Cylindrical Roller Bearing

Fig.13
13.3.2 Spherical Roller Bearings
Spherical Roller bearings (refer Fig. 14) can be found with single or double rows
of rollers, which run in a spherical raceway in the outer ring, thus enabling the
bearing to accept a small degree of misalignment. These bearings will accept
high radial loads and moderate axial loads.
Outer
Cage Race
Inner
Race
Spherical Roller Bearing

Fig.14
13.3.3 Tapered Roller Bearings
Tapered Roller bearings (refer Fig. 15) are designed so that the axes of the
rollers form an angle to the shaft axis. They are capable of accepting radial and
axial loads simultaneously, in one direction only. It is common to find tapered
roller bearings mounted in pairs, back to back so that loads can be accepted in
both directions.
Outer
Race
Inner
Race
Tapered Roller Bearing

Fig.15

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13.4 BEARING INTERNAL CLEARANCE
Due to the heat generated during operation, Radial Ball and Cylindrical Roller
bearings are manufactured with different amounts of internal clearance.
The bearings are produced in four grades or groups, and are usually marked in
some way to indicate each particular group. A system of dots, circles or letters is
often used as identification and it is most important that replacement bearings are
to the same standard as those removed.
13.4.1 Group 2 One Dot Bearings
Group 2 bearings have the smallest radial internal clearance, and are normally
used in precision work, where minimum axial and radial movement is required.
Bearings that are subject to high-speed, high temperature or a thrust load should
not use this type of internal clearance.
13.4.2 Normal Group Two Dot Bearings
Normal Group bearings are used for most general applications, where only one
ring, of the bearing race, is an interference fit and where no appreciable amount
of heat, is likely to be transferred to the bearing.
13.4.3 Group 3 Three Dot Bearings
Group 3 bearings have greater internal clearance than Normal Group bearings
and are employed where both race rings are interference fits, or where one ring is
an interference fit, and some transfer of heat must be accepted. These bearings
are also used for high-speed applications, and when an axial loading is
predominant.
13.4.4 Group 4 Four Dot Bearings
Group 4 bearings have the greatest internal clearance and are found where both
rings are interference fits and where the transfer of heat reduces internal
clearances.
Standard bearings are produced in all four groups while instrument precision
bearings are supplied only in the first three groups

13.5 BEARING MAINTENANCE
Ball and roller bearings, if properly lubricated and installed, have a long life and
require little attention. Bearing failures may have serious results, and to avoid
such problems, Aircraft Maintenance Manuals and approved Maintenance
Schedules include full lubrication and inspection instructions, which must be
strictly followed.
13.5.1 Lubrication
Most bearings used in airframe applications are sealed (shielded) to prevent the
entry of dirt or fluids, which could affect bearing life. These types cannot normally
be re-greased and must be replaced if there are signs of wear or loss of lubricant.
In some places, where there is risk of loss of lubricant, a grease point will be
provided to permit recharging with fresh grease. Greasing should only be done
after the grease nipple has been wiped clean of all dirt, and on completion all
excess grease must be wiped away with a clean cloth.
13.5.2 Inspection
Bearings are designed to operate with little or no maintenance, but they must be
inspected regularly because, if corrosion or wear begins, the bearing will
deteriorate rapidly. Bearings are usually inspected in-situ without removing them
from the component, as continued removal and installation of bearings can cause
wear and damage.
Wheel bearings are inspected when the wheel is returned to the Wheel Servicing
Bay for maintenance. Other items might also be inspected when their major
assembly is removed for off-aircraft maintenance.
On-aircraft checks can include wear, smoothness of operation and signs of

interference or fouling with adjacent components. These checks should include
moving the assembly in both an axial and radial direction.

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14 TRANSMISSIONS
In mechanical engineering terms, transmissions consist of a series of connected
parts or mechanisms, whereby a source of power can be applied to another
component, which is then able do the required work, in the form of motion.
Transmissions can be used to:
Connect two or more shafts so that one provides drive to another (or others)
Change the speed of one shaft relative to another
Change the direction of rotation of one shaft relative to another
Convert one type of motion to another (rotary to linear or vice versa)
Aerospace transmissions involve the use of a wide range of sources, to provide

the power, which eventually results in the desired motion in a particular system
and those power sources include (singly or in combinations):
Muscle and (where possible), assisted muscle power

Hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical power
External and internal combustion engines
The means of transmitting power from a source to output is achieved by such

devices as Belts and Pulleys, Gears and Chains and Sprockets.
14.1 BELTS AND PULLEYS
Whilst some forms of pulley are covered in the section on controls, there are a
few situations where lighter and less expensive belts and pulleys are used to
transmit movement/power in place of cables.
Flat belts and pulleys (refer to fig. 1) use only friction to transmit the power from
input to output shafts. Flat belts are prone to slippage, so to reduce the problem,
V-section belts (refer to fig. 2) were introduced. A V section is cut into the pulley
and this gives a larger area of contact with the pulley.
Flat Belt runs Pulley V Section V Section

over top of Groove cut into Belt
Pulley Pulley
Flat Belt Mechanism Friction V Belt Mechanism

Fig.1 Fig.2

Some of the uses to which belt drives are put can include a change of ratio,
usually in a step-down situation, as well as a simple connection between input
and output shafts which are displaced by some distance.
The simple belt and pulley system (refer to fig. 3), may utilise a step-up or step-
down facility, depending on which pulley is being driven. Using different sized
pulleys allows a transmission system to change speed that will suit the output
requirements.
Large
Pulley
Small Belt DOR

Pulley
Simple Belt and Pulley System

Fig.3
When a more positive drive between two pulleys is required, toothed belts are
often used (refer to fig. 4). A toothed belt uses the principle of engagement, rather
than friction to provide a more positive drive. There are a number of places inside
piston engines where toothed belts, are used to drive camshafts and other
accessories from the crankshaft.
Toothed Belt
Toothed Pulley
DOR
Toothed Belt and Pulley System

Fig.4
As well as changing the ratio by utilising different sized pulleys, belt systems can
be used with pulleys of equal size for transmission of power without speed
change.

