Title: Bending in Beam

1.0 Abstract

The following experiment outlines the proper procedure for determining the shear modulus for
a material. The experiment conducted is to determine the torsion properties subjected to pure
torque loading, identify types of fracture surface under pure torque and to validate the data
between experimental and theoretical values. During this experiment, mild steel was used as
samples to demonstrate how materials behave during testing conditions. By measuring the
applied torque with respect to the angle of twist. We can conclude that not all deformation is
elongation or compressive. The concept of stress and strain can be extended to inclined
shearing or distortional effects. In solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to
an applied torque.

2.0 Introduction

This experiment was devoted to analysis and design of shaft or more specifically to analyze
the stress and strain in members of circular cross section subjected to twisting couple, or
torques. A torsion test will be done to determine the stress and deformation of a specimen
that is mild steel until it reaches its failure. From this result we can obtained:

Modulus of rigidity, G
Maximum shear stress max
Relationship between torque and angle of twist
Strain energy per unit volume up to limit of proportionality
Types of fracture surface.

Using this formula: T/J = /R = G /L

Where

T = Torque in Nm

J = Polar moment of area in m4

= Shearing stress in Nm-2

R = Radius of specimen in m

= Angle of twist in radians

L = Specimen gauge length in m

3.0 Theory

In solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. It is expressed
in newton meters (Nm). In sections perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear stress in
this section is perpendicular to the radius. Torsion occurs when any shaft is subjected to a
torque. The shaft is rotating such as drive shafts on engines, motors and turbines or stationary
such as with a bolt or screw. The torque make the shaft twist and one end rotates relative to the
other inducing shear stress on any cross section. Failure might occur due to shear alone or
because the shear is accompanied by stretching or bending

For shafts of uniform cross-section the torsion is:

T is the applied torque or moment of torsion in Nm. T is the maximum shear stress at the outer
surface .JT is the torsion constant for the section. It is identical to the second moment of
area Jzz for concentric circular tubes or round solid shafts only. For other shapes, J must be
determined by other means. For solid shafts, the membrane analogy is useful, and for thin-
walled tubes of arbitrary shape, the shear flow approximation is fairly good, if the section is
not re-entrant. For thick-walled tubes of arbitrary shape, there is no simple solution, and finite
element analysis (FEA) may be the best method. r is the distance between the rotational axis
and the farthest point in the section (at the outer surface). L is the length of the object the torque
is being applied to or over. is the angle of twist in radians. G is the shear modulus or more
commonly the modulus of rigidity and is usually given in gigapascals (GPa), The
product JT G is called the torsional rigidity wT.
The shear stress at a point within a shaft is:

Note that the highest shear stress occurs on the surface of the shaft, where the radius is
maximum. High stresses at the surface may be compounded by stress concentration such as
rough spots. Thus, shafts for use in high torsion are polished to a fine surface finish to reduce
the maximum stress in the shaft and increase their service life.

The angle of twist can be found by using:

Consider a cylindrical bar subjected to a torsional moment at one end. The twisting moment is
resisted by shear stresses set up in the cross section of the bar. Zero at centre, max at surface

= shear stress, Pa
MT = torsional moment, Nm
r = radial distance measured from centre of bar, m
J = polar moment of inertia,4

For the shear stress,

The maximum shear stress at the surface of the bar is

For a tubular specimen, the shear stress on the outer surface is

Where
D1 = Outside diameter of tube
D2 = Inside diameter of tube
Both equation of stress is applied only for a linear relationship.

Torsion Test

Torsion test are made on materials to determine such properties as the modulus elasticity in
shear, the torsion yield strength and the modulus of rupture. It is often used for testing brittle
materials and can be tested in full-sized parts, i.e., shafts, axles and twist drills which are
subjected to torsion loading in service.

Figure 1

Example of Drive Shaft subject to torsion in service

This experiment is designed to determine the modulus of rigidity. Utilizing test specimens with
a known geometry, specimens can be twisted with the values for torque simultaneously
measured. With the sample secured and clamped within the Torsion Test Machine, the
specimen can be twisted by applying a rotational torque to one end, while the opposing end is
kept straight.
4.0 Objectives

Upon completion of this experiment, we should be able to;

1. Determine the torsion properties subjected to pure torque loading

2. Identify Types of fracture surface under pure torque

3. Validate the data between experimental and theoretical values

5.0 Apparatus
Torsion test machine, torque meter, Vernier calliper, mild steel, digital torque meter.

6.0 Experimental Procedure

1. Measure the specimen size and overall length.

2. Put the specimen and fix it at the end on the machine chuck and the zero reading is needed
to be set all on gauge.

3. The hand wheel is needed to turn it on the clockwise to provide the applied load

4. For the rotation it increment is needed to be choose a quarter rotation (90 ) and the start with
second and third rotation (180 ) and for the forth and to 10 rotation of one rotation (360 ).

5. For the reading the turning the hand wheel at the position first or second or other then the
dial gauge is needed to set to be initial value as 0 and from that the reading of torque will
display at torque meter.

6. Record the data that obtain from the torque meter and the rotation of hand wheel and plot
the graph from the given data.
7.0 Results and Discussion

Mild Steel

Torque Meter
Scale Reading Twisting Angle(rad) Reading(Nm)
90 1.45 0.35
180 2.90 2.55
270 4.35 4.70
360 5.81 7.20
540 8.71 12.30
720 11.61 16.30
900 14.52 18.90
1080 17.42 20.05
1440 23.23 20.55
1800 34.84 21.10
2160 40.65 21.20
2520 46.45 18.45

Torque Meter Reading(Nm)

25
21.10 21.20
Torque Meter Reading(Nm)

20.05 20.55
18.90 18.45
20
16.30
15 12.30

10 7.20
4.70
5 2.55
0.35
0
1.45 2.90 4.35 5.81 8.71 11.61 14.52 17.42 23.23 34.84 40.65 46.45
Twisting Angle(rad)

Torque Meter Reading(Nm)

Graph of Torque Meter Reading VS Twisting Angle

Specimen Length before Fracture: 83.0 mm

Specimen Length after Fracture: 80.3 mm

Sample Calculation

Specimen Details

Material : Mild Steel

Length, L : 0.083 m
Diameter, D : 0.006 m
Radius, R : 0.003 m

Polar moment of inertia, J = (Radius, R)4
2

= (0.003)4
2

=1.272 x 1010 m4

(Torque,T) (Radius,R)
Shear Stress, =
(Polar moment of inertia,J)

(2.55 Nm) (0.003 m)

=
1.272 x 1010 m4

= 60.142MPa

(Radius,R)(Angle of Twist,)
Shear Strain, =
(Length,L)

(0.003 m) (2.90 rad)

= (0.083 m)

= 0.105
Experimental value for

Shear Stress,
Modulus of Rigidity, G =
Shear Strain,

60.142 MPa
=
0.105

= 0.57 GPa

Theoretical value for Modulus of Rigidity, G for mild steel is 80 GPa.

Theoretical value Experimental value

Percentage of error = x 100%
Theoretical value

80 GPa 0.57GPa
= x 100%
80 GPa

= 99.28%
8.0 Appendix