Voice and

Data Communication

Kursus Teknologi Elektrik : Communication Technology

29 July 2015
What do all these have in common?
They all involve data communication
Three Components of Data
Communication
Data comm.: exchange of data between two devices by transmitting
signals via some form of transmission medium

Data
Analog: Continuous value data (sound, light, temperature)
Digital: Discrete value (text, integers, symbols)
Signal
Analog: Continuously varying electromagnetic wave
Digital: Series of voltage pulses (square wave)
Transmission
Wired
Wireless
Simplified Communications
Model - Diagram
Data Flow (Transmission)

data flows move in one direction only,

(radio or cable television broadcasts)

data flows both ways, but only one

direction at a time (e.g., CB radio)
(requires control info)

data flows in both directions

at the same time
Transmission Modes

Parallel mode: uses several wires, each

wire sending one bit at the same time as the
others.
A parallel printer cable sends 8 bits together.
Your computers processor and motherboard also
use parallel busses to move data around.
Serial Mode: sends bit by bit over a single
line.

Serial mode is slower than parallel, but can

be used over longer distances.
Parallel transmission
Serial Transmission
Network
Categories of topology
A fully connected Mesh topology (five devices)
A Star topology connecting four stations
A Bus topology connecting three stations
A Ring topology connecting six stations
A Hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
 Protocol Architecture

When entities exchange data,

the procedures involved are complex
Protocol architecture is needed

Standardized Protocol Architectures

Two standards:
OSI Reference model
Never lived up to early promises
TCP/IP protocol suite
Most widely used
Also: IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA)
Example: Tasks involved in sending a letter
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
Developed by the US Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its packet
switched network (ARPANET)
Used by the global Internet
Not an official model but it works
Application layer
Host to host or transport layer
Internet layer
Network access layer
Physical layer
OSI vs TCP/IP
The layers fit together in practice
Bit Rate vs. Symbol Rate
Bit rate (or data rate) is the number of bits
transmitted per second.
Baud rate (same as symbol rate) refers to
the number of symbols transmitted per second.
Example:

Data Rate (bits/second)=

Symbol Rate x No. of bits/symbol
Capacity of voice circuit
Human hearing has a freq. range of 20Hz to 14-
20kHz, but the voice circuit range is 0-4kHz.
Using QAM with 6 bits per symbol and the
maximum possible carrier wave frequency then
corresponds to a data rate of 6 * 4000 = 24
kbps.
Bandwidth
Width of the spectrum of frequencies that can
be transmitted
if spectrum=300 to 3400Hz, bandwidth=3100Hz
Greater bandwidth leads to greater costs
Limited bandwidth leads to distortion
 Relationship between Data Rate
and Bandwidth
Digital signals have infinite
bandwidth
But, transmission system
limits the bandwidth that
can be transmitted
Factors:
Cost
Practicality
Distortions
The higher the data rate,
the greater the bandwidth
needed
Data Transmissions

Analog Transmission of Analog Data

Telephone networks
Digital Transmission of Digital Data
A computer system
Analog Transmission of Digital Data
Uses Modulation/Demodulation (Modem)
Digital Transmission of Analog Data
Uses Coder/Decoder (CODEC)
Analog Signals Carrying Analog
and Digital Data
Modem (modulator-demodulator)
Encodes and decodes data by manipulating the carrier wave.
The V-series of modem standards are those approved by the
ITU-T standards group:
V.22:1200-2400 baud/bps (FM)
V.32: full duplex at 9600 bps (2400 baud at QAM)
V.32bis: use TCM to achieve 14,400 bps.
V.34: for phone networks using digital transmission beyond the local
loop. Combine multiple data rates (up to 28.8 kbps) and a
handshaking sequence that test the circuit and determines the
optimum data rate.
V.34+: up to 33.6 kbps with TCM-9.8
V.42bis: data compression modems. Can be added to almost any
modem standard effectively tripling the data rate.

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Voice Grade Modems

:
Digital Signals Carrying Analog
and Digital Data
Codec (Coder-Decoder)
Converts analog signals into a digital form
and converts it back to analog signals
Where do we find codecs?
Sound cards
Scanners
Voice mail
Video capture/conferencing
The codecs used by the phone system use
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Pulse Amplitude Modulation

M
Measuring signal

Taking samples
Taking

Encoding (binary data)