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Adjustment of all belt types is usually achieved by ensuring the belt is kept at the
correct tension, with an additional pulley pushing against the external side of the
belt. The tension can be maintained on the adjusting pulley by a hydraulic piston
or a mechanically adjusted eccentric cam. Another popular tensioning system is
to mount one of the drive pulleys on an elongated slot and secure it once the
correct tension has been achieved.

14.2 GEARS
There are a number of different types of gears, which are designed for specific
tasks. They will all transmit the rotary motion of the input shaft to an output shaft,
but the angle between them, their direction of rotation and the ratio of their
speeds, depends on the type of gears being used.
14.2.1 Gear Trains and Gear Ratios
A gear train consists of two or more gear wheels, running in series, on separate,
parallel, shafts such that one gear transmits its drive to the other. Gear trains can
change the direction of rotation and can also alter the speed of the output shaft.
The speed of rotation is dependent on the ratio between the number of teeth of
the input gear to that of the output gear, and is often called the Gear Ratio.
If the input gear has 25 teeth and the output gear has 75 teeth, then the output
speed will be in the ratio of 1:3, or one third of the input speed. Conversely if the
input gear has 20 teeth and the output gear has 10 teeth, then the output speed
will be in the ratio of 2:1, or twice that of the input speed.
Gear trains may be used in a variety of ways, to change the direction of rotation
or to increase or decrease the speed of the relevant output gear and its shaft.
The design of a gear train will be influenced by the amount of space available to
accommodate the desired effect and by the power, which is to be transmitted
through the gears.
14.2.2 Spur Gears
The teeth of Spur gears (refer to Fig. 5) are straight cut, which means that the
teeth are cut parallel with the axis of the shaft. Straight cut spur gears are
comparatively easy to manufacture but are noisy in operation. Spur gears form
the simplest of gear trains.
Straight
Cut Teeth
Spur Gears
Fig.5

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14.2.3 Helical Gears
Helical gears are also known as Herringbone gears(refer to Fig. 6) and are used
to transmit drive between parallel shafts. They are more complex to manufacture
and are quieter in operation than spur gears but they produce an axial load on
their respective bearings.
Helical gears have a larger contact area than straight cut gears, on wheels of the
same width. This means they can transmit more power than straight gears of the
same axial width.
Gear Teeth twist

as they cross
the Gear Face
Helical Gear
Fig.6
14.2.4 Bevel Gears
Bevel gears (refer to Fig. 7) are, generally, used to transmit the drive between
shafts which have intersecting axes. The angle of intersection (and thus the drive)
will vary with individual applications. Bevel gears can be found in many places, an
example of which could be that, taken from the main drive shaft of an aircraft
engine, .to drive an accessory gearbox.
Straight Cut
Bevel Gears
Bevel Gears
Fig.7

14.2.5 Worm and Wheel Gears
The worm and wheel gear set (refer to Fig. 8) consists of a helically-cut, worm
gear, on an input shaft, driving a spur gear-mounted wheel, on an output shaft.
The axes of the two shafts cross at 90 and are in different planes. The main
difference between this configuration and the bevel gears is that the worm and
wheel combination gives a much larger step-down between the driver and
driven shaft speeds where space is limited, though frictional losses are higher
with the worm and wheel arrangement.
Worm wheel
Worm
Worm and Wheel

Fig.8
This configuration can only be used to drive in one direction, such that the input
and output are always the same. This allows the input system to drive the output
slowly and with a high mechanical advantage (higher torque), without any back
loads being able to drive the system in reverse. This is ideal for aircraft Flap
Control systems, which have to be driven in both directions (up and down)), via
an electric or hydraulic motor. The air loads on the flaps, must not be allowed to
drive them in an opposite direction.
14.2.6 Planetary (Epicyclic) Reduction Gear Train
The Planetary or Epicyclic gear train (refer to Fig. 9), is typically used to reduce
the speed of an aircraft engines output shaft to a more acceptable speed for its
propeller. It has the advantage of putting the output shaft (the propeller), in line
with the input shaft (the engine shaft).
This configuration is far more efficient than a series of spur gears, as it results in
a smaller frontal area being necessary for the power unit and the subsequent
reduction in aerodynamic drag.
It should also be made clear, that neither the number of teeth on the planetary
gears, nor the number of gears on the spider affect the actual gear reduction. For
example, if the ring gear has 72 teeth and the sun gear has 36 teeth, then the
overall ratio remains at 2:1.

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Sun Gear
Planetary
Gears
Spider
Ring Gear
Epicyclic Gears
Fig.9
14.2.7 Spur and Pinion Reduction Gear Train
The smaller of a high-ratio pair of spur gears, is referred to as the Pinion, whilst
the larger is known as the Spur. The arrangement of these gears varies,
depending on the desired results.
Where the drive pinion is located inside the spur-cut ring gear (refer to Fig. 10) it
has the advantage of not only stepping down the ratio of input to output but also
(as can be seen), both gears rotate in the same direction. Considerable space is
also saved, compared to a system using two, externally-cut gears, for a similar
reduction in output speed.
Pinion
(Drive Gear)
Spur
(Driven Gear) DOR
Direction of
Rotation (DOR)
same for both
Gears
DOR
Spur and Pinion Gear Train

Fig.10

14.2.8 Accessory Unit Drives
Aircraft engines normally employ accessory drive gearboxes (refer to Fig. 11) to
provide power for components such as fuel, hydraulic and oil pumps, electrical
generators and engine speed indicators. These gearboxes utilise multiple gear
trains, which may incorporate some or all of the gear types listed above. These
gears can change the speed and direction of the various components they are
designed to drive.
Typical Accessory Gearbox

Fig. 11
14.2.9 Meshing Patterns
Because of the high power being transmitted by gears in certain situations and
keeping in mind that (using spur gears) only one tooth at a time can be subjected
to that power, then the point of contact between the teeth in mesh is very
important.

