Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Notes

Sevilla C. Yobueno, Ph.D.

SPAMAST Malita Campus
Fn: APO Lecture Notes 2017

I. Cells, Tissues and Membranes

Basically, a cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and the
cytoplasm.
The cell nucleus contains genetic material and regulates activities of the cell. It
determines how the cell will function, as well as the basic structure of that cell.
All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the
cytoplasm of a cell.
Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a unit.
Primary types of body tissues include epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
tissues.
Epithelial tissues form the covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow
organs, and are the major tissue in glands.
Connective tissues bind structures together, form a framework and support for organs
and the body as a whole, store fat, transport substances, protect against disease, and
help repair tissue damage.
Muscle tissue is composed of cells that have the special ability to shorten or contract in
order to produce movement of body parts.
Nervous tissue is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities.
Body membranes are thin sheets of tissue that cover the body, line body cavities, and
cover organs within the cavities in hollow organs.
Two main categories of body membranes are epithelial and connective tissue
membranes. Sub-categories include mucous membranes, serous membranes, synovial
membranes, and meninges.

II. The Digestive System

The digestive tract includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs, which process
food into molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the body.
Food undergoes three types of processes in the body: digestion, absorption, and
elimination.
The digestive system prepares nutrients for utilization by body cells through six activities,
or functions: ingestion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, movements,
absorption, and elimination.
Regions of the digestive system can be divided into two main parts: alimentary tract and
accessory organs.
The alimentary tract of the digestive system is composed of the mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus.
Associated with the alimentary tract are the following accessory organs: salivary glands,
liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
Care and protection of the digestive system should tbe the top priority concern of every
one to avoid onset of diseases such as ulcers, appendicitis, gallstones, diarrhea and
many others.

III. The Respiratory System

The entire process of respiration includes ventilation, external respiration, transport of
gases, internal respiration, and cellular respiration.
The three pressures responsible for pulmonary ventilation are atmospheric pressure,
intraalveolar pressure, and intrapleural pressure.
A spirometer is used to measure respiratory volumes and capacities. These
measurements provide useful information about the condition of the lungs.
The pharynx, commonly called the throat, is a passageway that extends from the base of
the skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebra.
The larynx, commonly called the voice box, is the passageway for air between the
pharynx above and the trachea below.
The trachea, commonly called the windpipe, is the main airway to the lungs.
The trachea divides into the right and left primary bronchi, which branch into smaller
and smaller passageways until they terminate in tiny air sacs called alveoli.
 The two lungs contain all the components of the bronchial tree beyond the primary
bronchi.
The right lung is shorter, broader, and is divided into three lobes.
The left lung is longer, narrower, and is divided into two lobes.
The diaphragm and the muscles between the ribs are involved in the movement of the
chest cavity during breathing.
During inhalation , the diaphragm contracts air rushes in, when it relaxes air is forced out
and exhalation occurs.
Oxygen gas is transported in the blood through hemoglobin, and carbon dioxide gas is
transported as bicarbonate ions in the plasma.
Respiratory diseases such as asthma, emphysema, and lung cancer limit lung function

IV. The Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, which is a muscular pumping device,
and a closed system of vessels called arteries, veins, and capillaries.
The vital role of the cardiovascular system in maintaining homeostasis depends on the
continuous and controlled movement of blood through the thousands of miles of
capillaries that permeate every tissue and reach every cell in the body.
The heart is a muscular pump that provides the force necessary to circulate the blood to
all the tissues in the body.
Three layers of the heart are: the epicardium, the myocardium, and the endocardium.
The four chambers of the heart are: the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium,
and the left ventricle.
Two types of valves of the heart are the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves.
Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle and then is pumped to the lungs
to receive oxygen. From the lungs, the blood flows to the left atrium, then to the left
ventricle. From there it is pumped to the systemic circulation.
Specialized cardiac muscle cells that make up the conduction system of the heart
coordinate contraction of the chambers.
The pulmonary vessels transport blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to
the left atrium.
The systemic vessels carry blood from the left ventricle to the tissues in all parts of the
body and then returns the blood to the right atrium.
Substances pass through the capillary wall by diffusion, filtration, and osmosis.
Cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, coronary heart disease, anemia and
others may under such risk factors including obesity, alcoholism, smoking and family
history. Proper diet, exercise, beta-blockers are common treatment for hypertension.