How Telephones Transmit Voice
The line from your phone to the first phone
switch (called the local loop), still uses the
analog techniques.
Todays switches are almost completely
digital and convert these analog signals to
digital data using a technique called Pulse
Code Modulation (PCM).
PCM (similar to PAM) specifies a sample rate
of 8000 samples/second and 8 bits/sample.
The basic digital communications unit used by
the phone network, the DS-0, has a data rate
of 64 kbps, corresponding to 1 digital voice
signal.
34
 PCM - Pulse Code Modulation
phone switch
(DIGITAL)

local loop trunk To other

switches
Analog Central Digital
transmission Office transmission
(Telco)
DS-0:
Basic digital convert analog signals to digital data
communications using PCM (similar to PAM)
unit used by phone 8000 samples per second and 8 bits
network per sample (7 bits for sample+ 1 bit
Corresponds to 1 for control)
digital voice signal 64 Kb/s (DS-0 rate)
How Instant Messenger Transmits Voice
Instead of PCM, Instant Messaging uses an
alternative technique called ADPCM,
adaptive differential pulse code modulation.
ADPCM encodes the differences between
samples. Instead of an 8 bits/sample, ADPCM
uses only 4 bits/sample, general at 8000
samples/second. This allows a voice signal to
be sent at 32 kbps, which makes it possible
for IM to send voice signals as digital signals
using POTS-based analog phone lines.
ADPCM can also use lower sampling rates, at
8 or 16 kbps, but these produce lower quality
voice signals.
36
 How DSL Transmits Data
Digital Subscriber Line is becoming popular as a way to
increase data rates in the local loop.
Instead of using the 0-4000 kHz voice channel, DSL uses
the physical capacity of the copper phone lines of up to 1
MHz.
The 1 MHz capacity is split into: 1) a 4 kHz voice channel,
2) an upstream and 3) a downstream channels.
There are several versions of DSL, with the main
differences being how much of the bandwidth is allocated
between the upstream and downstream channels.
One form of DSL, G.Lite provides a 4 kHz voice channel,
384 kbps upstream and 1.5 Mbps downstream (provided
line conditions are optimal). (a.k.a. ADSL or asymmetrical)
37
Downstream & Upstream

38
V.90 and V.92 Modems
Combines analog and digital transmission
Uses a technique based on PCM concept
Recognizes PCMs 8-bit digital symbols (one of 256 possible
symbols) 8,000 per second
Results in a max of 56 Kbps data rate (1 bit used for control)
V.90 Standard
Based on V.34+ for Upstream transmissions (PC to Switch)
Max. upstream rate is 33.4 Kbps
V.92 Standard (most recent)
Uses PCM symbol recognition technique for both ways
Max. upstream rate is 48 kbps
Very sensitive to noise lower rates
40
Transmission Impairments
Signal received may differ from signal
transmitted
Analog - degradation of signal quality
Digital - bit errors
Caused by
Attenuation
Delay
Noise
Attenuation
Signal strength falls off with distance
 Depends on medium
Received signal strength:
must be enough to be detected
must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received
without error
 Attenuation is an increasing function of
frequency
Delay
Due to the velocity of signal propagation varies
with frequency
Only in guided media
Particularly important for digital data
ISI
Noise (1)
Additional signals inserted between transmitter
and receiver
Noise (2)
Thermal
Due to thermal agitation of electrons
Uniformly distributed
White noise
Intermodulation
Signals that are the sum and difference of original
frequencies sharing a medium
Noise (3)
Crosstalk
A signal from one line is picked up by another
Impulse
Irregular pulses or spikes
e.g. External electromagnetic interference
Short duration
High amplitude
Channel Capacity
Data rate
In bits per second
Rate at which data can be communicated
Bandwidth
In cycles per second of Hertz
Constrained by transmitter and medium
Noise
Average level of noise over the communication path
Error rate
The rate at which errors occur
Nyquist Formula
If rate of signal transmission is 2B then signal
with frequencies no greater than B is sufficient
to carry signal rate
Given bandwidth B, highest signal rate is 2B
Given binary signal, data rate supported by B Hz
is 2B bps
Can be increased by using M signal levels
C= 2B log2M
Example
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth
of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal
levels. What is the maximum bit rate?

6 kbps
Shannon Formula
Consider data rate, noise and error rate
Faster data rate shortens each bit so burst of
noise affects more bits
At given noise level, high data rate means higher
error rate
Signal to noise ration (in decibels)
SNRdB=10 log10 (signal/noise)
Capacity C=B log2(1+SNR)
This is error free capacity
Example
A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of
3000Hz assigned for data communications. The
signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. What is the
channel capacity?