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Helical gears may have as many as 5 teeth in contact at any one time, therefore
power will be spread across more teeth. The loads must be applied mid-way
between the front and rear faces of the gear wheel. They must also be exerted
between 1/3 and 2/3 of the distance between the root and tip of the gear tooth.
These settings and adjustments have to be attended to during the build-up of the
gearbox and are usually achieved with the use of appropriately sized shims.

14.3 ROLLER CHAINS AND SPROCKETS
Chains used on aircraft, are generally the simple roller type that consist of outer
and inner plates, rollers, bearing pins and bushes (refer to Fig.12).
Chains are commercially available in four standard sizes, but for aircraft
installations, the manufacturer dictates the size and type of chains used. They are
obtained as complete, proof-loaded, units from manufacturers, and are identified
by their allocated part numbers in the relevant aircraft IPC.
A chain is proof loaded to one third of its minimum breaking load, so if a chain
has a minimum breaking load of 600kg, then it is proof loaded to 200kg.
Roller
Inner Plates Outer Plates
Bearing
Pin
Bush
Roller
Chain Terminology
Fig.12

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The chains main purpose is to transfer motion from one point, to another remote
point, where the input motion is replicated. An example of this would be found in
the input action of moving a control lever, on the flight deck of an aircraft, and the
subsequent output action of the movement of a control surface. Most installations
use chains to generate and convert rotary motion at each end, but use cables to
connect the chains together over long distances.

After installation in the aircraft, the chains should be examined for freedom from
twist. Particular attention must be paid in instances where the attachment is made
to threaded rods by means of screwed end connectors. Care should also be take
to ensure the chain is not pulled out of line by the chain wheel. The wheel should
engage smoothly and evenly with the wheel teeth.
Chain links or attachments should never be drilled and re-riveted. Where chains
have bolts in place of rollers and rivets, then the split pin must be replaced after
maintenance, if the nuts have been peened, then both the nut and bolt must be
replaced before re-assembly.
14.3.1 Typical Chain Arrangements
Chain assemblies may be used in various arrangements (refer to Fig. 13) and
can be employed to provide simple rotary to straight-line motion or to change the
direction of straight-line motion in one plane.
The change of direction in-line with the chain section can be to any angle that
suits the required transmission of motion, but the two most common angles are at
90 and 180.
A change of direction in two planes can be achieved by the use of a special bi-
planar block. This allows the chain section to twist by 90 and gives more
flexibility to the control run.
Rotary
Motion
Bi-Planer Linear
Block Motion
Bi-Planer Block
Twists Chain
through 90
Typical End
Connector
Chain Arrangements
Fig.13

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14.4 MAINTENANCE INSPECTIONS
Chain assemblies should be inspected for serviceability at periods specified in the

AMM. The continued smoothness of operation between chain and sprocket
should be checked for wear.
This can be confirmed by trying to lift the chain links off the sprocket teeth and
checking the links for looseness. The chain should also be checked for damage,
cleanliness, correct lubrication and freedom from corrosion.
If a chain is suspected of becoming elongated, it should be removed, cleaned and

subjected to a specified tensile load. Its length is then measured and this
measurement is compared with its nominal length when it was new. Should the
difference indicate an extension of 2% or more, in any section of the chain, then
the chain assembly will be required to be replaced.
One of the most common operations done on chain assemblies is that of

checking the tension of the chain. Care must be taken not to twist the end fittings
when re-tightening the lock nuts, which butt up against the end connectors.
14.5 SPINE DRIVES
Spline drives are used to engage shafts into pulleys to provide a positive drive
(refer to Fig. 14). The size and shape of the male splines should match those on
the female part to ensure correct fitting at any point of the circumference.
If the circumferential position between the pulley and shaft is critical, then a
master spline mechanism can be used. This ensures that the pulley will only fit
onto the shaft in one position.
Slots Cut Externally

on Shaft and
Internally in Hub.
Spline Drive
Fig.14

15 CONTROL CABLES
Cables used in aircraft control systems, comply with a number of British and
American Standards and are preformed during manufacture. Preforming is a
process in which each strand is formed into the shape that it will take up in the
completed cable. This makes the cable more flexible, easier to splice and less
prone to kinking. Another advantage of preformed cables is that, in the event of a
wire breaking, it will lie flat within its strand, so that the cable should be less likely
to jam in its pulleys and fairleads.
Preformed cables are manufactured from either galvanised carbon steel or

corrosion-resistant steel, and are impregnated with friction reducing lubricant
during manufacture. Non-preformed single strand cable may be found on some
minor aircraft systems. Aircraft control cables are classified by either, the
minimum breaking load or nominal diameter.
It is very rare for a cable to be manufactured by an operator. They are normally

ordered through the aircrafts IPC, and the aircraft manufacturer supplies the
cable fully formed with the necessary end-fittings and to the correct load factor.
15.1 TYPES OF CABLES
The construction of the cable is determined by the number of strands it contains,

and the number of wires in each strand (refer to Fig. 1). For example a cable
designated as 7 x 19, consists of 7 strands, each containing 19 wires. The two
most common forms of construction are the flexible and the extra-flexible types.
Cable
Diameter
1X7 1 X 19 7x7 7 X 19
Non-Flexible Non-Flexible Flexible Extra Flexible
Control Cable Construction

Fig.1

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15.2 CABLE SYSTEM COMPONENTS
There are many components associated with cable systems and a selection is
presented here merely for information. They include End-Fittings, Turnbuckles,
Tensioning Devices, Fairleads and Pulleys.
15.2.1 End-Fittings
Whilst cables were previously, spliced or whipped, to form end-fittings, the

majority of modern cables have a swaged splice end-fitting. Most end-fittings, on
control cables, are special-to-type and end-fittings such as fork, threaded (internal
and external), and ball end-fittings (refer to Fig. 2) can be found in various
locations. The nominal overall length of a cable will depend on the type of end-
fitting which is being employed.
Overall Length
Swaged End Nipple Cable Threaded End
Eye End Fitting

Fork End Fitting
Control Cable End Fittings

Fig.2
15.2.2 Turnbuckles
Cable runs that are too tight will make the controls stiff to operate, whilst cables
that are too slack will make the controls sloppy and unresponsive.
Turnbuckles are devices used to adjust the tension of aircraft control cables and
consists of two mating internal and external threads. The adjustment utilises a
left-hand thread in one end of the turnbuckle, and a right-hand thread in the
other end (refer to Fig. 3). When the centre part of the turnbuckle is rotated, its
length will increase or decrease, and so will adjust the cable tension.
Some turnbuckles have a groove around one end of the barrel to indicate the
left-hand thread portion.