V. Skeletal System
The human skeleton is well-adapted for the functions it must perform. Functions of
bones include support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and formation of blood
cells.
There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. Compact bone consists of
closely packed osteons, or haversian system. Spongy bone consists of plates of bone,
called trabeculae, around irregular spaces that contain red bone marrow.
Osteogenesis is the process of bone formation. Three types of cells, osteoblasts,
osteocytes, and osteoclasts, are involved in bone formation and remodeling.
In intramembranous ossification, connective tissue membranes are replaced by bone.
This process occurs in the flat bones of the skull. In endochondral ossification, bone
tissue replaces hyaline cartilage models. Most bones are formed in this manner.
Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate between the diaphysis and the epiphysis.
When the epiphyseal plate completely ossifies, bones no longer increase in length.
Bones may be classified as long, short, flat, or irregular. The diaphysis of a long bone is
the central shaft. There is an epiphysis at each end of the diaphysis.
The adult human skeleton usually consists of 206 named bones and these bones can be
grouped in two divisions: axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
The bones of the skeleton are grouped in two divisions: axial skeleton and appendicular
skeleton.
There are three types of joints in terms of the amount of movement they allow:
synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly movable), and diarthroses (freely
movable).
VI. The Muscular System
One of the most predominant characteristics of skeletal muscle tissue is its contractility
and nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction.
Four functions of muscle contraction are movement, posture, joint stability, and heat
production.
Three types of muscle are skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
Each muscle fiber is surrounded by endomysium. The fibers are collected into bundles
covered by perimysium. Many bundles, or fasciculi, are wrapped together by the
epimysium to form a whole muscle.
Muscles are attached to bones by tendons.
Muscle features such as size, shape, direction of fibers, location, number of origin, origin
and insertion, and action are often used in naming muscles.
Four major muscle groups of the body include:
Muscles of the head and neck;
Muscles of the trunk;
Muscles of the upper extremity; and
Muscles of the lower extremity.
Skeleton and muscles interact in movement
Antagonistic pairs of muscles produce opposite movement.
Each muscle cell has its own contractile apparatus, the myofibril, sarcomere, thin and
thick filaments.
A muscle contracts when thin filaments slide across thick filaments through sliding-
filament model.
Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction.
Calcium ions control muscle contraction

VII. The Nervous and Sensory System

The nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in
the body. It is the center of all mental activity including thought, learning, and memory.
The various activities of the nervous system can be grouped together as three general,
overlapping functions: sensory, integrative, and motor.
Neurons are the nerve cells that transmit impulses. Supporting cells are neuroglia.
The three components of a neuron are a cell body or soma, one or more afferent
processes called dendrites, and a single efferent process called an axon.
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. Cranial nerves, spinal
nerves, and ganglia make up the peripheral nervous system.
The afferent division of the peripheral nervous system carries impulses to the CNS; the
efferent division carries impulses away from the CNS.
There are three layers of meninges around the brain and spinal cord. The outer layer is
dura mater, the middle layer is arachnoid, and the innermost layer is pia mater.
The spinal cord functions as a conduction pathway and as a reflex center. Sensory
impulses travel to the brain on ascending tracts in the cord. Motor impulses travel on
descending tracts.
Receptors for touch, pressure, pain and temperature are found in the skin. Receptors in
the muscles, tendons and joints inform the brain of limb position.
The olfactory organ in the nose responds to chemicals in the air i.e. smell.
Taste buds on the tongue respond to a limited range of chemicals dissolved in saliva.
The eyes are the organs of sight. Spherical eyeballs situated in orbits in the skull have
walls composed of 3 layers.
The tough outer sclera protects and holds the shape of the eyeball. At the front
it becomes visible as the white of the eye and the transparent cornea that allows
light to enter the eye.
The middle layer is the choroid. It most animals it absorbs stray light rays but in
nocturnal animal it is reflective to conserve light. At the front of the eye it
becomes the iris with muscles to control the size of the pupil and hence the
amount of light entering the eye.
The inner layer is the retina containing the light receptor cells: the rods for black
and white vision in dim light and the cones for color and detailed vision. Nerve
impulses generated by these cells leave the eye for the brain via the optic nerve.
The lens (with the cornea) helps focus the light rays on the retina. Muscles alter the
shape of the lens to allow near and far objects to be focused.
 Aqueous humour fills the space immediately behind the cornea and keeps it in shape
and vitreous humour, a transparent jelly-like substance, fills the space behind the lens
allowing light rays to pass through to the retina.
The ear is the organ of hearing and balance.
The external pinna helps funnel sound waves into the ear and locate the direction of the
sound. The sound waves travel down the external ear canal to the eardrum or tympanic
membrane causing it to vibrate. This vibration is transferred to the auditory ossicles of
the middle ear which themselves transfer it to the inner ear. Here receptors in the
cochlea respond by generating nerve impulses that travel to the brain via the auditory
(acoustic) nerve.
The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear with the pharynx to equalize air pressure
on either side of the tympanic membrane.
The vestibular organ of the inner ear is concerned with maintaining balance and posture.
It consists of the semicircular canals and the otolith organs.