34.86 kbps
Data Transmission Techniques
Asynchronous and synchronous transmission
Error code formulation, detection and correction
Line configuration
Asynchronous and
Synchronous Transmission
Timing problems require a mechanism to
synchronize the transmitter and receiver
 Two solutions
Asynchronous
Synchronous
Asynchronous
Data transmitted on character at a time
5 to 8 bits
Timing only needs maintaining within each
character
Resynchronize with each character
Asynchronous
Asynchronous
Asynchronous - Behavior
In a steady stream, interval between characters
is uniform (length of stop element)
In idle state, receiver looks for transition 1 to 0
Then samples next seven intervals (char length)
Then looks for next 1 to 0 for next char
Asynchronous - Behavior
Simple
Cheap
Overhead of 2 or 3 bits per char (~20%)
Good for data with large gaps (keyboard)
Synchronous Bit Level
Block of data transmitted without start or stop
bits
Clocks must be synchronized
use separate clock line
Good over short distances
Subject to impairments over longer distance
Embed clock signal in data
Manchester encoding
Carrier frequency (analog)
Synchronous - Block Level
Need to indicate start and end of block
Use preamble and postamble
e.g. series of SYN (hex 16) characters
e.g. block of 11111111 patterns ending in 11111110

More efficient (lower overhead) than async

Error Detection
An error occurs when a bit is altered between
transmission and reception
Types of Error
Single bit errors
One bit altered
Adjacent bits not affected
Rarely occur

Burst errors
Length B
Contiguous sequence of B bits in which first, last and
any number of intermediate bits in error
Effect greater at higher data rates
Error Detection Concept
To be able to detect and then correct errors, we
need to send some extra bits
Redundancy
These redundant bits are added by sender and
removed by receiver
Error Detection Process
Error detection
Additional bits added by transmitter for error
detection code
Data FCS

FCS (Frame Check sequence) : Additional bits

added by transmitter for error detection code
Tx: computes FCSt
Rx: computes FCSr, compares it with received
FCSt
If FCSr = FCSt then no error!
Parity check
Value of parity bit is such that character has
even (even parity) or odd (odd parity) number
of bit 1
Peven = b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7
(for even parity)
Odd parity = negate (Even parity)
Problem: Even-number of bit errors goes
undetected
 Assuming even parity, find the parity bit for
each of the following data units:
1001011
0001100
1000000
1110111
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
view data bits, D, as a binary number
choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G
goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
<D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2)
receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero
remainder: error detected!
can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
widely used in practice (ATM, HDCL)
CRC Example
Want:
D.2r XOR R = nG
equivalently:
D.2r = nG XOR R
equivalently:
if we divide D.2r by
G, want remainder R

D.2r
R = remainder[ ]
G
 A sequence of 101100011000 is received at the
receiver. The generator used is 1001. Is the
transmission contains any error?
Polynomials
Cyclic codes can be represented as polynomials
A patterns of 0s and 1s can be represented as a
polynomial with coefficients of 0 and 1
The power of each term shows the position of
the bit
The coefficient shows the value of the bit
Criteria for a good polynomial
generator
It should have at least two terms
The coefficient of the term x0 should be 1
It should not divide xt + 1 between 2 and n-1
It should have the factor of x + 1
Standard polynomials
Name Polynomial Application

CRC-8 x8 + x2 + x + 1 ATM header

CRC-10 x10 + x9 + x5 + X4 ATM AAL

+ x2 + 1
CRC-16 x16 + x12 + x5 + 1 HDLC

CRC-32 x32 + x26 + x23 + LAN

x22 + x16 + x12 +
x11 + x10 + x8 + x7
+ x5 + x4 + x2 + x
+1
Error Correction
Correction of detected errors usually requires
data block to be retransmitted
Not appropriate for wireless applications
Bit error rate is high
Lots of retransmissions
Propagation delay can be long compared with frame
transmission time
Would result in retransmission of frame in error plus many
subsequent frames
Need to correct errors on basis of bits received
Error Correction Process
Diagram
Error Correction Process
Each k bit block mapped to an n bit block (n>k)
Codeword
Forward error correction (FEC) encoder
Codeword sent
Received bit string similar to transmitted but may contain errors
Received code word passed to FEC decoder
If no errors, original data block output
Some error patterns can be detected and corrected
Some error patterns can be detected but not corrected
Some (rare) error patterns are not detected
Results in incorrect data output from FEC
Line Configuration
Topology
Physical arrangement of stations on medium
Point to point
Computer must have one I/O port for each terminal
Separate transmission line form computer to each
terminal
Multi point
Computer needs only a single I/O port
Single transmission line
Saves cost
Computer and terminals, local area network
Traditional Configurations
 Half duplex
Only one station may transmit at a time
Requires one data path
Used in terminal-to-computer
Full duplex
Simultaneous transmission and reception between
two stations
Requires two data paths (or echo canceling)
Computer-to-computer
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
Most widely used LAN protocol, developed
jointly by Digital, Intel, and Xerox, now an IEEE
standard
Uses contention based media access control
Byte-count data link layer protocol
No transparency problem
uses a field containing the number of bytes (not
flags) to delineate frames
Error correction: optional
 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) Frame
Used by Virtual LANs; (if no Used to hold sequence number,
vLAN, the field is omitted ACK/NAK, etc., (1 or 2 bytes)
If used, first 2 bytes is set 00
to: 24,832 (8100H) 01
10 11