Once the correct tension has been obtained, the turnbuckle is checked to ensure
that sufficient threads are engaged in the turnbuckle. The device is then securely
locked. Turnbuckles and are usually locked in the correct position by means of a
locking clip or locking wire.
The spring type of locking clip can only be inserted into the turnbuckle when the
corresponding longitudinal grooves in the barrel and end fittings are aligned.
Lockwire
Locknut
Cable
Lockwire Secured Turnbuckle

Fig.3
15.2.3 Cable Tensioning Devices
Although the cable tension can be correctly adjusted on the ground, this tension
may alter once the aircraft is in flight. This can be due to the large temperature
differentials involved, with aircraft that fly at high altitudes and the consequences
of an expanding, contracting and flexing airframe. To overcome these problems a
tension regulator is installed in some control runs.
The tension regulator (refer to Fig. 4) is a device which has springs, incorporated
within the mechanism, to ensure that the cable tension remains constant,
regardless of changes to the airframe.
Cable Tension Regulators can be very dangerous, when disconnecting cable

runs, so it is important to ensure that they are locked or snubbed, in accordance
with the AMM, before any work is done on the controls.
Upper
Quadrant Compression
Springs
Lower
Quadrant
Cable
Typical Tension Regulator

Fig.4

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15.2.4 Cable Fairleads
The cables of a control run must be supported to reduce the possibility of fouling,
vibration and fluctuations. They are supported by fairleads (refer to Fig. 5), which
are usually made from fibre materials. These fairleads should not be lubricated as
this will collect dirt and dust, which will cause extra wear on the cable and
fairlead.
These fairleads allow the cable to pass through the bulkheads without chafing. If
the bulkhead is the dividing partition between the pressure cabin and the outside
air pressure, then the fairlead will be designed to maintain an airtight seal, as well
as a cable guide.
Structure Securing Clip
Two Piece Cable

Fairlead
Split Type Fairlead

Cable
Fairleads
Solid Fairleads
Cable Fairleads
Fig.5
15.2.5 Pulleys
Cables that run for long distances inside an aircraft, will need to change direction
to allow for the complicated structure. The usual method is by means of a pulley,
as this allows the change of direction with little increase in friction.
Aircraft pulleys are usually made from resin impregnated fibres with a sealed
bearing fitted in the centre.
A typical example would be a flying control system (refer to Fig. 6), which has
pulleys that change the direction of the cable through various of angles.

Where a change in direction of the cable is required, a pulley is normally used,

due to its low friction in comparison with fairleads. Guards are fitted to pulleys
when the risk of the cable riding off the pulley is high.
Pulley
Cable
Guard
Structure
Pulley
Cable Cable
Guard
Cable Pulleys and Guards

Fig.6
15.3 FLEXIBLE CONTROL SYSTEMS
Normal aircraft cables are only capable of performing a pulling action, due to their
lack of rigidity. Where a two-directional movement of push and pull is required, it
would be necessary either to employ the use of rods, with the increased weight
penalty or to use flexible control systems. The two most common types of flexible
control system are Bowden Cables and Teleflex Control Systems.
15.3.1 Bowden Cables
The Bowden system of control consists of a stainless steel wire, housed in a

flexible sleeve or conduit (refer to Fig. 7). This system is intended for
unidirectional operation only, with the cable being returned, on release of the
control lever by a spring. The transmitting end of the cable is attached to an
actuating lever whilst, at the receiving end, the cable is secured to the component
to be operated.

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[TYPE TEXT]
The flexible cable is made up of several strands of stainless steel wire with
connecting end fittings soldered onto the end of the wire. The swaged ends are
shaped to fit into the next section of the control run. The flexible conduit consists
of close-coiled wire, covered with cotton braiding and a waterproof coating. For
long runs or runs not requiring flexibility, the Bowden cable is fed through rigid
metal tubing, which can be bent over large radius curves if required.
Swaged Ends
Conduit
Cotton Braiding
Cable
End caps help to

keep out moisture
and dirt.
Coiled Wire
Bowden Cable Construction

Fig.7
Swaged end fittings are used at each end of the cable to transmit and actuate the
required movement. At points along the conduit, connectors may be found which
allow the conduits to be separated for maintenance. Junction boxes are also
used, to permit either more than one input, to actuate a single operating lever, or
one input to operate a number of different mechanisms.
Fig.8

15.3.2 Teleflex Control Systems
The Teleflex control system is a Bowden cable that functions in both push and
pull without the need for two cables. It achieves this by wrapping a helix wire
around an inner Bowden cable to form a screw thread. This flexible transmitting
cable operates inside a rigid or flexible metal conduit.
The design of this helix wire, uses a left or right handed pitch and is designed to
engage with gear teeth of control units and end-fittings (refer to Fig. 9).
The main advantages are that it provides a more accurate and positive control
throughout the range of movement and the controlled component can be
temporarily locked in any desired position.
Examples of the types of systems, operated by Teleflex controls, are engine and
propeller controls, trimming controls and fuel valves. Teleflex controls can also be
used to transmit movement from one place to another, such as in a mechanical
Flap Position indicator or as interlocks between controls and throttles during
control lock operation.
Spacer
Wire
Inner
Cable
Helix
Wire
Teleflex Cable
Fig.9
The conduits operate in a similar manner to the Bowden system and are made
from copper, aluminium or steel. The linings are of PTFE on most conduits except
in high temperature areas like engine bays.
To operate the system, the cable and conduit are connected to control boxes at
each end of the control run and, in between, to other units and fittings, which are
used to direct the run.