VIII. The Endocrine System

Chemical messengers from the endocrine system help regulate body activities. Their
effect is of longer duration and is more generalized than that of the nervous system.
Neurons are the nerve cells that transmit impulses. Supporting cells are neuroglia.
Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the blood, which transports the
hormones through the body.
Cells in a target tissue have receptor sites for specific hormones.
Many hormones are regulated by a negative feedback mechanism; some are controlled
by other hormones; and others are affected by direct nerve stimulation.
Even though the endocrine glands are scattered throughout the body, they are still
considered to be one system because they have similar functions, similar mechanisms of
influence, and many important interrelationships.
Major glands include: pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal
(suprarenal) gland, pancreas, gonads (testes and ovaries), pineal gland, and other
endocrine glands.

IX. The Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system returns excess interstitial fluid to the blood, absorbs fats and fat-
soluble vitamins, and provides defense against disease.
Lymph is the fluid in the lymphatic vessels. It is picked up from the interstitial fluid and
returned to the blood plasma.
Lymphatic vessels carry fluid away from the tissues.
The right lymphatic duct drains lymph from the upper right quadrant of the body and
the thoracic duct drains all the rest.
Pressure gradients that move fluid through the lymphatic vessels come from the skeletal
muscle action, respiratory movements, and contraction of smooth muscle in vessel
walls.
Lymph enters a lymph node through afferent vessels, filters through the sinuses, and
leaves through efferent vessels.
Tonsils are clusters of lymphatic tissue associated with openings into the pharynx and
provide protection against pathogens that may enter through the nose and mouth.
The spleen is a lymph organ that filters blood and also acts as a reservoir for blood.
The thymus is large in the infant and atrophies after puberty.

X. The Urinary / Excretory System

The urinary system rids the body of waste materials, regulates fluid volume, maintains
electrolyte concentrations in body fluids, controls blood pH, secretes erythropoietin, and
renin.
The components of the urinary system are the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra.
The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which are located
retroperitoneally between the levels of the twelfth thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae.
The cortex and medulla make up the parenchyma of the kidney.
The central region of the kidney is the renal pelvis, which collects the urine as it is
produced.
The functional unit of the kidney is a nephron, which consists of a renal corpuscle and a
renal tubule.
 The ureters transport urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
The urinary bladder is a temporary storage reservoir for urine.
The urethra is the final passageway for the flow of urine.
The flow of urine through the urethra is controlled by an involuntary internal urethral
sphincter and voluntary external urethral sphincter.

XI. Integumentary System

Skin consists of two layers: the thin epidermis and under it the thicker dermis.
The Epidermis is formed by the division of base cells that push those above them
towards the surface where they die and are shed.
Keratin, a protein, is deposited in the epidermal cells. It makes skin waterproof.
Various skin structures formed in the epidermis are made of keratin. These include:
claws, nails, hoofs, horn, hair and feathers.
Various Exocrine Glands (with ducts) formed in the epidermis include sweat, sebaceous,
and mammary glands.
Melanin deposited in cells at the base of the epidermis protects deeper cells from the
harmful effects of the sun.
The Dermis is composed of loose connective tissue and is well supplied with blood.
Beneath the dermis is insulating adipose tissue.
Body Temperature is controlled by:
sweat, hair erection, dilation and contraction of dermal capillaries and shivering.

XII. The Reproductive System

The four functions of the reproductive system are:
o To produce egg and sperm cells
o To transport and sustain these cells
o To nurture the developing fetus
o To produce hormones
The primary reproductive organs are the gonads, which produce the gametes and
hormones. The secondary, or accessory, structures transport and sustain the gametes
and nurture the developing offspring.
The male reproductive system consists of the testes, duct system, accessory glands, and
penis.
The male gonads are the testes. Their location within the scrotum is necessary for the
production of viable sperm.
The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
accessory glands, and external genital organs.
The female gonads are the ovaries, which are located on each side of the uterus in the
pelvic cavity.
Estrogen and progesterone stimulate the development of glandular tissue and ducts in
the breast. Prolactin stimulates the production of milk, and oxytocin causes the ejection
of milk.

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