Data

(43 - 1497 bytes)

(number
Repeating of bytes
pattern of 1s in the Used to exchange control
and 0s message info (e.g., type of network
(1010101010) field) layer protocol used)
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
Byte-oriented protocol developed in early 90s
Commonly used on dial-up lines from home PCs
Designed mainly for point-to-point phone line (can
be used for multipoint lines as well)

(up to 1500 bytes)

Specifies the network layer
protocol used (e.g, IP, IPX)
 Data Link Protocol Summary
Protocol Size Error Detection Retransmission Media Access
Asynchronous Xmission 1 Parity Continuous ARQ Full Duplex

File Transfer Protocols

XMODEM 132 8-bit Checksum Stop-and-wait ARQ Controlled Access

XMODEM-CRC 132 8-bit CRC Stop-and-wait ARQ Controlled Access

XMODEM-1K 1028 8-bit CRC Stop-and-wait ARQ Controlled Access

ZMODEM * 32-bit CRC Continuous ARQ Controlled Access

KERMIT * 24-bit CRC Continuous ARQ Controlled Access

Synchronous Protocols

SDLC * 16-bit CRC Continuous ARQ Controlled Access

HDLC * 16-bit CRC Continuous ARQ Controlled Access

Token Ring * 32-bit CRC Stop-and wait ARQ Controlled Access

Ethernet * 32-bit CRC Stop-and wait ARQ Contention

SLIP * None None Full Duplex
PPP * 16-bit CRC Continuous ARQ Full Duplex
* Varies depending on message length.
Transmission Efficiency
An objective of the network:
Move as many bits as possible with min errors
higher efficiency and lower cost
Factors affecting network efficiency:
Characteristics of circuit (error rate, speed)
Speed of equipment, Error control techniques
Protocol used
Information bits (carrying user information)
Overhead bits ( used for error checking, frame delimiting,
etc.)

Total number of info bits to be transmitted

=
Total number of bits transmitted
Throughput
A more accurate definition of efficiency
Total number of information bits received per second;
takes into account:
Overhead bits (as in transmission efficiency)
Need to retransmit packets containing errors
Complex to calculate; depends on
Transmission efficency
Error rate
Number of retransmission
Transmission Rate of Information Bits (TRIB)
Used as a measurement of throughput
Generic Communications
Interface Illustration

94
DTE and DCE

DTE interface interface DTE

modem modem

host computer DCE

terminal
95
RS-232C (EIA 232C)
EIAs Recommended Standard (RS)
Specifies mechanical, electrical, functional, and
procedural aspects of the interface
Used for connections between DTEs and voice-
grade modems, and many other applications

96
*EIA-232-D
new version of RS-232-C adopted in 1987
improvements in grounding shield, test and
loop-back signals
the prevalence of RS-232-C in use made it
difficult for EIA-232-D to enter into the
marketplace

97
*RS-449
EIA standard improving on capabilities of RS-
232-C
provides for 37-pin connection, cable lengths up
to 200 feet, and data rates up to 2 million bps
covers functional/procedural portions of R-232-C
electrical/mechanical specs covered by RS-422 & RS-
423

98
*Functional Specifications
Specifies the role of the individual circuits
Data circuits in both directions allow full-duplex
communication
Timing signals allow for synchronous
transmission (although asynchronous
transmission is more common)

99
*Procedural Specifications
Multiple procedures are specified
Simple example: exchange of asynchronous
data on private line
Provides means of attachment between computer
and modem
Specifies method of transmitting asynchronous data
between devices
Specifies method of cooperation for exchange of data
between devices

100
*Mechanical Specifications
25-pin connector with a specific arrangement of
leads
DTE devices usually have male DB25 connectors
while DCE devices have female
In practice, fewer than 25 wires are generally
used in applications

101
*RS-232 DB-25 Connectors

DB-25 Female

DB-25 Male
102
*RS-232 DB-25 Pinouts

103
*RS-232 DB-9 Connectors
Limited RS-232

104
*RS-422 DIN-8
Found on Macs

DIN-8 Male DIN-8 Female

105
*Electrical Specifications
Specifies signaling between DTE and DCE
Uses NRZ-L encoding
Voltage < -3V = binary 1
Voltage > +3V = binary 0
Rated for <20Kbps and <15M
greater distances and rates are theoretically possible,
but not necessarily wise

106
*RS-232 Signals (Asynch)

Odd Parity

Even Parity

No Parity

107
 Most slides are adapted from:
Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data communications and
networking, 4th Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2007.
William Stallings, Data and Computer
Communication, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall, 2011.