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[TYPE TEXT]
In many locations, the cables are attached to lever-operated control boxes or to

push-pull handles. At the receiving end of the run, another wheel unit or sliding
end-fitting is used to actuate the mechanism.
Teleflex Control Boxes (refer to Fig. 10) are used to change the direction or type
of motion. The gear wheel inside the control box is helically cut to match the
teleflex cable.
Teleflex Cable
Gear
Wheel
Over-Travel Tube Linear Input
Rotary
Output
Typical Teleflex Control Box

Fig.10
Other types of connectors and components can be found in Teleflex control run.
These range from the input levers or handles to quick disconnect assemblies and
bulkhead connectors, which allow access for maintenance or repair.
To ensure that the internal parts of the cable conduit remain free from
contamination, small seals can be inserted at specific points. This is usually at
points that are susceptible to ingress of moisture, such as the sliding or swivelling
sections of the control run. These seals are made from rubber type material such
as silicone or Viton.

16 ELECTRICAL CABLES & CONNECTORS

An electrical circuit has at least three elements:
1. Source of electrical power
2. Load device to use the electrical energy
3. Cables incorporating a Conductor to connect the source to the load.
Cables must provide a path for the flow of electrons from the source, through the
load and back to the source with the minimum resistance. Additionally, two other
important factors for a conductor are:
Ability to carry a specific load
Reliability under operating conditions.
Two materials considered to be excellent electrical conductors are Copper and

Aluminium, both are used extensively in aircraft installations.
16.1 CABLE SPECIFICATION
A large number of specifications exist for aircraft electrical cables. The majority of
cables used on British built aircraft now in service will have been produced to
Aerospace G series of British Standards.
16.2 CABLE IDENTIFICATION
This covers cable type, size, manufacturer and year of production. It is important
to be able to distinguish between the different types of cable and the size of the
core. One of the main difficulties is the extensive use of nylon and terylene braids
over the basic insulation of many cables giving them a similar appearance.
Cables are stamped with the name and size of the cable at intervals along its
length. If the cable is too thin to be printed on, the code will be printed on a non-
metallic sleeves positioned along the cable.

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[TYPE TEXT]
There are many different types of wire used for special applications in aircraft
electrical systems, but the majority of the wiring is achieved with MIL-W-5086 or
MIL-W-22759 stranded tinned copper wire with PVC, nylon or Teflon insulation.
Figure 1 shows an example of MIL-W-5086 copper wire.
TINNED COPPER POLYVINYL CHLORIDE

CONDUCTOR INSULATION
EXTRUDED NYLON
JACKET
MIL-G-5086 Copper Wire

Figure 1
Where large amounts of current must be carried for long distances, MIL-W-7072
aluminium wire is often used. This wire is insulated with either Fluorinated
Ethylene Propolene (FEP), nylon or fibreglass braid. Aluminium wire smaller than
six-gauge is not recommended because it is so easily broken by vibrations.
Anytime a wire carries a current, a magnetic field surrounds the wire, and this
field may interfere with some aircraft instrumentation. For example, the light that
illuminates the compass card of a magnetic compass is powered with low-voltage
DC. The field from this small voltage can deflect the compass. To minimise this
occurrence, a two-conductor twisted wire is used to carry the current to and from
this light. By using a twisted wire, the fields cancel each other out and thus do not
interfere with the compass.

AC or pulsating DC has an especially bad effect on electronic equipment, as its

conductors radiate electrical energy much like the antenna of a radio. To prevent
radio interference, wires that carry AC or pulsating DC are often shielded.
Encasing the conductor in a wire braid carries this out. This ensures that the
radiated energy is received by the braid and is then passed to the aircraft's
ground where it can cause no interference. Figure 2 shows a shielded wire.
TINNED COPPER POLYVINYL CHLORIDE

CONDUCTOR INSULATION
TINNED COPPER
EXTRUDED NYLON SHIELD
JACKET
Shielded Wire
Figure 2

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[TYPE TEXT]
Antennas are connected to most of the radio receivers and transmitters with a
special type of shielded wire called Coaxial Cable. This consists of a central
conductor surrounded by an insulator and a second conductor. The spacing and
concentricity of the two conductors are critical for the most efficient transfer of
energy through the cable. This second conductor is normally the wire braid, which
is then covered in an outer insulator. Figure 3 shows a coaxial cable.
OUTER
SOLID INNER INSULATOR
CENTER INSULATOR JACKET
CONDUCTOR
BRAID OUTER
CONDUCTOR
Coaxial Cable
Figure 3

16.3 DATA BUS CABLE
One special type of cable used exclusively for various digital electronic systems is
called Data Bus Cable. Data bus cable typically consists of a twisted pair of
wires surrounded by electrical shielding and insulators. Digital systems operate
on different frequencies, voltages and current levels.
It is extremely important to ensure that the correct cable is used for the system
installed. The cable should not be pinched or bent during installation and data
bus cable lengths may also be critical. Refer to current manufacturers manuals
for cable specifications. Figure 4 shows an example of a data bus cable.
TINNED COPPER
CONDUCTORS ETFE TEFZEL
INSULATION ETFE TEFZEL
JACKET
DATA BUS
CABLE B
TINNED COPPER
BRAID SHIELD
DATA BUS
CABLE A
Data Bus Cable

Figure 4

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[TYPE TEXT]
16.4 CONDUCTOR MATERIAL & INSULATION
The wires installed in an aircraft electrical system must be chosen on the basis of
their ability to carry the required current without overheating and to carry it without
producing an excessive voltage drop. There are a number of factors to consider
when choosing the correct wire, these are:
1. Conductor material
2. Flexibility of the wire
3. Insulation material
4. Diameter of the wire (American Wire Gauge AWG)
5. Length of wire
6. Type of installation.
For aircraft, the wire material could be either copper or aluminium. If the
conductor is made from copper, the individual strands of wire are typically plated
to protect the copper from corrosion. Figure 5 shows two types of conductor
found in aircraft systems.
STRANDED
CONDUCTORS
SOLID
CONDUCTOR
Electrical Wire Type

Figure 5

The number of strands that make up the wire and the type of insulation on the
wire typically determine the flexibility of a conductor. The type of insulation is very
important; various insulations have different ratings for heat, abrasion and
flexibility. The length and type of installation are factors established by the aircraft
manufacturer.
16.5 WIRE SIZE
The wire used for aircraft electrical installations is sized according to the
American Wire Gauge (AWG). The size of the wire is a function of its diameter
and is indicated by a unit called Circular Mil. One circular mil is equal to the
cross-sectional area of a 1-mil (0.001 inch) diameter wire, measured in
thousandths of an inch. To determine the size in circular mils of a wire, simply
square the wire's diameter measured in thousandths of an inch. Figure 6 shows
this concept.
1 CIRCULAR MIL
1 mil2 0.001 IN
(1 cmil)
American Wire Gauge (AWG)

Figure 6
In AWG only even numbers are used, small wires have higher numbers, typically
starting at AWG 24. Large wires have smaller numbers, down to AWG 0000.
AWG size 20 is approximately 0.032 inch in diameter, and AWG 0 is
approximately 0.325 inch in diameter.

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[TYPE TEXT]
To determine the size of any given wire, a wire gauge tool may be used. Figure 7
shows a typical wire gauge tool.
NOTE: AWG FOR

ELECTRICAL WIRE
IS 24 - 0000
Wire Gauge Tool

Figure 7
16.6 WIRE RESISTANCE
Resistance is the opposition to current flow and is measured in Ohms ().The

resistance of a wire will increase with an increase of length, but will decrease with
an increase of cross-sectional area.
16.7 CURRENT CARRYING CAPABILITY
A wire fitted to an aircraft system should be able to carry the required current
without overheating and burning. Also it must be able to carry the required current
without producing a voltage drop greater than that which is permissible for the
circuit.
Most aircraft wiring that is required to carry large amounts of current for long
distances, is generally made up of aluminium wire.
Tables 1 and 2 shows the characteristics of MIL-W-5086 copper wire and MIL-W-
7072 aluminium wire.

Wire Size Single Wire Bundled Wire Max Weight

Max Amps Max Amps Resistance Pounds per
(In free Air) (Conduit) Ohms/1,000ft 1,000ft
(20C)
AN-20 11 7.5 10.25 5.6
AN-18 16 10 6.44 8.4
AN-16 22 13 4.76 10.8
AN-14 32 17 2.99 17.1
AN-12 41 23 1.88 25
AN-10 55 33 1.1 42.7
AN-8 73 46 0.7 69.2
AN-6 101 60 0.44 102.7
AN-4 135 80 0.27 162.5
AN-2 181 100 0.18 247.6
AN-0 245 150 0.11 382
AN-00 283 175 0.09 482
AN-000 328 200 0.07 620
AN-0000 380 225 0.06 770
MIL-W-5086
Table 1
Wire Size Single Wire Bundled Wire Max Weight

Max Amps Max Amps Resistance Pounds per
(In free Air) (Conduit) Ohms/1,000ft 1,000ft
(20C)
AL-6 83 50 0.64 ........
AL-4 108 66 0.43 ........
AL-2 152 90 0.27 ........
AL-0 202 123 0.17 166
AL-00 235 145 0.13 204
AL-000 266 162 0.11 250
AL-0000 303 190 0.09 303
MIL-W-7072
Table 2

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[TYPE TEXT]
We need to supply an actuator with 100 amps of current from a 28V system.
Using tables 1 and 2, select both a copper and aluminium single wire to carry out
this task.
Copper wire gauge - ..........................................
Aluminium wire gauge - ..........................................
Note: The higher the number the smaller the wire.
Now select a wire for the above task that will be routed within a bundle.
Copper wire gauge - ..........................................
Aluminium wire gauge - ..........................................
Note: The rule of thumb says that when substituting copper for aluminium wire,
we should use wire that is two gauge numbers larger. The FAA does not allow
aluminium wire smaller (in size, larger in number), than 6-gauge to be used on
aircraft.
16.8 VOLTAGE DROP
When we add any electrical equipment to an aircraft, we must be sure that the
current flowing in the wiring does not drop the voltage below a set level. Table 3
shows an example of the allowable voltage drop for various systems using
various supply voltages.
Nominal Allowable Voltage Drop - Volts

System
Voltage
Continuous Intermittent
Operation Operation
14 0.5 1
28 1 2
115 4 8
200 7 14
Allowable Voltage Drop

Table 3

16.9 WIRE IDENTIFICATION
Wire identification should identify the wire, with respect to, type of circuit, size of
cable and location within the circuit. Coded letters identify wires within systems;
Figure 8 shows a typical example of a code.
22 GAUGE
WIRE
26TH WIRE IN
THE CIRCUIT
FLIGHT
INSTRUMENTATION
4TH SEGMENT GROUND

(A= 1ST SEGMENT)
Wire Code
Figure 8
The numbers on the wire greatly facilitate troubleshooting of an electrical system.

Maintenance manuals list the various codes (they can vary between aircraft).

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[TYPE TEXT]
16.10 WIRE INSTALLATION AND ROUTING
In aircraft there are two groups of wiring that may be installed:
Open Wiring - (Wire Groups, Bundles and Routing).
Conduit - (Mechanical Protection).
16.11 OPEN WIRING
This is where the wires are bundled together and installed with no external
protection. This method is used when there is no great danger of mechanical
damage (Chafing, Rubbing). This type of installation is easy to install and
maintain, and is lighter in weight.
Wires are grouped and tied together in bundles for the neatest and most efficient
routing. No one bundle should carry wires from circuits that would disable both
main and back-up systems. The bundles should be routed so as not to interfere
with any of the controls or moving components. They must be routed where they
cannot be damaged by persons entering or leaving the aircraft or by baggage or
cargo moving over them or resting on them.
Figure 9 shows an example of an Open Wire bundle fitted to an aircraft sidewall.
P CLIPS ATTACHING
BUNDLE TO AIRCRAFT
FRAME
WIRE
BUNDLE
INCH MAXIMUM
WITH NORMAL HAND
PRESSURE
CABLE
BUNDLE
P CLIP
Open Wire Bundle

Figure 9

16.12 WIRE & CABLE CLAMPING
Electrical cables or wire bundles are secured to the aircraft structure by means of
metal clamps (P Clips/clamps), lined with a synthetic rubber or similar material. In
the installation of cable clamps, care must be taken to assure that the stress
applied by the cable to the clamp is not in a direction that will tend to bend the
clamp. When a clamp is mounted on a vertical member, the loop of the clamp
should always be at the bottom. Correct methods for installing clamps is shown in
Figure 10.
DANGEROUS ANGLES

45 45 X
MA
X MA
SAFE ANGLES
Correct Methods of Installing Cable clamps

Figure 10

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[TYPE TEXT]
16.13 CONDUIT
Mechanical protection can be provided for the wire by routing the bundles through
either flexible or rigid conduit. The size of the conduit is normally an inside
diameter 25% larger than the diameter of the wire bundle being encased. Figure
11 shows the two types of conduits.
M IN IM UM B E N D
C AB L E R AD IU S
C O N DU IT ( FO U R TIM E S
IN S IDE
D IAM E T E R )
C O N DU IT
C LA M P
A DA P T O R
IN S IDE
D IAM E T E R
C LA M P
A DA P T O R
FLEXIBLE CONDUIT
BRACKET
METALLIC
CONDUIT
CABLE
CLAMP
CLAMP
RIGID CONDUIT
Cable Conduit
Figure 11

All conduit, rigid and flexible, should have drain holes at the lowest point in each
run, and these holes and the edges of the conduit, should have no rough edges
that could damage the wiring. Figure 12 shows a bundle fitted inside conduit.
LINE REPLACEMENT
UNIT (LRU) CABLE
CONDUIT
DRAIN
HOLE
PLUG
CONNECTION
Conduit Drain Hole

Figure 12

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[TYPE TEXT]
16.14 CONNECTORS
Most of the electrical components in an aircraft are designed so that they may be
serviced with a minimum amount of time needed for their removal and
installation. The electrical wiring is usually connected through quick-release
plugs. There are many different types of plugs, but they are all somewhat similar.
The individual wires are fastened to pins or sockets inside the plugs and are
clamped tight to prevent mechanical strain on the cable being transmitted into the
connectors themselves.
The most commonly used connector is the Military Standard (MS), type. Each MS
connector has an identification number on it, Figure 13 shows a connector and
identification number.
MILITARY
STANDARD
TYPE
NUMBER
CLASS
SIZE
INSERT
ARRANGEMENT
NUMBER
CONTACT
STYLE
INDEX
SLOT INSERT
NUMBER
Connector Identification Number

Figure 13

The MS type number is the basic configuration of the connector:
MS3100 - Wall Receptacle
MS3101 - Cable Receptacle
MS3102 - Box Receptacle
MS3106 - Straight Plug
MS3108 - Angle Plug.
The letter following the configuration tells the class of connector:
A - General purpose, solid aluminium alloy shell
B - General purpose, split aluminium alloy shell
C - Pressurised, solid aluminium alloy shell
D - Environmental-resistant, solid aluminium alloy shell
E - Fire and flame proof, solid steel shell.
The size of the connector is indicated with a code number, the higher the number,
the larger the connector. The insert arrangement is a code number to identify the
number and size of the connector and its physical arrangement.
The contact style may be either an S or P to indicate a socket or pin (female

or male), arrangement. The final letter in the identification is one of the last letters
in the alphabet, W, X, Y or Z. These letters indicate the rotation of the insert
in the connector. It is possible to connect the wrong plug to a receptacle, so to
prevent this, the inserts may be rotated in their relationship to the index slot. This
ensures only the correct plug may be inserted into the receptacle.

of 254
[TYPE TEXT]
Figure 14 shows typical MS type connectors. These connectors can carry either
pins or sockets in the form of inserts. It is normal practice that, if a connector
carries power supplies, it will use sockets. Pins will be used for the receiver
equipment. This is to eliminate the possibility of shorts circuits to ground.
MS 3100
MS 3101
BULKHEAD
CABLE RECEPTACLE
RECEPTACLE
MS 3108 MS 3102
BULKHEAD PLUG BOX RECEPTACLE
MS Quick-Release Connectors
Figure 14

16.15 CRIMPING
Crimping is a method of firmly attaching a terminal end to an electrical conductor

by pressure forming or reshaping a metal barrel, together with the conductor. The
forming of a satisfactory crimped joint depends on the correct combination of
conductor, crimp barrel and tool.
When applied with the correctly matched tool, a joint would be established which
has both good electrical and mechanical properties. Figure 15 show a crimped
terminal.
STRIPPED WIRE TERMINAL

CONDUCTOR RING
DIAMOND GRIP
CRIMP FOR
INSULATION
SUPPORT
CROSS CRIMP
FOR GRIPPING
CRIMP WIRE STRANDS
INSULATION
WIRE
INSULATION
Pre-Insulated Crimped Terminal

Figure 15

of 254
[TYPE TEXT]
16.16 CRIMPING TOOLS
There are a number of types of crimping tool available, but the best ones have a
ratchet mechanism that will not allow them to open until they have crimped the
terminal to the proper size. These tools, often referred to as Precision
Termination Tools (PTT), require periodical calibration checks. If a terminal is
properly crimped on the wire, the wire will break before the terminal slips off.
Figure 16 shows a heavy-duty crimping tool, this is used to install pre-insulated

wire terminals.
CRIMPING
HEAD
CRIMPING
JAWS
CONDUCTOR
BEING CRIMPED
RATCHET
MECHANISM
HANDLE
Heavy-duty Crimping Tools

Figure 16

16.17 WIRE SPLICING
The splicing of electrical wires may be done if approved for a particular

installation. Typically, the splice is made with an approved crimp type connector.
The Splice connector is a metal tube with a plastic insulator on the outside or a
plain metal tube that is covered with a plastic tube after the splice has been
made.
The stripped wire is inserted into the end of the tube and then crimped with a
terminal crimping tool. When splices are made in wires that are in a cable bundle,
the spliced wires are placed on the outside of the bundle. If several splices are to
be made in any cable bundle, the splices should be staggered to reduce the
bundle diameter. Figure 17 shows various situations of splices in a cable bundle.
D O N O T P UT
C AB L E LA CIN G
ON T OP OF 2 CM
T HE S P L IC E S M IN IM U M
D IS TR IB UT E S P IL CE S
IN A C B LE B U ND LE 3 - P H AS E C AB LE S IZ E
E V E N LY O N TH E O U TS ID E A W G 8 OR
P O W ER S U P P LY
O F TH E B UN D LE LA R G E R
1 CM
M IN IM U M
M E TAL
TUB E P LA S T I C
IN S U L A T IO N
3 - PH A SE C AB L E S IZE
A W G 8 OR
P O W E R S UP P L Y
L AR G E R C A B L E S P L IC E C O N S T R U C T IO N
Cable Splices
Figure 17

of 254
[TYPE TEXT]
16.18 BEND RADIUS
To protect the cable from undue stress, it is important to ensure that when the
cable has to bent, the radius of the bend is not less than six time the radius of the
cable bundle. Figure 18 shows the bend radius for a cable with connector.
CONNECTOR
RADIUS AT LEAST
SIX TIMES OUTER
DIAMETER
STRAIGHT STRAIN
RELIEF
Bend Radius
Figure 18
If the cable bundle is supported at the bend (example on a terminal block), then
the bend radius can be reduced to a minimum of three times the diameter of the
cable bundle. Figure 20 shows a terminal block connection.
TERMINAL
BLOCK
RADIUS
MINIMUM OF THREE
TIMES THE OUTER
DIAMETER OF
CABLE
Bend radius (Supported)

Figure 20

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PART 66 COURSE MODULE 6 (MATERIALS AND HARDWARE) B1/B2

Issue: IK01 OCT 2012 Page 2-1 of

PART 66 COURSE MODULE 6(MATERIALS AND HARDWARE) B2

3.10.1 Design .......................................................................... 2-34

Issue: IK01 OCT 2012 Page 2-2 of 254

5.1 PURE METALS.............................................................................. 4-51

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PART 66 COURSE MODULE 6(MATERIALS AND HARDWARE) B2

6.14 ELECTRO-DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)..................................... 5-73

Issue: IK01 OCT 2012 Page 2-4 of 254

9.8.1 Storing Resin ................................................................ 8-105

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PART 66 COURSE MODULE 6(MATERIALS AND HARDWARE) B2

11.5 COMMON METALS AND CORROSION PRODUCTS ............................ 10-129

Issue: IK01 OCT 2012 Page 2-6 of 254

12.12.3 Tab Washers................................................................. 10-158

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PART 66 COURSE MODULE 6(MATERIALS AND HARDWARE) B2

13.6.2 Tubular Rivets. ............................................................. 11-189

Issue: IK01 OCT 2012 Page 2-8 of 254

16.4.3 Group 3 Three Dot Bearings ........................................ 13-210

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PART 66 COURSE MODULE 6(MATERIALS AND HARDWARE) B2

19.15 CRIMPING .................................................................................... 16-251

Issue: IK01 OCT 2012 Page 2-10 of 254

The usefulness of any materials may be enhanced as a result of the addition of

A metals usefulness is governed principally by the physical properties it

Issue: IK01 OCT 2012 Page 2-11 of

PART 66 COURSE MODULE 6(MATERIALS AND HARDWARE) B2

The various properties of metals can be assessed, by accurate laboratory tests

The property of being able to be permanently extended by a tensile force. It is

The ability of a metal to resist wear and penetration. It is measured by pressing a

Issue: IK01 OCT 2012 Page 2-12 of 254

The property of a metal to resist deformation when subjected to a tensile load. It

The ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads. A metals toughness is

There are several different measurements of the strength of a metal, as may be

1.10.1 Tensile Strength

The ability to resist tension forces applied to the metal.

1.10.2 Yield Strength

1.10.3 Shear Strength

1.10.4 Bearing Strength

The ability of a metal to withstand a crushing force.

Issue: IK01 OCT 2012 Page 2-13 of

PART 66 COURSE MODULE 6(MATERIALS AND HARDWARE) B2

2.1 TENSILE TESTING

Tensile testing is the most widely-used mechanical test. It involves applying a

The cross-section of the specimen may be round or rectangular, but the

2.1.1 Tensile Strength

Tensile strength in a material is obtained by measuring the maximum load in

The value derived from this simple calculation is called stress.

Stress = Load (N)

Issue: IK01 OCT 2012 Page 2-14 of 254

Stress = Load 400 = 400 = 20.37 N/mm2

Calculate the tensile stress in a steel rod, with a cross-section of 10 mm x 4 mm,

When calculating stress in large structural members, it usually more convenient

A structural member, with a cross-sectional area of 05m2, is subjected to a load

As 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2 the answer could also be written as 20 N/mm2 or 20 MPa

Issue: IK01 OCT 2012 Page 2-15 of

PART 66 COURSE MODULE 6(MATERIALS AND HARDWARE) B2

Strain is always expressed as a percentage as both measurements use the same

An aluminium test piece is marked with a 20 mm gauge length. It is subjected to

Extension = 21.15 20 = 1.15 mm

Strain = Extension = 1.15 = 0.0575 or 5.75%